Experiential Education and

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Experiential Education
and Adolescents’ Personal
and Spiritual Development
Chung Kwan Ackie Cheung

Experiential Education
and Adolescents’
Personal and Spiritual
Development
A Mixed-Method Study
in the Secondary School Context
of Hong Kong

Foreword by Prof. Dr. Alan Ewert

and Prof. Dr. Annette Scheunpflug

RESEARCH
Chung Kwan Ackie Cheung
Hong Kong

Dissertation Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 2011

ISBN 978-3-531-18575-0 ISBN 978-3-531-19120-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-531-19120-1

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;

detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

Springer VS
© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2013
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Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or schol-
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www.springer-vs.de
To Hon Fai Solomon
Table of contents

Foreword by Prof. Dr. Alan Ewert ..................................................................... II

by Prof. Dr. Annette Scheunpflug ..................................................... 13

Preface ................................................................................................................ 15

List of tables and figures .................................................................................... 17

List of abbreviations .......................................................................................... 18

I Introduction .................................................................................................... 19
1.1 hnport of experiential education ............................................................ 20
1.1.1 Experiential education in Hong Kong ........................................... 20
1.1.2 Promotion of1he use ofexperiential educabonIadventure-based prnctice .. 21
1.2 Personal development as human function of coping and living ............. 23
1.3 Experiential education and personal development ............................... 26
1.4 Purpose and design of the study ............................................................. 29
1.4.1 Key concerns of investigation: Self-concept, self-efficacy,
learning climate and spiritual dimension....................................... 29
1.4.2 Research question and purpose of the study .................................. 30
1.4.3 Design of the study ........................................................................ 31
Summary .............................................................................................................34

2 Literature review and clarification of research question ................................ 35

2.1 Experiential education: Explication of the concept ................................ 35
2.2 Experientia1 edllCaticm and adventure-based practice: Conceptua1 framewrnk .... 39
2.2.1 Leamer-centered orientation......................................................... .40
2.2.2 Construction ofiearning environmenticondition.......................... .41
2.3 Review on the effects of adventure-based practice ................................ 54
2.3.1 Benefits of adventure-based practice ............................................. 54
2.3.2 Empirical results from related literatures ...................................... 54
2.3.3 Research focus of adventure-based programs in this study ........... 56

7
 2.4 Clarification of research question ........................................................... 57
2.4.1 Peripheral layer .............................................................................. 58
2.4.2 Central layer .................................................................................. 59
2.4.3 Contextuallayer............................................................................. 67
2.4.4 Restating the purpose of this study in brief... ................................ 68
Summary ............................................................................................................. 69

3 Methodology and methods of data collection ................................................ 70

3.1 Case study design ................................................................................... 70
3.1.1 Methodological decision ............................................................... 71
3.1.2 Limitation of using case study ....................................................... 72
3.1.3 Researcher's role .......................................................................... 73
3.2 Data collection methods ......................................................................... 74
3.2.1 Internet website analysis ................................................................ 75
3.2.2 Institute profile ............................................................................... 76
3.2.3 Interview to teachers and practitioners .......................................... 77
3.2.4 Episodic interview tu adolescent participants ............................... 80
3.2.5 Observation.................................................................................... 81
3.2.6 Quantitative survey ........................................................................ 82
Summary ............................................................................................................. 90

4 Findings: Case record in layers ...................................................................... 91

4.1 l'erijn:ral \ayIr. CiIrums1antia1 infunnalion of1be advezJture.base progmms ...... 91
4.1.1 Expectation of adventure-based programs .................................... 91
4.2 Cenlrallayer: Learning process aod product of adventure-based programs. ..... 93
4.2.1 Learning product in questionnaire ................................................. 94
4.2.2 Learning process in episodic interview ....................................... 112
4.2.3 Learning process in observation .................................................. 119
4.3 Contextual layer: Hong Kong school context ...................................... 121
4.3.1 The historical development of experiential education in Hong Kong .... 121
4.3.2 understanding of1he tenns "experieIltial education" aod "spirituality" ... 126
4.3.3 The reception of experiential/adventure-based elements in
Hong Kong secondary schools .................................................... 129
Summary ........................................................................................................... 132

