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EXAMINING ECOLOGY
This page intentionally left blank
EXAMINING ECOLOGY
Exercises in Environmental Biology and Conservation

Paul A. Rees
School of Environment & Life Sciences,
University of Salford, Manchester, United Kingdom
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding,
changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information,
methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their
own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury
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 For
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George Arthur Clark and
Elliot Henry Clark
This page intentionally left blank
CONTENTS
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
Chapter 1 Biodiversity and Taxonomy 1
Introduction 2
The Naming and Classification of Organisms 2
The Identification of Species 3
Biodiversity Hotspots Versus Cold Spots 3
Citizen Science 4
References 4
Exercise 1.1 Ecology and Taxonomy 5
Exercise 1.2 What’s in a Name? Vernacular Versus Scientific Names 7
Exercise 1.3 The Classification of Animals 9
Exercise 1.4 Constructing a Dichotomous Key 11
Exercise 1.5 Global Biodiversity: The Numbers of Recognised Species 13
Exercise 1.6 Diversity in Chalcid Wasps 14
Exercise 1.7 Lognormal Distribution of Species Relative Abundance 15
Exercise 1.8 The Discovery of New Species 16
Exercise 1.9 Extinctions Versus Discovery of New Species 18
Exercise 1.10 The Historical Ecology of the Large Mammals of Ngorongoro Crater 20
Exercise 1.11 Pest Eradication in New Zealand 22
Exercise 1.12 Citizen Science: Biodiversity and Environmental Studies 25
Exercise 1.13 The Ecological Value of Ancient Woodland 27
Chapter 2 Abiotic Factors and Ecophysiology 29
Introduction 30
Limits for Life 30
Climatic Variation 30
Temperature Regulation 31
Adaptation to Harsh Environments 31
References 31
Exercise 2.1 Climatic Variations 32
Exercise 2.2 Lake Stratification 34
Exercise 2.3 Carbon Dioxide and Photosynthesis 35
Exercise 2.4 The Effect of Water Table Depth on Seed Germination 36
Exercise 2.5 The Effect of Oxygen Level on Midge Larvae Survival 37
Exercise 2.6 Temperature Selection in Two Fish Species 38
Exercise 2.7 Adaptation to Life Underwater: Diving in Seals 39
Exercise 2.8 Surviving Salty Environments: Maintaining Osmotic Balance 40
Exercise 2.9 Living in the Desert: Temperature Tolerance in the Camel 42
Exercise 2.10 Diapause in Grapholita 44
Exercise 2.11 The Effect of Temperature on Dusting Behaviour in an Asian Elephant 45
Exercise 2.12 Hibernation in the Black Bear 47
Exercise 2.13 Microclimate Preferences in Woodlice 48
CONTENTS

Chapter 3 Ecosystems, Energy and Nutrients 51

Introduction 53
Food Chains and Food Webs 53
Ecological Pyramids 54
Nutrient Cycles 55
Nutrient Cycles and People 55
Ecological Succession 56
References 56
Exercise 3.1 A Steppe Ecosystem: Biotic and Abiotic Factors 57
Exercise 3.2 Food Webs in an English Woodland 58
Exercise 3.3 Ecological Pyramids 60
Exercise 3.4 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 62
Exercise 3.5 A Comparison of Energy Budgets in Two Ecosystems 63
Exercise 3.6 Chemotrophism 64
Exercise 3.7 Grazing and Detritus Food Chains 65
Exercise 3.8 Energy Sources in Aquatic Ecosystems 66
Exercise 3.9 Energy Budget of a Bank Vole 67
Exercise 3.10 Wildlife Biomass in the Serengeti 68
Exercise 3.11 Assimilation Efficiency in the African Elephant 70
Exercise 3.12 Capybara Farming in Venezuela 72
Exercise 3.13 The Nitrogen Cycle 73
Exercise 3.14 Nitrogen Balance for Lake Mendota, Wisconsin 74
Exercise 3.15 The Economics of Fertiliser Application 75
Exercise 3.16 Sewage Sludge Cake as a Fertiliser 76
Exercise 3.17 The Effect of pH on Crop Growth 77
Exercise 3.18 Timanfaya National Park, Lanzarote: An Opportunity to Study Succession 78
Exercise 3.19 Succession in Bird Species 79
Chapter 4 Determining Abundance and Distribution 81
Introduction 82
Discovering New Species 83
Mapping Distributions 83
Estimating Population Size 84
References 84
Exercise 4.1 Recording the Distribution of Organisms 85
Exercise 4.2 Problems in Determining the Historical Distribution of Organisms 87
Exercise 4.3 Community Science: Moors for the Future 88
Exercise 4.4 Bird Ringing 92
Exercise 4.5 Zonation on a Rocky Shore 94
Exercise 4.6 The Effect of Sample Size on Population Estimates Obtained Using Quadrat Sampling 96
Exercise 4.7 Estimating the Size of a Population of Mobile Animals 98
Exercise 4.8 Estimating Population Size by Removal Trapping 100
Exercise 4.9 Studying Animal Populations Using a Calendar of Catches 102
Exercise 4.10 Population Dynamics of a Zoo Population of Chimpanzees 103
Exercise 4.11 Estimating Population Size Indirectly: Badgers and Setts 104
Exercise 4.12 Analysis of Spatial Distributions: Clumped, Uniform or Random? 107

viii
 CONTENTS

Exercise 4.13 Estimating the Size of a Large Mammal Population by Transect Sampling 108
Exercise 4.14 Sampling Zooplankton Populations 110
Exercise 4.15 Estimating the Size of Whale Populations 111
Exercise 4.16 Estimating Population Size Using the Lincoln Index: A Simulation 113
Exercise 4.17 Population Size and Habitat Selection in Two Species of Gulls 115
Exercise 4.18 The Factors Affecting Plant Population Estimates Obtained by Quadrat Sampling: A Computer
Simulation 118
Chapter 5 Population Growth 121
Introduction 122
Defining Populations 122
Population Growth 122
Life Tables and Survivorship Curves 123
R- and K-Strategists 123
References 123
Exercise 5.1 Exponential Population Growth 124
Exercise 5.2 Boom and Bust Population Growth 125
Exercise 5.3 Logistic Population Growth 126
Exercise 5.4 Density-Dependent and Density-Independent Factors and Population Control 127
Exercise 5.5 Using Leslie Matrices to Model Population Growth 129
Exercise 5.6 Life Table for the Honey Bee 132
Exercise 5.7 Survivorship of Dall Sheep 133
Exercise 5.8 Types of Survivorship Curve 134
Exercise 5.9 The Age Structure of Captive Female African Elephants 135
Exercise 5.10 Opportunity or Equilibrium: r-Strategist or K-Strategist? 136
Chapter 6 Species Interactions 139
Introduction 140
Competition and Niche Theory 140
Keystone Species 141
Predation 141
Biological Control 142
References 142
Exercise 6.1 Competition in Two Tree Species 143
Exercise 6.2 Intraspecific Competition in Barley 144
Exercise 6.3 Competitive Exclusion 145
Exercise 6.4 Competition in Flour Beetles 146
Exercise 6.5 Do Cormorants and Shags Compete for Food? 147
Exercise 6.6 Competition Between Ants and Rodents 148
Exercise 6.7 Defining the Niche 149
Exercise 6.8 Niche Separation in Warblers 152
Exercise 6.9 Niche Separation in Tropical Monkeys 154
Exercise 6.10 Predator–Prey Simulation 155
Exercise 6.11 Predation of Foxes on Rabbits 156
Exercise 6.12 The Effects of Disease, Climate and Vegetation Change on Large Mammal Populations 158
Exercise 6.13 Biological Control 161
Exercise 6.14 Seals and Phocine Distemper Virus 162