8
5 Discussion and conclusion ........................................................................... 133
5.1 hlttiptdalimm firKIing; of=tra1 \ay<r. Learning ina<Mntum-based progra!ll'!••• 133
5.1.1 Perceived self-concept and perceived self-efficacy ..................... 135
5.1.2 Participants' perceived learning climate ...................................... 140
5.1.3 Participants' perceived spiritual dimension ................................. 143
5.1.4 (In)Complete adven1lJre.based program learning process as a whole ... 146
5.2 Interpretation on findings of contextual layer: Adventure-based
practice in the secondary school context of Hong Kong ...................... 147
5.2.1 ~pracliceas~ 00"",';00 in Hong Kong am1i:xt. .. 147
5.2.2 Popularized adventure-based practice from elite/middle-class
students to stodents of the general public .................................... 149
5.2.3 Adventure-based practice in adapted program format with
differentiated goals in school context of Hong Kong .................. 151
5.3 Intrapersonal and interpersonal development against a global
context as functions of adventure-based practice/programs ................. 154
5.3.1 Adventure-based practice as enhancement of personal
development: Spiritual being, individual being and
holistic being ............................................................................... 159
5.3.2 Prescriptive use ofexperieolial education embedded in school context .... 175
5.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 176
5.4.1 The study in summary ................................................................. 176
5.4.2 Limitations of the current study .................................................. 177
5.4.3 Conclusion in brief ...................................................................... 178
5.5 hnplication ............................................................................................ 178
5.5.1 Recommendation for adventure-based/school practice .............. 178
5.5.2 Recommendation for theory reflection ........................................ 183
5.5.3 Recommendation for further research ......................................... 186
Closing words ................................................................................................... 189

References ......................................................................................................... 190

Appendices ........................................................................................................ 205

Appendix A: Website, institute profile, expert interview,
semi-structured interview, episodic interview
and observation guiding questions .......................................... 205
Appendix B: Table of construct information of quantitative survey ............ 206

9
Foreword by Prof. Dr. Alan Ewert

"/ regard it as the foremost task of education to insure the survival of these
qualities: an enterprising curiosity; an undefeatable spirit; tenacity in pursuit;
readiness for sensible self-denial; and above all, compassion." Kurt Hahn

WhenKurtHahn made this statement in the early 1900's, he was not just suggesting
this for students in the United Kingdom or Westem Europe, but, by implication,
all students, everywhere. For, is it possible, that any society across the globe, will
long flourish without the above qualities being instilled in its young people? And
hence a fundamental question emerges for school systems and individual teachers
alike, how can meaningful learning experiences be created for students that
address all the pedagogical domains of the physical, emotional, intellectual, and
psychological? Moreover, how can school systems move from an overemphasis
on producing students who are only really successful at passing tests and instead
contribute to the development of well-rounded citizens willing to show leadership
and the qualities articulated by Kurt Hahn?
Like everywhere, secondary schools in Hong Kong are also faced with these
very issues, namely, how to develop an educational system that teaches to the
''whole student" rather than simply focusing on the recital of facts and figores,
numbers and data, all of which are important but often seem strangely divorced
from the rest of their life. In a sense, passing tests and getting good grades often
fall into the "necessary but insufficient" conundrum. Fink (2003) makes two
points that have a connection to the issue of effective learning. First, he suggests
that high quality learning is absolutely essential to high quality living, and in this
case, the learning comes first, rather than the other way around. Second, effective
educational programs are becoming more important in various societies because
the issues that student face are necessitating new perspectives, knowledge, and
skills.

And this is where the concept of "experiential education" comes into play. In her
study, Dr. Cheung describes the spread of experiential education as a complement
to the more traditioual curriculum structure within the Hong Kong secondary
school system. In addition, she provides a more specific context of experiential

11
education, namely, that of adventure-based programs, by postulating that these
types of activities and experiences can add a much needed dimension to the school
curriculum. The hope and, indeed, expectation, of incorporating experiential and
adventure-based programs into educational learning environments lies in their
ability to positively influence both the spiritual and personal development of
the adolescent population. Dr. Cheung has attempted to discover if this is being
accomplished in the secondary school systeru of Hong Kong and if it is even
possible to integrate individual characteristics such as self-concept and spiritual
growth while nested in a highly collective culture and society.