ix
CONTENTS

Chapter 7 Behavioural Ecology and Ecological Genetics 165

Introduction 167
Evolutionarily Stable Strategies and Game Theory 167
Industrial Melanism 167
Metal Tolerance in Plants 168
Genetic Conservation 168
References 168
Exercise 7.1 Identifying Individual Animals 169
Exercise 7.2 Radio-Tracking Animals 171
Exercise 7.3 Activity Budgets in Asian Elephants 173
Exercise 7.4 Feeding Strategies in Lizards 175
Exercise 7.5 Roaring Contests in Red Deer 176
Exercise 7.6 Territoriality in Feral Cats 177
Exercise 7.7 Safety in Numbers: Flocking as an Antipredator Device 179
Exercise 7.8 The Effect of Prey Density on Territory Size in an Avian Predator 180
Exercise 7.9 Flexibility in the Social Behaviour of Pied Wagtails 181
Exercise 7.10 Optimal Foraging Theory: Using Game Theory to Study Ecological Strategies 182
Exercise 7.11 Evolutionarily Stable Strategies: Reproduction in Dung Flies 184
Exercise 7.12 Industrial Melanism: Hiding in Plain Sight 186
Exercise 7.13 Zinc Tolerance in Agrostis capillaris 188
Exercise 7.14 Inbreeding and Homozygosity 189
Exercise 7.15 The Problem of Genetically Isolated Populations: Inbreeding in Lion and Black Rhinoceros 191
Exercise 7.16 Calculating Effective Population Size 193
Exercise 7.17 Charles Darwin: Careful Scientist or Clumsy Amateur Naturalist? 195
Exercise 7.18 Weight Distribution of Seeds and Natural Selection in the Horse Chestnut Tree 198
Chapter 8 Environmental Pollution and Perturbations 201
Introduction 202
Pesticides in Food Chains 203
Water Pollution 203
Radioactivity 203
Toxicity 203
Pollution Monitoring, Bioindicators and Diversity Indices 203
Climate Change 204
Reference 205
Exercise 8.1 The Biological Concentration of DDT Residues in Food Chains 206
Exercise 8.2 Pesticides and Eggshells 208
Exercise 8.3 The Toxicity of Pesticides and Herbicides 209
Exercise 8.4 Cultural Eutrophication 211
Exercise 8.5 Organic Pollution of Freshwater Ecosystems 212
Exercise 8.6 The Effects of Acid Rain on Invertebrate Diversity in Norwegian Lakes 214
Exercise 8.7 Dippers and Acid Rain 215
Exercise 8.8 Monitoring River Pollution Using Diversity Indices 217
Exercise 8.9 Thermal Pollution and Water Fleas 218
Exercise 8.10 Temperature Inversions and Air Pollution 219
Exercise 8.11 The Effect of Sulphur Dioxide on Growth in Ryegrass 221
Exercise 8.12 Trends in Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the United Kingdom 222

x
 CONTENTS

Exercise 8.13 Decay and Concentration of Radioisotopes 226

Exercise 8.14 The Hubbard Brook Study: Deforestation and Nutrient Loss 228
Exercise 8.15 Interactions Between Urbanisation, Forestry and Hydrology 230
Exercise 8.16 Lichens as Monitors of Air Pollution 231
Exercise 8.17 Feral Pigeons as Bioindicators of Lead Levels in the Environment 233
Exercise 8.18 Where has All the Ice Gone? Polar Bears and Climate Change 235
Chapter 9 Conservation Biology 237
Introduction 238
Conservation 238
The Identification of Threatened and Endangered Species 238
In situ Versus Ex situ Conservation 239
Island Biogeography and Nature Reserve Design 239
Sport Hunting and Game Ranching 239
Zoos 240
Seed Banks and Frozen Zoos 241
Evolutionarily Significant Units 241
The Role of the Law 241
References 242
Exercise 9.1 Counting Threatened Species: The IUCN Red List 243
Exercise 9.2 The Biology of the Giant Panda 244
Exercise 9.3 Conserving Tropical Plants: Why Bother? 246
Exercise 9.4 Gullypots: A Threat to Small Vertebrates 248
Exercise 9.5 Black Rhinoceros Poaching in Tanzania 249
Exercise 9.6 Conserving Fish Stocks by Mesh Regulation 252
Exercise 9.7 Game Ranching in Zimbabwe 254
Exercise 9.8 Use it or Lose it: Sport Hunting as Conservation 256
Exercise 9.9 How Does Shape Affect a Protected Area? 258
Exercise 9.10 Animal Reintroductions 260
Exercise 9.11 Causes of Manatee Mortalities in Florida 261
Exercise 9.12 The Conservation Role of Zoos 262
Exercise 9.13 Zoos and Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) 264
Exercise 9.14 Returning Grey Wolves to Their Former Habitats in the USA 267
Exercise 9.15 Do Good Fences Make Good Neighbours? Are Wildlife Fences Part of the Problem or
Part of the Solution? 271
Exercise 9.16 Ethics in Ecological Research and Ecosystem Management 272
Chapter 10 Statistics 275
Introduction 276
Variables, Populations, and Samples 276
Descriptive Statistics 277
Inferential Statistics 280
Calculating Probabilities 287
Reference 287
Exercise 10.1 Sewage Sludge Parasites 288
Exercise 10.2 Ozone Levels in a City 289
Exercise 10.3 Lead Pollution in Gulls 290
Exercise 10.4 Body Length and Mass in Humpback Whales 291

xi
CONTENTS

Exercise 10.5 Seals and Disease 292

Exercise 10.6 BOD and Tubifex 293
Exercise 10.7 Weather Measurements 294
Exercise 10.8 Lichen Diversity and Air Pollution 295
Chapter 11 Multiple Choice Questions 297
Chapter 12 Answers to Exercises and Multiple Choice Tests 329
Chapter 1 Biodiversity and Taxonomy 330
Chapter 2 Abiotic Factors and Ecophysiology 334
Chapter 3 Ecosystems, Energy and Nutrients 339
Chapter 4 Determining Abundance and Distribution 346
Chapter 5 Population Growth 353
Chapter 6 Species Interactions 358
Chapter 7 Behavioural Ecology and Ecological Genetics 363
Chapter 8 Environmental Pollution and Perturbations 370
Chapter 9 Conservation Biology 377
Chapter 10 Statistics 384
Answers to multiple choice questions 386

Glossary 387

Index 391

xii
PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to help students to learn about the principles of ecology by completing a series of problems.
It is primarily intended for students at the end of their secondary education and those at the beginning of their tertiary
education. It assumes little prior knowledge of the subject but requires users to be able to perform simple calculations
(largely arithmetic) and draw graphs.
Most ecology textbooks provide a great deal of information in the form of text, diagrams, graphs, and tables of data,
with, perhaps, a few exercises for the students to attempt at the end of each chapter. This book takes the opposite approach.
Very little background text is provided and students are expected to built up their knowledge of ecology by completing
exercises, many of which are based on the work of pioneering ecologists who built the foundations of the subject.
Each chapter begins with a brief account of general principles. This is followed by a list of the intended learning outcomes
for the chapter and then a series of exercises. At the end of the book there is a series of multiple choice tests covering the
material in the individual chapters. The exercises themselves vary in difficulty. Some consider very basic concepts, such as
food chains, while others require some understanding of mathematics, for example, matrix algebra.
Ecology is a practical subject which should be taught, at least in part, by requiring students to engage in fieldwork. There
is no substitute for this. However, financial and time constraints often preclude teachers and lecturers from engaging in
extensive (and expensive) field trips. Some of the exercises presented here are intended to help students to understand field
techniques without the need to spend time getting cold, wet, and tired. With the best will in the world, most young people
who are required to study some ecology as part of their biological education do not intend to work as ecologists and may
be much happier in a warm, dry laboratory.
Almost all of the exercises in this book are based on real studies. In some cases they require the user to reconstruct
graphs produced by others from points generated by inspection of the original published graphs. In effect the user has to
draw a graph from raw data in much the same way as the original researchers. Some exercises are based on simulated data
that I have produced using various computer programs.
Many of the exercises presented here have been used to teach a very wide range of students in further and higher
education colleges, at university, and mature students working in industry. My overall impression was that they preferred
doing these exercises to listening to me talking about ecology. I hope you enjoy them and that they inspire you to go outside,
get cold and wet (perhaps even very hot), and do some real ecology in the field.

Paul A. Rees
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book began its life around 1985 when I wrote some exercises for students as part of the assessment required for my
Certificate in Education. Over a period of years I added to these exercises until I had several dozen and they became part
of the way I taught ecology to college students and, later, undergraduates.
A number of people and organisations have supplied materials used in this book. Sarah Proctor, Community Science
Project Manager, Moors For the Future kindly supplied the images used for Fig. 4.5. I have used images kindly made
available by Openclipart (www.openclipart.org) in a number of figures (Figs. 4.2, 4.17, 4.21, 6.4, 6.7, 7.1, 8.3, 8.14, and 9.24)
and I am grateful to various contributors for allowing unrestricted use of their work. A number of photographs of historical
interest have been obtained from the US Library of Congress (Figs.1.3, 7.14, 8.7, 9.22 and 9.23) which has indicated that
there is no known restriction on their publication. All of the other images are my own. Dr Alan Woodward kindly checked
some of the content for errors.
Many of the exercises in this book were inspired by my teachers. At the University of Liverpool, Prof. Anthony Bradshaw
taught me about heavy metal tolerant grasses, Prof. Philip Sheppard and his colleague Dr Jim Bishop taught me about
the genetics of Biston betularia, Prof. Arthur Cain taught me about evolution and taxonomy, and Prof. Michael Begon
supervised my research on the assimilation efficiency of African elephants. At the University of Bradford, Prof. Michael
Delany supervised my doctoral research on the ecology and behaviour of feral cats.
Many students have unwittingly tested many of the exercises presented in this book and I am grateful to them and to
Dr Louise Taylor who coauthored one of the papers that has been used as the basis of several exercises.
At Elsevier I am indebted to Kristi Gomez (Life Sciences Acquisitions Editor) and Pat Gonzalez (Senior Editorial Project
Manager) for believing in this project and seeing it through the production process to publication. In India, I am grateful
to Mohanambal Natarajan for overseeing the typesetting of the work.
Finally, I must acknowledge the tolerance of my wife Katy who only complained about the piles of papers and books
that were scattered around our home during the writing of this book when she genuinely believed her life to be in danger.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1

BIODIVERSITY AND TAXONOMY

This chapter contains exercises concerned with the diversity of living things, their identification and
their classification.

Northern gannet (Morus bassanus)

Examining Ecology. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809354-2.00001-4

© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
EXAMINING ECOLOGY

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this chapter you should be able to:

● Explain the importance of taxonomy in ecological studies.

● Distinguish between the vernacular and scientific names of organisms.
● Explain why scientists use scientific names for organisms.
● List the major taxonomic groups of animals in the correct hierarchical sequence from
phylum to species.
● Construct a simple dichotomous key.
● Identify patterns in species diversity and abundance.
● Explain the variety of ways in which new species may be identified in the wild and from
among existing collections of organisms.
● Identify reasons why island species are especially vulnerable to extinction.
● Discuss problems with the accuracy of historical estimates of the sizes of wild animal
populations.
● Discuss methods for protecting indigenous species from introduced species.
● List the benefits and shortcomings of citizen science projects designed to investigate
ecological problems.
● Use the lognormal distribution to investigate the pattern of species diversity.
● Explain the ecological value of ancient ecosystems

INTRODUCTION the lion. Panthera is the name of the genus to

The Naming
and Classification
of Organisms
Each living thing has a scientific name that
consists of two parts: the generic name and
the specific name. For example, Panthera leo is
which the animal belongs, and leo is the name
of the species within this genus. The system used
for naming organisms is called the binomial
system and was devised by the Swedish biologist
and physician Carl Linnaeus (Fig. 1.1). Where
subspecies are recognised a trinomial name
is used. For example Panther leo persica is the
subspecies of the lion which occurs in India, the

2
 Biodiversity and Taxonomy

locally used names so the name of a particular

species varies from place to place, from language
to language and may vary with time. Due to their
inconsistency, vernacular names are not widely
used by scientists unless the species concerned is
also identified by its scientific name. Vernacular
names do not indicate taxonomic relationships,
so unrelated species may have similar vernacular
names.

The Identification
of Species
The ability to identify species is essential if we are
to measure biodiversity and monitor changes in
biodiversity with time. In the field and laboratory
the identification of an unidentified organism is
often achieved by using an identification guide.
Such guides often contain keys that require
the user to examine the characteristics of the
specimen in a sequence of steps until identification
Figure 1.1 Carl Linnaeus. is achieved. When using a dichotomous key the
user is required to answer a series of questions
about the unidentified specimen about its size,
Asiatic lion. Once the full scientific name has
shape, colour and other aspects of its morphology.
been used it may be abbreviated: Panthera leo
Each question in the key may only have one of
becomes P. leo and Panthera leo persica becomes
two possible answers, for example, ‘Does the
P. l. persica. The individual specimen of a species
organism have three pairs of walking legs or more
upon which the first scientific description of that
than three pairs of walking legs?’
species was based is called the holotype.
Animals are classified into taxa in a
hierarchical manner. For example, the grey wolf Biodiversity Hotspots
is classified as follows: Versus Cold Spots
Kingdom Animalia
Trends in biodiversity occur across the planet.
Phylum Chordata Biodiversity tends to be higher in tropical
Class Mammalia areas and lower in the polar regions. For many
Order Carnivora taxa there are clear north–south gradients in
Family Canidae biodiversity.
Genus Canis
Biodiversity hotspots are regions that have
Species lupus
high concentrations of endemic species and
Well-known species of organisms have have suffered a high level of habitat destruction
common or vernacular names. These are often (Fig. 1.2). The term was first coined by Norman

3
EXAMINING ECOLOGY
Figure 1.2 Costa Rica is located within the Mesoamerica
hot spot. The jaguar (Panthera onca) is one of its iconic
apex predators.
Myers almost 30 years ago (Myers, 1988). Myers,
Mittermeier, Mittermeier, da Fonseca and Kent
(2000) argue that limited conservation funds
should be directed towards biodiversity hotspots
because we cannot save everything and ‘as many
as 44% of all species of vascular plants and 35% of
all species in four vertebrate groups are confined
to 25 hotspots comprising only 1.4% of the land
surface of the Earth.’ Since the publication of this
paper a total of 36 hotspots have been identified.
Some conservationists believe that we should
not just concentrate our efforts (and spend all
our money) on hotspots, but we should prioritise
the protection of nonhotspot areas or ‘cold
spots’: areas which do not have high biodiversity
but which provide valuable ecosystem services.
These areas make up the remaining 98.6% of
the land surface of the Earth and they contain
rare species, encompass important large
wilderness areas, provide habitat for many
wide-ranging species and provide ecological
services that are of local and global importance.
These services include flood protection, carbon
sequestration, water purification, pest control,
4
waste detoxification, raw materials, food, genetic
resources and medicines.
Citizen Science
Some areas of science have always attracted the
interest of keen amateurs. The English amateur
astronomer Sir Patrick Moore became an expert
on the Moon, published dozens of astronomy
books and presented the BBC’s long-running
television programme The Sky at Night. Many
other ordinary people, with no formal training
in their subject, have turned a hobby into a
lifelong interest and become acknowledged
experts in entomology, plant identification, bird
identification and many other fields.
In order to tap the amateur enthusiasm for
natural history some individual scientists and
organisations have devised projects that use
members of the public, including children, to
collect data. In the United Kingdom, the Royal
Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) has
been organising the Big Garden Birdwatch each
year since 1979. Over half a million people take
part each year counting birds over a period of
three days. In 2016 they counted over 8 million
birds (BBC, 2016).
The following exercises examine the way
in which scientists name, identify and classify
organisms, patterns in biodiversity, factors
affecting extinction and opportunities for the
public to engage in biodiversity projects.
References
BBC. (2016). Big Garden Birdwatch. <https://rspb.org.
uk/get-involved/activities/birdwatch/results.aspx>.
Accessed 22.11.16.
Myers, N. (1988). Threatened biotas: “Hot spots” in
tropical forests. Environmentalist, 8, 187–208.
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., da
Fonseca, G. A. B., & Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots
for conservation priorities. Nature, 403, 853–858.