Using a case study design, Dr. Cheung uses six data collection methods to
triangulate on the question of how effective experiential education is in the Hong
Kong school systeru. In addition, using different contextual and conceptual layers
of data provided an insightful aspect of the data analysis. Findings from this
study suggest that the use of experiential and adventure-based learning activities
presented a positive and beneficial enhancement to the school curriculum. Thus,
whether in theory or in praxis, the use of experiential education can and does
make a difference in the personal growth and development of the individual-a
necessary ingredient if societies are to achieve the full potential oftheir population.
Perhaps Kurt Hahn captured the essence of the porpose of Dr. Cheung's study, in
his stateruent, "We are all better than we know; if only we can be brought to
realize this, we may never be prepared to settle for anything less."

Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating Significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to designing

college courses. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Prof. Dr. Alan Ewert

Professor and Patricia and Joel Meier Endowed Chair in Outdoor Leadership
Indiana University, the U.S.

12
Foreword by Prof. Dr. Annette Scheunpflug

Experiential education is currently going through a renaissance in multiple

dimensions. The idea of experiential education has been captured in
numerous conceptualizations since the progressive education movement
("Reformpiidagogik") at the beginning of the twentieth centuIy, for example, the
educational model of Kurt Hahn, who had probably become one of the founding
and internationally best-known protagonists of experiential education (in Hahn's
tenn "Erlebnistherapie"), or some developments of the Youth movement such
as the boys and girls scouts or the "Friends of Natore" ("die Naturfreunde").
These first approaches of experiential education turned out to be universalized
and globalized. It's universalized, as it has no longer just been understood as
a counter-movement against the schools, but has multifariously found itself an
entrance to the school curriculum and got further developed from some self-
organized young people groups to different forms of certified and commercial
youth development programs. It's also globalized, spreading out from the central
Europe to the entire globe.

Experiential educational programs, in the last ten years, have been back intensively
in vogue, which probably would have never been imagined by the protagonists of
the reform pedagogy about one hundred years ago. The possibilities of achieving
self-awareness, personal development, group experiences, experiences of the
natore and spiritnal experiences have obviously been perceived as a special
attractive offer, dealing with rapid social change. Whether such offer meets the
expectations, however, often remains unclear.

Therefore, Chung K wan Ackie Cheung has made a substantial contribution

in giving a review of the impact of experiential education on the personal and
spiritual development of students. The work marks a milestune in the experiential
education debate in many ways:
• The study has included the examination on the experiential educational
programs of Hong Kong, one of the regions with the highest growth rates of
experiential educational offers in schools, and it has been one of the earliest
empirical works in the field of experiential education in the Asian region.

13
• This work is one of the fewest studies worldwide that has analyzed the
effects of experiential programs on personal development at two-time-points in a
pre-post design, and thus, it was able to ascertain the effects.
• The author has taken a thorough holistic approach in attending the concept of
personal development, whereby spiritual dimension has been explicitly taken into
account. This is noteworthy, since this dimension is undoubtedly underdeveloped
in the public consideration of experiential educational activities overall at present.

This stody will become a core text not only for further studies on experiential
education, but also for those that relate to spiritual education in Asia and all over
the world.

Prof. Dr. Annette Scheunpflug

Professor for Foundations in Education /Allgemeine Piidagogik at Friedrich-
Alexander-Universitiit Erlangen-Niirnberg, Germany

14
Preface

"Plus est en vow!'

There are many 1hings working together to make it happen that someone may be on
the way to beiog- and becomiog-<meyself. I am very grateful that many thiogs have
worlred out so that I have been granted for this wooderful opportunity to taking a
dissertation-writingjoumey!