Exercise 1.1
Ecology and Taxonomy
Ecology is a relatively new science. The term
‘ecology’ is derived from the word ‘oecologie’
coined in 1866 by the German zoologist Ernst
Haeckel in his book Generelle Morphologie der
Organismen (Haeckel, 1866) (Fig. 1.3). Since
then many other definitions have been used
some of which are listed in Table 1.1.
The British ecologist Charles Elton called
ecology ‘scientific natural history’. In his book
Animal Ecology, Elton (1927) claimed that:
It is a fact that natural history has fallen
into disrepute among zoologists, at least
in England, and since it is a very serious
matter that a third of the whole subject of
zoology should be neglected by scientists, we
may ask for reasons.
Figure 1.3 Professor Ernst Haeckel.
Library of Congress ggbain 05698 //hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.05698
Biodiversity and Taxonomy
Elton went on to explain that zoologists
were turning to the study of the morphology
and physiology of organisms in the laboratory
and away from fieldwork at that time. These
disciplines do not require – at least according to
Elton – a detailed knowledge of the taxonomy of
the organisms being studied.
Almost 70 years later, in 1995, Tam Dalyell MP
expressed concern in the House of Commons
regarding the shortage of taxonomists in the
United Kingdom:
HC Deb 13 June 1995 vol. 261 cc431-2W
431W
Mr. Dalyell
To ask the Chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster what action Her Majesty's
Government are taking to train sufficient
scientists in methods relating to the
identification of species to enable the
Table 1.1 Selected definitions of ecology
Author Definition – Ecology may be defined as…
Haeckel …the entire science of the relations of the organism
(1866) to the surrounding exterior world, to which its
relations we can count in the broader sense all the
conditions of existence. These are partly of organic,
partly of inorganic nature.
OR
…household of nature.
King and …the study of the relations between animals and
Russell (1909) their environment, both animate and inanimate.
Elton (1927) …scientific natural history.
Eggleton …the science which treats of the interrelationships
(1939) of organisms with their complete environment.
Andrewartha …the scientific study of the distribution and
(1961) abundance of organisms.
Odum (1963) …the study of the structure and function of nature.
Krebs (1972) …the scientific study of the interactions that
determine the distribution and abundance of
organisms.
5
EXAMINING ECOLOGY
United Kingdom to fulfil obligations under
the biodiversity convention; and what
assessment has been made of the shortage
of taxonomists. [26328]
The United Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity 1992 requires Parties to the Convention
to identify components of biodiversity of
conservation interest:
Article 7. Identification and Monitoring
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as
possible and as appropriate, in particular
for the purposes of Articles 8 to 10:
(a) Identify components of biological
diversity important for its conservation
and sustainable use having regard to the
indicative list of categories set down in
Annex I;
(b) Monitor, through sampling and
other techniques, the components of
biological diversity identified pursuant to
subparagraph (a) above, paying particular
attention to those requiring urgent
conservation measures and those which
offer the greatest potential for sustainable
use;
(c) Identify processes and categories
of activities which have or are likely to
have significant adverse impacts on the
conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity, and monitor their effects
through sampling and other techniques; and
(d) Maintain and organize, by any
mechanism, data derived from identification
and monitoring activities pursuant to
subparagraphs (a), (b) and (c) above.
6
Q1.1.1 Which of the definitions in Table 1.1
do you consider too vague to explain the term
‘ecology’ to the lay person?
Q1.1.2 Why are taxonomists essential to the
proper study of ecology?
Q1.1.3 Explain why a shortage of taxonomists
could have had the effect of preventing the
United Kingdom from fulfilling its legal
obligations under the UN Convention on
Biological Diversity.
Q1.1.4 Suggest the types of ‘processes’ and
‘activities’ envisaged by Art. 7(c).
Q1.1.5 Explain why it is important that
countries cooperate in the conservation of
biodiversity.
References/Further Reading
Andrewartha, H. G. (1961). Introduction to the Study
of Animal Populations. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Eggleton, F. E. (1939). Fresh-water communities. The
American Midland Naturalist, 21(1), 56–74.
Elton, C. (1927). Animal ecology. New York: The
MacMillan Company.
Friederichs, K. (1958). A definition of ecology and some
thoughts about basic concepts. Ecology, 39(1), 154–159.
Haeckel, E. (1866). Generelle morphologie der organismen.
Berlin: Druck und verlag von Georg Reimer.
King, L. A. L., & Russell, E. S. (1909). A method for the
study of the animal ecology of the shore. Proceedings of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 17, 225–253.
Krebs, C. J. (1972). Ecology. The experimental analysis of
distribution and abundance. New York: Harper and Row,
Publishers.
Odum, E. P. (1963). Ecology. New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston.
 Biodiversity and Taxonomy

Exercise 1.2

What’s in a Name?
Vernacular Versus Scientific Names

Figure 1.4 Barn owl (Tyto alba).

Table 1.2 Examples of New World blackbirds

The vernacular name of a species is its common
Vernacular name Scientific name
name, e.g., lion, blackbird, hippopotamus.
Austral blackbird Curaeus curaeus
Verna­cular names vary between countries and Bolivian blackbird Agelaioides oreopsar
languages, and over time. There may be several Brewer’s blackbird Euphagus cyanocephalus
names used for a single species in a particular Chestnut-capped blackbird Chrysomus ruficapillus
region. Chopi blackbird Gnorimopsar chopi

At various times and in various places in the Cuban blackbird Dives atroviolaceus
Forbes’s blackbird Curaeus forbesi
United Kingdom the barn owl (Tyto alba) has
Jamaican blackbird Nesopsar nigerrimus
been called the screech owl, silver owl, yellow
Melodious blackbird Dives dives
owl, hobby owl, white owl, hissing owl, church Oriole blackbird Gymnomystax mexicanus
owl, Jenny owl, ullat, oolert, willow owl and Pale-eyed blackbird Agelasticus xanthophthalmus
many other names (Fig. 1.4). To avoid confusion
scientists use the binomial system to assign a The name ‘blackbird’ is used for many bird
single Latin or scientific name to each species. species in different regions of the world. Table 1.2

7
EXAMINING ECOLOGY

Figure 1.5 Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis).

Table 1.3 The vernacular names of the ocelot scientists to use the scientific (binomial) name
(Leopardus pardalis)
of a species rather than a vernacular name.
Country/language Vernacular names
Argentina chivi-guazu, cuanguaro, gato onza, tirica Q1.2.2 Using the information in Table 1.2,
Bolivia gato bueno, gato onza, tigrezillo
explain why the term ‘blackbird’ has little
Brazil gato-maracajá, jaguatirica, maracajá-açu,
maracajá-verdadeiro meaning from an evolutionary and taxonomic
Colombia maracaya, maracaja point of view.
Costa Rica manigordo
French Guiana chat tigre Q1.2.3 If you were an ecologist studying the
Guarani agua-tirica distribution of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis)
Mayan zac-xicin (Fig. 1.5) in the countries of Central and South
Nicaragua mandigordo
America by surveying local people using a
Panama gato tigre, mandigoldo, tigre chico
Paraguay chivi-guazu, gato onza
questionnaire, what precautions would you
Peru gato onza, pupillo, tigrillo need to take to ensure that the interviewees
Spanish gato onza, ocelote, tigrillo knew which animal you were asking about?
Surinam hétigrikati (See Table 1.3).
Venezuela cuanguaro, manigordo
Adapted from Anon. (2015).
Reference/Further Reading
Anon. (2015). Cat Specialist Group, Species Survival
lists examples of some of the species found in the Commission. <http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=88>.
New World. Accessed 20.8.15.

Q1.2.1 Using the information provided in

this exercise, explain why it is important for

8

Exercise 1.3
The Classification of Animals
Organisms are classified according to their
evolutionary relationships. Animals are
allocated a scientific name which consists of two
parts indicating the genus to which it belongs
(generic name) and a specific name which
indicates the particular species within that genus
(Fig. 1.6). These names are written in italics. This
naming system is called the binomial system of
nomenclature because it assigns two names to
each species (the binomial name).
Panthera leo is the lion. This species has
several subspecies, each of which is assigned a
different subspecific (third) name. For example,
Figure 1.6 (A) Western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla); (B) chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes);
(C) bonobo (Pan paniscus); (D) orangutan (Pongo sp.).
Biodiversity and Taxonomy
the Asiatic lion is called Panthera leo persica.
This three-part name is known as the trinomial
name. Where subspecies exist, the one which
was first described has its specific name repeated
as its subspecific name. For example, the first
lion described was Panthera leo leo.
Species are grouped into genera, genera into
families, families into orders, orders into classes
and classes into phyla. The classification of the
bonobo (Pan paniscus) is given in Table 1.4.
Q1.3.1 Fig. 1.7 shows the family tree of an
imaginary group of animals. Family P is
9
EXAMINING ECOLOGY

Table 1.4 Classification of the bonobo Table 1.5 Classification of living members of the family
Taxon
Hominidae
Phylum Chordata Binomial name Vernacular name
Class Mammalia Pongo abelii Sumatran orangutan
Order Primates Pan troglodytes trogylodytes Central chimpanzee
Family Hominidae Gorilla beringei graueri Eastern lowland gorilla
Genus Pan Pan paniscus Bonobo
Species paniscus Homo sapiens Man

Note that a full classification would include additional levels such as superfamily and subfamily. Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
Gorilla gorilla diehli
Pan troglodytes vellerosus
Gorilla beringei beringei
Pongo pygmaeus
Gorilla gorilla gorilla
Pan troglodytes verus
Eastern chimpanzee
Cross River gorilla
Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee
Mountain gorilla
Bornean orangutan
Western lowland gorilla
West African chimpanzee

Q1.3.2 What do the vernacular names of the

species listed in Table 1.5 tell us about the likely
mechanism by which subspecies have evolved?

Q1.3.3 Which of the subspecies of chimpanzee

was the first to be formally described by a scientist?

Q1.3.4 The bonobo is sometimes referred to as

Figure 1.7 Classification of imaginary organisms. the pygmy or dwarf chimpanzee. Why might
this be confusing?
divided into two genera, A and R. Genus A
Q1.3.5 Is it possible to determine from the
contains species G and T. Species T is divided
family tree that you have produced which
into two subspecies, F and K. Genus R has a
species is most closely related to humans?
single species, U. Using the information in
Table 1.5 and the example layout in Fig. 1.7,
Reference/Further Reading
draw a family tree showing the evolutionary
Wilson and Reeder’s Mammal Species of the World.
relationships between the members of the <http://vertebrates.si.edu/msw/mswcfapp/msw/index.
Hominidae. cfm>. Accessed 15.11.16.

10
 Biodiversity and Taxonomy

Exercise 1.4

Constructing a Dichotomous Key

Field ecologists use dichotomous keys to assist in required is one fewer than the number of types
the identification of organisms. Such keys consist of organisms to be distinguished.
of a series of questions to which there may only be
Q1.4.1 Why are keys like this referred to as
two possible answers. Each answer leads to another
‘dichotomous’?
question until the end of the sequence is reached
and the organism is identified. The following key Q1.4.2 Explain why questions relating to the
distinguishes between four types of bird (Fig. 1.8): relative size of a structure are not really appropriate
in a key (e.g., ‘Does it have a very long neck?’)
Q1 Can it fly? If YES go to Q2.
If NO go to Q3. Q1.4.3 Construct a dichotomous key to
Q2 Does it have a short If YES – Flamingo. distinguish between the six imaginary
downward curving bill? If NO – Pelican. invertebrate species in Fig. 1.9.
Q3 Does it have a very long If YES – Ostrich
neck? If NO – Penguin

This is not the only key which could be

devised to distinguish between these four types
of bird. Note that the number of questions

Figure 1.8 (A) Penguin; (B) ostrich; (C) pelican;

(D) flamingo. Figure 1.9 Six imaginary invertebrate species.

11
EXAMINING ECOLOGY

Q1.4.4 A dichotomous key would normally Reference/Further Reading

lead to an image of the organism that has Many dichotomous keys exist in a variety of field
been identified. This may be a detailed guides, for example:
drawing or a photograph. Why is this image Falk, S. (2015). Field guide to the bees of Great Britain and
important in the identification process? Ireland. London: Bloomsbury.