This book is a revised version of my PhD dissertation accepted by the Friedrich-

Alexander-Universitiit Erlangen-Niimberg, Germany in summer 2011 under the
title: The impact of experiential education on the personal and spiritual development
of students in Hong Kong: A mixed method empirical study in the secondary school
context It seeks to find out some "whats" and "whys" concerning experiential
education/adventure-based practice in Hong Kong.
Adventure-based programs have been extensively taken into the
secondary school context in Hong Kong to, apparently, enhance the personal
development of the adolescents in Hong Kong since the 90s. These programs
have been expected to respond to some problems of the Hong Kong adolescents,
e.g. their lacking of self-caring capability, emotional intelligence and resilienee.
Seeing the frequent use of the programs, thus, it is the intention of this stody
to be the first empirical research to establish a current phenomenal picture of
adventure-based programs in the secondary school context of Hong Kong. It
has hypothesized that participants, by taking part in the programs, will acquire
a stronger belief in their self-concept, self-efficacy. Also, they will have an
improved view in the learning climate and participants will reflect deeper upon
their life issue, which is regarded as the spiritusl dimension. Secondly, based on
the phenomenal picture, the paper attempts to give some explanations for the
massive use of experiential education/adventure-based practice in connection
with the rapidly changing global context of Hong Kong, particularly, with regard
to the spiritual dimension and concept of individuality.
Attempting to be the first phenomenal picture in this regard, it does not
mean to provide a perfect complete picture of experiential education/adventure-
based practice, rather, it is expected to raise the awareness of the use and some
underlying beliefs of them. It hopes to serve as a solid ground for deeper reflection

15
on theory building, on better practice of adventure-based programs, and on theme
discussion of further researches in both the Chinese and the non-Chinese/global
contexts.
Due to space constrain, the book is a shortened version of the 41 O-page-
thesis. In particular, some data collection methods and the corresponding findings
have been reluctantly omitted. Nevertheless, details of the shortened part can
always be referred to in the original dissertation.

Having accomplished writing the dissertation, first and foremost, I'd like to
express my sincere gratitude to Ms. Prof. Dr. Annette Scheunpfiug, my priucipal
supervisor, for her continuous support and guidance throughout the PhD process,
and not least, also for encouraging me to take part in the ECER (Finland) and
AEE (USA) conferences to give presentations of my studying topics. I wish to
thank my second supervisor, Mr. Prof. Dr. Thomas Eberle, for reviewing my final
work. My thanks also go to my examiner, Mr. Prof. Dr. Manfred Pimer.
I am grateful to Evangelischer EntwickJungsdienst e.V. (EED) for
granting me a scholarship and the colleagues of the scholarship desk for
supporting me to complete this doctoral study. Also, the cheering atmosphere at
the university department, at Rieneck and in ZILL encouraged me to persist till
the end. The intercultural exchange was something more than what I can learn
only from reading. A sincere thank-you is credited to Rev. L. Y. Lee of Livingstone
Lutheran Church (HKMLC) for his support. Moreover, I own debts of gratitude to
many, but especially to Dr. K.-H. Miihlhaus, Mr. Y.P. Lee, Ms. K.M. Ng and Mr.
Y.K. Lam, who generously gave me their support in cross-checking data, proof-
reading and editing my work.

Duriug this study I have been away from my homeland, working on the dissertation
alone in Germany. I wish to extend my warmest appreciation to my family
and friends for their ceaseless love. In particnlar, I want to thank my husband,
Solomon, for all his "absent" companionship that he has given me duriug the
years in which I have been working on this thesis, especially that he has become
my long-distance interlocutor in front of his computer to discuss, to think-with
and to talk with me about the topics of my stody.

For every blessing, great or small, my Lord, to you I give thanks for all!

Hong Kong, Easter Sunday, 2012 Chung-KwanAckie Cheung

16
List of Tables and Figures

Tables

Tab. 4.1: Sample distribution according to sex ................................................ 95

Tab. 4.2: Sample distribution according to age ................................................ 96
Tab. 4.3: Sample distribution according to education level ............................. 96
Tab. 4.4: Sample distribution according to school banding ............................. 97
Tab. 4.5: Participants' report of perceived connection to a specific religion ... 99
Tab. 4.6: Mean pre!post values, effect size and power of perceived self-concept .. 103
Tab. 4.7: Mean preIpost values, effect size and power of perceived self-efficacy .. 104
Tab. 4.8: Mean pre/post values, effect size and power of participants' view
to learning climate ........................................................................... 105
Tab. 4.9: Mean prelpost values, effect size and power of participants' view
to spiritual dimension with regard to the aspect of spiritual
dimension in loose connection to religiosity ................................... 106
Tab.4.10: Mean prelpost values, effect size and power of participants' view
to spiritual dimension with regard to the aspect of spiritual
dimension in close connection to religiosity ................................... 108
Tab. 4.11: The ranking of the most often carried-out reJigious/spirituai practices ... 110
Tab. 4.12: The ranking of factors that was considered to have most enhanced
spiritual development ...................................................................... 111
Tab. 4.13: Schools that used experientialladventure-based elements ............... 131
Tab. 5.1: Effect size and power of variables in areas of perceived
self-concept and perceived self-efficacy, participants' response
to learning climate and to spiritual dimension in descending order
of effect size ..................................................................................... 134