12
Another random document with
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hurled upon the house of Judd. Standing for a moment in silence
and glowering upon them all in turn, the boy swung about with a
defiant gesture, stalked through the open door and out of the house.
Josiah Judd, whose heart was already sinking under the
responsibility of the crown jewels of a kingdom, experienced a
sickening collapse in the presence of the Oriental thunderbolt that
had just exploded on his peaceful New England hearthstone. His jaw
fell, he ceased rocking, and turned his eyes in painful inquiry upon
his guests.
There was an awkward silence. The General and the Prince had
risen to their feet as if in apology to the hostess, but she had
accepted the outburst with unruffled calmness. Her kind, restful,
homely face showed no annoyance. Rising quietly from the table she
followed the stormy guest and found him around in front of the
house, sitting upon the granite doorstep, his chin in his hands,
frowning fiercely upon the quaint old flower-garden before him. He
got up as she approached and stood a few feet away, regarding her
with a hostile scowl. Seating herself upon the step she said, with a
pleasant smile:
“Of course you are tired, sonny, we all understand that, and you are
unhappy to-day, but it won’t be for long.”
These assuring words failed of their purpose, and he eyed her
sidewise, and with suspicion. He was too old a bird to be fooled so
easily. A few sprigs were torn from the box border within his reach as
if the conversation bored him.
“I had a boy once,” continued Mrs. Judd. “I understand boys, and
know just how you feel. We shall be good friends, I’m sure.”
After a pause devoted to serious reflection, he inquired:
“Did your boy like you?”
“Oh, yes.”
He came nearer and stood in front of her. Then, slowly and with the
precision with which he always delivered himself when speaking
English, he said:
“My mother was different from you, and her clothes were more
beautiful, but if one boy liked you another might. I might. Would you
like to see my mother’s portrait?”
Mrs. Judd said she would like very much to see it, and he began
fumbling about and seemed to be tickling himself near the buckle of
his belt. But, as it proved, he was ascertaining the whereabouts of a
locket, which he finally fished up by means of a gold chain about his
neck. The chain was of such a length that the locket, instead of
reposing near the heart of the wearer, hung a little below the centre
of the stomach. When it finally emerged above his collar, he placed
the warm miniature in her hand, saying:
“That is my mother.”
It was a dark face, surmounted by a jewelled head-dress of a style
that Mrs. Judd had never seen, even in pictures. After looking more
carefully at the miniature and then up into the eyes that were
watching hers, she found the same square forehead and sensitive
mouth, and the same dark melancholy, heavily fringed eyes, by far
the most beautiful she had ever seen. The picture in her hand was a
truthful portrait of himself. As she looked from the portrait into the
face before her she felt it was perhaps fortunate this mother was
ignorant of the changes that already had turned the current of his
life. With a brown hand on each of her knees he was looking into her
eyes with the anxious gaze of a hungry soul, seeking for sympathy,
and too proud to ask it. But Mrs. Judd understood. She laid a hand
upon his shoulder with an expression upon her honest face that
rendered words unnecessary. He blinked and swallowed in a mighty
effort to suppress what he evidently considered an undignified and
compromising sentiment. But in vain. Sinking upon his knees he
buried his face in her lap and gave way to the most vehement,
uncontrollable grief. The small frame shook with sobs, while her
apron grew wet with tears. He took his sorrow with the same
passionate recklessness that characterized his anger at the dinner-
table. Mrs. Judd rested her hand upon the short black hair and tried
to summon words of solace for a grief that seemed to threaten the
integrity of his earthly body. She could only stroke his head and tell
him not to be unhappy; that all would end well; that he should soon
return home.
In the midst of these efforts the voice of Mr. Judd came around the
corner calling out that the wagon was here. The boy jumped to his
feet as if he had received a shock. Drawing the sleeve of his jacket
across his tear-stained face, he summoned an expression of severity
and indifference that under other circumstances would have forced a
smile from his newly acquired friend. The soldier was himself again;
the warrior was on parade. As they walked together around the
house to the dining-room, he beside her with a resolute step and
chin in the air, she wondered what manner of training could have
taught him at the age of seven to suppress all boyish emotions, and
put on at will the dignity of a Roman Senator.
The General and the Prince were awaiting them. With many
compliments they thanked the host and hostess for their hospitality,
and regretted the necessity that took them away in such unfortunate
haste; it was a flying trip and their absence must not be lengthened
by an hour, as these were troublous times in their part of India. As
they moved toward the wagon Mrs. Judd held her husband back,
believing there might be a parting at which strangers would not be
welcome. But the parting, like all else, was dignified and
ceremonious. She could not see the boy’s face, for he stood with his
back toward her, but as far as she could judge he also was calm and
self-possessed. She noticed, however, that the General had to
swallow, with a sudden gulp, a large portion of what appeared to be
a carefully constructed sentence.
They drove in silence down the long avenue beneath the maples,
and the driver, perhaps to put them at their ease, said something
about getting along faster in this light wagon than with the stage, but
both his passengers seemed in a silent mood and made no answer.
As they turned into the main road the General, who was on the side
nearest the house, looked back. At the farther end of the avenue
stood the boy in the same position, still watching them. The old
soldier brought his hand to his hat and down again in a military
salute that was evidently familiar to the little person at the farther end
of the driveway, for it was promptly acknowledged, and although a
farewell to the last ties between himself and his country, was
returned with head erect, as from one veteran to another.
 II
TWENTY years have passed.
The corner mansion of the Van Koovers is ablaze with light. Long
rows of carriages surmounted by sleepy coachmen extend along
Madison Avenue and into the neighboring street. The temporary
awning from the front door to the curbstone serves only to shield the
coming and departing guest from the gaze of heaven, for the moon
and stars are shining brightly, as if they also would like to enter. But
when the front door opens, which is frequent, it emits a blast of
music, taunting and defiant, reminding the outside universe of its
plebeian origin.
Inside there is a scene of festivity and splendor, of dazzling gayety,
of youth and mirth and decorous joy. The opulence of the Van
Koovers is of sanctifying solidity, and when they give a ball they do it
in a style to be remembered. The house itself, with its sumptuous
furniture, its magnificent ceilings and stately dimensions is
sufficiently impressive in every-day attire, but to-night it reminds you
of the Arabian Tales. The family portraits, the gracious dignity of the
host and hostess, the bearing of the servants, all speak of pedigree
and hereditary honors.
Roses and violets, in lavish profusion, fill every corner, are festooned
around doors and windows, even along the walls and up the stairs,
their perfume mingling with the music. And the music, dreamy yet
voluminous, sways hither and thither a sea of maidens with snowy
necks and shimmering jewels, floating gracefully about in the arms of
anxious youths. These youths, although unspeakably happy, wear
upon their faces, as is usual upon such occasions, an expression of
corroding care.
As a waltz came to an end, a tall, light-haired girl with crimson roses
in her dress, dropped into a seat. She fanned herself rapidly as if to
drive away a most becoming color that had taken possession of her
cheeks. Her breath came quickly, the string of pearls upon her neck
rising and falling as if sharing in the general joy. With her long throat,
her well-poised head, and a certain dignity of unconscious pride she
might be described as old-fashioned from her resemblance to a
favorite type in the portraits of a century ago. Perhaps her prettiest
feature was the low, wide forehead about which the hair seemed to
advance and recede in exceptionally graceful lines. Her charm to
those who know her but superficially was in her voice and manner, in
the frankness of her eyes, and, above all perhaps, in that all-
conquering charm, a total absence of self-consciousness. But
whatever the reason, no girl in the room received more attention.
Her partner, a sculptor with a bald head and a reputation, took the
chair beside her. As her eyes wandered carelessly about the room
she inquired, in an indifferent tone: “Who is that swarthy youth
talking with Julia Bancroft?”
“I don’t know. He looks like a foreigner.” Then he added, with more
interest, “But isn’t he a beauty!”
“Yes, his features are good.”
“He is an Oriental of some sort, and doesn’t quite harmonize with a
claw-hammer coat. He should wear an emerald-green nightcap with
a ruby in the centre, about the size of a hen’s egg, a yellow dressing-
gown and white satin trousers, all copiously sprinkled with
diamonds.”
She smiled. “Yes, and he might be interesting if he were not quite so
handsome; but here he comes!”
The youth in question, as he came down the room and passed them,
seemed to be having a jolly time with his companion and he failed to
notice the two people who were discussing him. It was a boyish face
notwithstanding the regular features and square jaw, and at the
present moment it wore a smile that betrayed the most intense
amusement. When he was well out of hearing, the sculptor
exclaimed: “He is the most artistic thing I ever saw! The lines of his
eyes and nose are superb! And what a chin! I should like to own
him!”
“You couldn’t eat him.”
“No, but I could put him on exhibition at five dollars a ticket. Every
girl in New York would be there; you among them.”
Miss Cabot appeared to consider. “I am not so sure. He probably is
much less interesting than he looks. Handsome males over three
years of age are the deadliest bores in life; sculptors of course
excepted.”
“It does seem to be a kind of prosperity the human male is unable to
support without impairment.” Then addressing a blasé young man
lounging wearily by:
“Horace, do you know who that is talking with Miss Bancroft?”
Horace, a round-shouldered blond whose high collar seemed to
force his chin, not upward, but outward horizontally, fingered the
ends of a frail mustache and asked:
“You mean that pigeon-toed fellow with the dark face?”
Miss Cabot could not help laughing. “There’s a summing up of your
beauty,” she exclaimed, turning to the sculptor.
He smiled as he answered: “It is evident you are an admirer. But do
you know who he is?”
“Yes, I know him.”
“Well, what is it? A Hindu prince, a Persian poet, or a simple corsair
of the Adriatic?”
“He is a Connecticut farmer.”
“Never!”
“And his name is Judd—Amos Judd.”
“Oh, dear!” sighed Miss Cabot. “What a come down! We hoped he
was something more unusual than that.”
“Well, he is more unusual than that. He is a paralyzer of the female
heart. I knew him in college. At dances and parties we were
generally sure to find him tucked away on the stairs or out on a
porch with the prettiest girl of the ball, and he looked so much like an
Oriental prince we used to call him the Bellehugger of Spoonmore.”
“Disgusting!”
“But that is a trifling and unimportant detail of his character, Miss
Cabot, and conveys a cold impression of Mr. Judd’s experiences.
Don Giovanni was a puritanical prig in comparison. Then at college
he had the bad taste to murder a classmate.”
Miss Cabot looked up in horror.
“But then he had his virtues. He could drink more without showing it
than any fellow in college, and he was the richest man in his class.”
“Oh, come now, Horace,” said the sculptor, “you are evidently a good
friend of his, but your desire to do him a good turn may be carrying
you beyond the limits of—how shall I say it?”
“You mean that I am lying.”
“Well, that is the rough idea.”
Horace smiled. “No, I am not lying. It is all true,” and he passed
wearily on.
It was not many minutes before Molly Cabot was again moving over
the floor, this time with the son of the house. Stephen Van Koover
was one of those unfortunates whose mental outfit qualified him for
something better than the career of clothes and conversation to
which he was doomed by the family wealth.
“This recalls old times. Isn’t it three or four years since we have
danced together?” he asked. “Or is it three or four hundred?”
“Thank you! I am glad you realize what you have missed.”
“You do dance like an angel, Miss Molly, and it’s a sin to squander
such talent on me. I wish you would try it with Judd; my sisters say
his dancing is a revelation.”
“Judd, the murderer?”
“Who told you that?”
“Horace Bennett.”
“I might have guessed it. Truth and Horace were never chums. Judd
bears the same relation to Horace as sunshine to a damp cellar.”
As the music ceased they strolled to a little divan at the end of the
room.
“He did kill a man, a classmate, but he had the sympathies of his
entire class. It was partly an accident, anyway.”
“I am glad for his sake, as there seems to be a prejudice against
murder.”
“This was a little of both. We were having a supper, about twenty of
us, just before class-day. After the supper, when we were all a trifle
hilarious, Slade came up behind Judd and poured some wine down
his neck. Judd faced about; then Slade made a mock apology, and
added an insulting speech. He was a master in that sort of thing, and
while doing it he emptied his wineglass into Judd’s face. Now Judd is
overweighted with a peculiar kind of Oriental pride, and also with an
unfortunate temper; not a bad temper, but a sudden, unreliable,
cyclonic affair, that carries the owner with it, generally faster than is
necessary, and sometimes a great deal farther. Now Slade knew all
this, and as he was an all-around athlete and the heavier man, there
was no doubt in our minds that he meant Judd should strike out, and
then he would have some fun with him.
“Well, Judd grew as black as a thundercloud, but he kept his temper.
His hand shook as he wiped his face with his handkerchief and
quietly turned his back upon him. Then it was that the other man
made the crowning error of his life. He was just enough of a bully to
misunderstand Judd’s decent behavior, and his contempt was so
great for one who could accept such an indignity that he kicked him.
Judd wheeled about, seized him by the throat and banged his head
against the wall with a force and fury that sobered every fellow in the
room. Close beside them was an open window reaching to the floor,
with a low iron railing outside. Judd, half lifting him from the floor,
sent him flying through this window, and over the balcony.”
“Gracious! Was he dead from the blows on his head?”
“No, but a blow awaited him outside that would have finished an ox.
This window was about thirteen feet from the ground, and below it
stood a granite hitching post. When Slade came down like a diver
from a boat and struck head foremost against the top of this post
something was sure to suffer, and the granite post is there to-day,
with no signs of injury.”
“How can you speak of it in such a tone!”
“Well, I am afraid none of us had a deep affection for the victim. And
then Judd was so refreshingly honest! He said he was glad Slade
was dead; that the world would be better if all such men were out of
it, and refused to go to the funeral or to wear the usual class
mourning.”
“Which was in disgustingly bad taste!”
“Possibly, but uncommonly honest. And then it is hardly fair to judge
him by our standards. He is built of foreign material, and he had
received something that it was simply not in his nature to forgive.”
Their voices were drowned in the music that again filled the room.
The dance over, they sauntered out into the large hall, where
Flemish and Italian tapestries formed an opulent harmony with Van
Koover portraits. In the air of this apartment one breathed the
ancestral repose that speaks of princely origin. It was not intended,
however, that this atmosphere should recall the founder of the house
who, but four generations ago, was peddling knick-knacks along the
Bowery.
As Miss Cabot was uncomfortably warm and suggested a cooler air
he led her to the farther end of the long hall, beyond the stairs, and
halted at the entrance of a conservatory.
“Delicious!” and she inhaled a long breath of the fresh, moist air.
“Wait for me just a moment, and I will bring you the glass of water,”
and he vanished.
An inviting obscurity pervaded this conservatory, which, like the rest
of the Van Koover mansion, was spacious and impressive. At the
farther end, the gloom was picturesquely broken by rays of
moonlight slanting through the lofty windows. The only living
occupants seemed to be one or two pairs of invisible lovers, whose
voices were faintly audible above the splashing of the little fountain
in the centre. This busy fountain formed a discreet accompaniment
to the flirtations in the surrounding shrubbery. Stepping to the side of
the basin, she stood for a moment looking down into its diminutive
depths. The falling water and the distant music formed a soothing
melody, and a welcome restfulness stole gently upon her senses as
she inhaled, with the fragrance of the tropics, the peace and poetry
of a summer night. She stood for a moment yielding to a gentle
enchantment; it seemed a different world, apart from the great city in
which she lived, a world of flowers, and perfumes, of fountains and
perpetual music; of moonlight and of whispering lovers.
At last, as if waking from a dream, the girl raised her head and
looked toward the windows beyond, where a flood of moonlight
illumined deep masses of exotic foliage, repeating them in fantastic
shadows on the marble floor. Walking slowly from the fountain, she
lingered between the overhanging palms, then stepped into the
moonbeams, a radiant figure with her bare neck and arms and
glistening jewels in this full white light, against the gloom of the
conservatory. The diamonds in the crescent above her forehead
flashed as if quivering into life as she stopped and looked up at the
planet.
A figure close beside her, that had formed part of the surrounding
shadow, started back with a suddenness that caused her, also, to
retreat a step and press a hand to her heart. It was more from
nervousness than fear, as she was simply startled. She at once
recovered herself, ashamed at being taken off her guard, but a
glance at the man beside her, whose face was now also in the light,
filled her with a fresh surprise. It was the Oriental beauty; the
murderer, Judd, and the intensity of his expression almost frightened
her. His eyes were fixed upon her own in speechless wonder, and as
they moved to the crescent in her hair, then back again to her face,
they showed both terror and astonishment. Yet it seemed a look of
recognition, for he bent eagerly forward, as if to make sure he were
not mistaken.
It was all in an instant. Then, with a step backward and an inclination
of the head, he stammered:
“I beg your pardon. I—I was startled. Pray forgive me.”
He gave an arm to his companion, a pretty girl in pink who, standing
behind him, had missed the details of the little scene, and they
walked away among the plants and out of the conservatory.
Later in the evening, as Miss Cabot stood near the door of the ball-
room, the girl with whom she was speaking introduced a friend, and
she found herself again in the presence of the Connecticut farmer,
the young man of the moonlight. But this time he wore a very
different expression from that of the conservatory. There was a
pleasant smile on the dark and somewhat boyish face as he
apologized for the scene among the plants. “I am sorry if it annoyed
you, but I was startled by an unexpected resemblance.”
She looked into his eyes as he spoke, and understood why the
sculptor should have been enthusiastic over such a face. It was of an
unfamiliar type, and bore a curious resemblance to those she had
attributed as a child to the heroes of her imagination. The eyes were
long, dark, and seemed capable of any quantity of expression, either
good or bad. Miss Cabot was uncertain as to whether they pleased
her. At present they looked somewhat anxiously into her own with a
touch of misgiving. Nevertheless, she felt that he was telling her only
a portion of the truth.
 “I beg your pardon, I—I was startled”
“If it is my misfortune to startle unsuspecting guests when I come
upon them without notice, it is for me to apologize. No,” then
continuing hastily, as he began a protestation: “You needn’t explain!
Do not trouble yourself to tell me that only the most disturbing types
of beauty cause you just that kind of a shock.”
“But why not, if it is the truth? Besides, as you stepped out into the
moonlight you were a blinding apparition, all in white, against the
darkness behind. I have no doubt the moon herself was a little
startled.”
“You certainly were less happy in concealing your agitation than the
—other victim.”
Although his manner was deferential and gave indications of a
positive but discreetly repressed admiration, she felt ill at ease with
him. It was impossible to forget his repulsive title, and turning partly
away she looked over the room, and answered:
“Since you are completely recovered and my apology is accepted, I
suppose there is nothing more to be done.”
As the words were uttered the opening strains of a waltz came