Figures

Figure 1: Case study presemed in cen1ral1ayer, peripheral layer and contexlual.layer ... 31
Figure 2: Facet questions in connection to the contextual layer, the peripheral
layer and the central layer.................................................................. 58
Figure 3: Method of data collection corresponding to central layer, peripheral
layer and contextual layer .................................................................. 74
Figure 4: Comparison of mean value of personal development variables ...... 102

17
 List of abbreviations
A-B-C of adventure Affection-Bahavior- IAA The Duke of Edinburgh's
Cognition of adventure Awud International
ABP adventure-bued program! Association
pnotice ill Internationa1 Baccolaureate
"ABC" nwdel Ad"""n=-based JCo!ps Juni"" Leader Co!ps
counseling nwdel LPCUWCHK Li Po Chun United World
ABE The Association of College of Hong Kong
Experiential Eduoation NGO(s) Non-government
AYP HOII8 Kong Awud for organization(,)
Youth People OBlOBHK Outward BouruII Outwud
BOCA Boy,' and Girls' Clubs Bound Hang Kong
Association of Hong Kong P.A.T.H.S Positive Adolescent
CDC Curricu1um Development Training through Holistic
Council Socia! Programmes
DSS Di=t-scl>eme ~ PI Advooturo-bascd JlI08l1mII
ECER The European Conference P2 Adventun>based JlI08l1mI2
on Educational Research P3 Adveolure-based prognun 3
EI Adventure-bued program PDt Power-Distance Index
expert 1 PISA Prognunme for
E2 A~program In_nat Student
expert 2 Assessment
E3 Adventure-bued program OECD The Organisation for
expert 3 Economic Co-operation
EDB HOII8 Kong Education and Development
Buroau RHKRV The Royal Hong Kong
BE Experiential edllCation Regiment (The Volunteers)
ESF English Schools S.5 Secondary 5 = F.5
Foundation (private SI21 Script 121
schooling) Script Info The ooding of script
F.I Form I - S.I information
F.3 Form3 = S.3 SPSS Statistical Package for the
F.4 Form4= S.4 Social Sciences
F.5 Form5 - S.S SWD Socia! Welf... Department
F.7 Fonn 7=S.7 TI First Tier
IlKAC HOII8 Kong Adven_ T2 Scc:oad ncr
Corp, WHO World Health Otganizatioo
HKCEE Hong Kong Certificate of YWCA Hong Kong Young
Education Examination Women's Christian
IIKIAC HOII8 Kong Insti1ute of Association
Adventure Counseling ZILL Zentnilinatitut fUr Lehr-
IIKJC HOII8 Kong Jockey Club Lcroforschung/Ccntral
HKU University of Hong Kong Institute for Teaching-ond-
Holy Carpenter (S.K.H) Holy Carpenter Learning Research
Chun:h Community Ccrrtre
II Institute I
12 Institute 2
13 Institute 3

18
1 Introduction

Since the end of the 1990slthe beginning of the 2000s, it appears that adventure-
based programs have been increasingly connected to the secondary school
context in Hong Kong. One can see that when walking around the secondary
schools in Hong Kong and making little inspection, people can find rock
climbing walls and highllow-beams are set on some of the external walls of
the mainstream school buildings and in their sport grounds. These are usually
some facilities of adventure-based tasks/activities. The other evidence is that it
is easy to see that there are often banners (e.g. of size 4 m x 6 m) that surround
the school buildings, on which one can see photos describing that students
were backpacking and hiking, rafting, etc., and one can see the words such as
"adventure-based program" ~~), "life-wide learning" (~::I:Jfl'l~~), "all-
round development" (~.A.fflG,5t). Does it seem like that adventore-based tasks!
activities are in frequent use and there is a connection between adventure-based
programs to learning and personal development?

By using a case study methodology, this research will establish a phenomenal

picture of adventore-based program in the secondary school context of Hong
Kong. Such phenomenon will include the extent of the use of experiential
education in the Hong Kong secondary school context. It will also show the
impact of adventore-based programs on the development of late adolescents,
with regard especially to their perceived self-concept, self-efficacy, and their
views in learuing climate and in spiritual dimension. Based on the descriptive
phenomenon, the study finally makes an attempt to explain the widespread use of
adventore-based programs in the secondary school context of Hong Kong.

This introduction chapter will introduce the focus of this research. A clear purpose
and design can be found in section 1.4. Nevertheless, the intention of this chapter
is not to explain immediately every concept in detail, but to elicit the relation of
the research focus to the Hong Kong context (section l.l and 1.2). In fact, what
has experiential education/adventure-based practice to do with the adolescents of
Hong Kong at school (section 1.3)?

19
C. K. A. Cheung, Experiential Education and Adolescents’ Personal and Spiritual Development,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-531-19120-1_1, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2013
1.1 Import of experientioi education

1.1.1 Experiential education in Hong Kong

Hong Kong is regarded to be an international city and a melting pot of different

cultures (cf. Chan, 2004; Law, 2004; Luk-Fong & Brennan, 2004). This can be
reflected in many aspects of Hong Kong daily issues. One aspect that people
can notice is the educational school context of Hong Kong, as there are some
observable changes taking place. One observable change in the secondary school
context that has taken place is that since the 2000s, experiential education bas
appeared to be often employed in the secondary school context of Hong Kong.

A few Hong Kong writings in the field of experiential education/adventure-based

practice have traced its root back to a Jewish German educator, Kurt Hsbn (1886-
1974). As Hong Kong was once a British colony, experiential education in form
of adventurous expeditions was brought from the British into Hong Kong through
the Outward Bound (OBHK) 1 since 1970s. This reflects that there is a link on
the matter concerning experiential education between the local and the global
context.

What is experiential education? Admittedly, experiential education can hardly

find its all-agreeable definition (cf. Ewert, 1989; Itin, 2003; Luckoer & Nadler,
1997, etc.) In fact, the comprehension of the term "experience" alone already
creates problems. In some Western languages, for example, both German words
"Erlebnis" and "Erfahrung" are usually translated into "experience" in English
(Langenscheldt Handworterbuch Englisch, 2004), but the two German words
actoaIly takes different meanings in the usage of the German-speaking world.
"Erlebnis" refers to an incident which is ''beeindruckend'' (Duden
Deutsches Universalworterbuch, 200 I) and "aufregend" and "etwas gewoll!,
aber nicht planbares" (Reiners, 1995, p.14). In other words, "Erlebnis", in the
German-speaking world, is an experience, which refers to an impressive, exciting
and not fully plan-ahead incident. "Erlebnis" is a subjective inward-going
happening that composes of an individual physical and/or emotional involvement
(cf. Ziegenspeck, 1990)'. The German word "Erlebnis" will sometimes be

See http://www.outwardbound.org.hklabout.html. last retrieved 12.06.2011.

2 "Erleben ist das subjeJrtive Innewerden von Vorgigen, die a1s bedeutsam empfunden werden.
(Ziogonspock, 1990, p.81)"

20
understood as an adventure (Duden Deutsches Universalworlerbuch, 200 I),
and it may also be explicated to have further meaning in different contexts (see
Schenz, 2007). Thus, instead of "Erlebnispiidagogik", "AbenteueIpiidagogik"
is used (e.g. Senninger, 2000). An adventure is also an incident that is as
exciting and impressive as "Erlebnis". Moreover, an adventurous incident is
often an extraordinary, unpredictable and risky happening (Duden Deutsches
Universalworlerbuch, 200 I), which implies possible occurrence of danger that
may/can result in serious physical and emotional injury (cf. Ziegenspeck 1990,
p.81). In the German-speaking room, "gewonnene Kenntnis bei praktischer
Arbeit oder durch Wiederholen einer Sache" is the explanation of "Erfahrung"
(Duden Deutsches Universalworterbuch, 2001), which has similar meaning in
the English-speaking world. Experience, the German translation of"Erfahrung",
refers to ''the knowledge or skill that you have gained through doing something
s
for a period of time." (Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary, 2000). Experience
can be considered as the sum of knowledge and skills gained from ordinary
incidents as well as knowledge and skills gained from one piece of extraordinary
"Erlebnis".
The Chinese understanding of "~lii&" and "mlii&" can be translated into
the English word "experience", which is actually more similar to the German word
"Erfahrung" than "Erlebnis". The Chinese understanding of experience denotes
first-hand knowledge and skills that have been acquired in practical settings after
a long period of learning.