floating across the hall, and he begged that she give him a dance in
token of absolution. It was easier to grant it than to refuse, and in
another moment they were gliding over the floor. As they moved
away she experienced a new sensation. This partner, while adapting
himself to her own movements, carried her with a gentle force that
relieved her of all volition. While, in effect, borne up and along by the
music, she was governed by a pressure that was hardly perceptible;
yet, at a critical instant, when a reckless dancer came plunging
toward them, she felt herself swung lightly from his path, to relapse
at once into a tranquil security and float peacefully away. This
floating with the music was so easy, so very drowsy and relaxing,
that her consciousness almost drifted with the rhythm of the waltz.
Once, as her eyes were uplifted to the gorgeous frieze, the white-
winged Cupids that a moment before were lolling idly against the
blue and gold background seemed now to be keeping time with the
music, swaying and dancing in their irresponsible nakedness.
Miss Cabot was surprised when the music ceased and at once
regretted having danced such a length of time with a stranger of
unsavory reputation. As they left the ball-room and entered the
ancestral hall she was flushed and out of breath, endeavoring with
one hand to replace a lock of hair that had fallen about her neck.
“It’s a shame,” he muttered.
“What? That we danced so long?”
“Oh, no! That it should ever end!”
They looked about for a resting-place, but all were occupied. Girls in
pink, in white, in pale blue, in delicate yellow, in every color that was
becoming to their individual beauty, or to its absence, were clustered
about the great hall, filling every seat. Around them, like bees in a
flower-garden, hovered men in black.
“There is our chance,” he said, pointing to the stairs. Upon the first
landing, but three steps from the floor, there was a semicircular
recess along whose wall ran a cushioned seat. At the entrance, upon
a pedestal of Sienna marble, sat a Cupid with a finger upon his lips;
a bit of ancient sculpture from a Roman temple. Behind him, within,
an inviting gloom suggested repose and silence. As they stepped
upon the tiger-skin that nearly covered the landing, Miss Cabot was
accosted by a man whose thoughtful face brightened up at the
meeting. When he glanced at her companion there was a similar
welcome, and they called each other John and Amos, and appeared
to be on intimate terms. After a short conversation he left them and
descended into the hall. She was puzzled at the friendship of these
two men, and wondered what there could possibly be in common
between a promising clergyman of exceptional purity of character
and this dissolute, hot-headed Judd. As they seated themselves in
the alcove, she said, in a tone of surprise:
“So you and John Harding are friends!”
He smiled. “Yes; and I lament your astonishment.”
She blushed at her stupid betrayal of the thought, while he made no
effort to conceal his amusement.
“It may be an unkind thing to say of him, but we have been good
friends for several years.”
Laying her fan in her lap, she devoted both hands to the wandering
lock. “Is that what drove him to the church?”
“No. For that I am not responsible, thank Heaven!”
“Why thank Heaven? Is there any harm in being a clergyman?”
“It depends on the man. In this case it certainly seems a waste of
good material.”
Now, it happened that Molly Cabot’s religious convictions were
deeply rooted, and she felt a thrill of indignation at this slur upon a
sacred calling. Of course, it was not surprising that a spoiled youth
with a murderous temper should prove an atheist and a scoffer, but
she was irritated, and instinctively took the field as the champion of a
righteous cause.
“Then you consider it a waste of good material for an honest man to
serve the church?”
Her energy surprised him, but he answered, pleasantly: “I do not say
that. No one is too good for any honest work. I only say that a man of
John Harding’s originality and courage puts himself in a false
position by so doing.”
“I do not see how,” and her eyes were fixed upon his own in open
hostility. He still smiled serenely and met her glance with provoking
calmness.
“Well, at present he is young and full of enthusiasm, believing
everything, and more besides; but he is only twenty-seven now and
will do a heap of thinking before he is forty. The pathetic part of it is
that he binds himself to a creed, and the man who can think for
thirteen years on any subject without modifying his faith ought to be
in a museum.”
“Not if it is the true faith.”
“If it is the true faith, there is danger in thinking, as he may think
away from it; so why waste a brain like Harding’s?”
In spite of a certain deference and gentleness of tone with which he
uttered these positive sentiments there was evident enjoyment in the
shock they created. While he was speaking she noticed in the centre
of his forehead a faint scar about the size of a thimble end. It
seemed an evanescent mark, only visible when he turned his face at
certain angles with the light, and suggested the thought that if all
young men of such opinions were marked in a similar manner it
might serve as a wholesome warning to unbelievers.
She looked down at her fan a moment, then answered, very quietly:
“So all clergymen over forty are either hypocrites or fools. It must be
very satisfying to entertain a thorough contempt for so large a
profession.”
“Oh, don’t say contempt. Rather an excess of sympathy for the
unfortunate.”
At that moment Horace Bennett, in ascending the stairs, stopped for
an instant upon the landing and stood facing them. His eyes rested
upon herself and Mr. Judd, then she saw him glance at the marble
Cupid who, with his finger to his lips, seemed acting as a sentinel for
whatever lovers were within. Then he pulled the ends of his
miserable little mustache, and with a half-suppressed smile muttered
something to his companion, and they passed up the stairs. The hot
blood flew to her cheeks as she recalled what he had said earlier in
the evening of this man beside her: “We were sure to find him tucked
away on the stairs or out on the porch with a girl. So we called him
the Bellehugger of Spoonmore.”
Never in her life had she felt so degraded, so cheapened in her own
esteem. Hot, cold, with burning cheeks, and tears of mortification in
her eyes she rose from her seat, pressing a handkerchief against her
lips, and stepped swiftly out upon the landing and down into the hall.
Mr. Judd followed and inquired anxiously if she were ill; could he do
anything? His solicitude, which was genuine, caused her to realize
how extraordinary her behavior must appear to him. The close air in
the alcove, she answered coldly, must have affected her. It was only
a little dizziness.
To her great relief a young man came hurrying up, and exclaimed:
“I have been looking everywhere for you, Miss Cabot! The cotillion is
on!”
A formal nod to Mr. Judd, and she moved away with an unuttered
prayer that their paths in future might be far apart. Her wish was
granted, at least for that night, for she saw him no more at the Van
Koovers’.
When she reached home and entered her own chamber, the
moonlight was streaming into the room, and before turning up the
lights she had the curiosity to stand near the window with a hand-
glass and study her own reflection. Only the usual face was there,
and as usual, the nose was too short, the chin too long, and all the
other defects were present; but even in the moonlight they seemed
hardly sufficient to frighten a strong young man.
 III
A FIRST interview with the Hon. J. W. Cabot, senior member of the
firm of Cabot, Hollingsworth & Perry, generally resulted in a belief
that this distinguished lawyer was a severe, unsympathetic man
whose dignity, under ordinary pressure, was not likely to abate. An
abundant crop of short gray hair covered a square, well-shaped
head; a head that seemed hard and strong. His forehead, his jaw,
and his shoulders were also square, and they also seemed hard and
strong.
His manner was cold, his voice firm and even, and he was never
ruffled. The cool gray eyes rested calmly upon you as if screening,
out of consideration for your own fallacious knowledge, the
profundity of wisdom that reposed behind them. His memory seemed
infallible. The extent and accuracy of his legal knowledge was a
perpetual surprise, even to his partners. For simplifying complex
entanglements his clearness and rapidity amounted to a genius. His
fees were colossal. In short, he seemed just the man who would
never write such a note as this:
TOWHEAD:
I Shall bring an old friend to dinner to-night.
Don’t give us rubber olives or shad of last year’s vintage.
He is not a bric-à-brac shop.
Jimsey.
This document was sent to his daughter, who since her mother’s
death, three years ago, had managed the household. When a child
of five she overheard a friend address him frequently as Jim,
whereupon she adjusted a final syllable to render it less formal, and
ever after continued to use it.
It was an afternoon in March that this note arrived, nearly four
months after the ball at the Van Koovers’, and when, an hour or two
later, her father presented his old friend, Mr. Samuel Fettiplace, she
was struck by his enormous frame and by the extraordinary color of
his face. This color, a blazing, resplendent red, not only occupied his
nose and cheeks, but extended, in quieter tones, over his forehead
and neck, even to the bald spot upon the top of his head. It had
every appearance of being that expensive decoration that can only
be procured by a prolonged and conscientious indulgence in the
choicest Burgundies.
His large, round, light-blue eyes were all the bluer from their crimson
setting. A more honest pair she had never seen. These, with his
silver hair and benevolent forehead, gave the impression of a
pleasantly intemperate bishop. Molly Cabot well knew that her father,
and especially her mother, could never have achieved a warm and
lasting friendship for one whose habits were honestly represented by
such compromising colors.
With old-fashioned courtesy he gave her his arm into the dining-
room, and as they seated themselves at table he said: “You look like
your mother, Miss Molly, and I am glad of it; the same forehead and
eyes, and the same kind expression. I was afraid when I saw you
last you were going to look like your father. He isn’t so bad looking,
considering the life he has led, but it would be a calamitous thing for
a well-meaning girl to resemble any lawyer.”
She laughed: “But papa is not as bad as he looks, you know.”
“Yes, he is; I have known him longer than you have. But there seem
to be honors in dishonor. During these years that I have been trotting
about the globe he has been climbing higher and higher, until now
his legs are dangling from the topmost round. Why, I understand that
none but the solidest billionaires and the fattest monopolies presume
to retain him.”
“I am afraid someone took you for a hay-seed, Sam, and has been
stuffing you.”