Even the word "experience", with which experiential education is talking about can
be (slightly) differently understood in different languages/cultural backgrounds
(see chapter 2 for a lucid account for the understanding of experiential education
and its framework), it takes time to differientiate these concepts. Then, why does
it seem like experiential education, especially adventure-based practice, is finding
its way to adolescents in the school context of Hong Kong?

1.1.2 Promotion ofthe use of experiential education/adventure-hased practice

Starting from 2000s, noticeably the Education Bureau of Hong Kong (EOB) has
begun to adopt using adventure-based programs in the secondary school context.
The Reform Proposal of the EDB states that the enhancement of an all-round
development of adolescent in the mainstream school education is important
(Reform Proposal, EOB, 2000; Progress Report, Education Commission (EOB),
2006). It looks possible that adventure-based programs have been taken as one of

21
the preventive and/or remedial measures for promoting the personal development
of students, particularly the development of their non-academic aspects, such as
promoting their self-concept, enhancing their self-caring-ability, promoting their
emotional stability, and strengthening their sense of resilience, etc. (cf. JiliIj)§!i1J!,
2010; JliI!;jjJiff, 2010). Particularly, when the general public has been complaining
about the poorly developed personal quality of Hong Kong adolescents except
that they orient strongly to economic striving (Chan, 2004; Law, 2004a; Law,
2004b; JjSI!I:E!E, 2011).' What is certain is that Hong Kong students have been
well-known to be examination-oriented and grade-achieving (cf. PISA 2006
results;' Progress Report, Education Commission (EDB), 2006, p.39), but
their non-academic development, for example, their ability of understanding
themselves and seeking personal goals, making way out of some confusing values
and ambivalent views with regard to crime, sex,' and even the meaning of life'
are in great worry (Cheung, 2006; Koo, Kam & Choi, 2003; Youth Research
Centre, 20IOa). They have been described as generation of the materially rich
but heartfully empty. Many teenagers have outwardly mature appearance but
are inwardly naive (jilj)§!i1J!, 2010; JliI!;jjJiff, 20\0). Teenagers in Hong Kong are
containers of different kinds of knowledge, but many of them have emotional and
spiritual problems, some have inadequate sense of social/global right and duty,
some lack discerning ability to drug, sex/relational and other delinquent issues
as well as lack the identification with a persoual reason for an individual life
orientation (Sun & Shek, 2010; Dimmock, 1998; il'1i~q~, 2005; §;k.!i1J!,2007a;
JliI!;jjJiff, 20 I 0).
What is more, there are studies, reporting that some teenagers are often
feeling confused, self-doubt and even feeling suicidal predominantly because of
study pressure at schools. 7 In fact, it is observed that the age group from IS
to 24 has the highest rate of attempted suicide in Hong Kong. Also, people in
this late adolescence group, who have the idea of attempting suicide, usually

3 See http://www.takungpao.comJbis1ory/carW0n!2011'{)S-281823867.hJml, last retrieved 12.06.20 I\.

4 See ht1p:/Iwww.oocd.org!documcnt210,3343,cn_32252351_32236191_39718850_1_1_1_I,OO.
hlml, OECD PISA 2006 results,last retrieved 15.06.2011.
5 See lO..!I; BfIi! . 28.04.2009· (lGt:jjlGj!f&~i!lUD) • [Over 70% Adolescents speak
foullangnage]. The newspaper Sing Tao Daily reported the study conducted by the Hong Kong
Federation of Youth Groups (1!i'i!<j!f~1!(b~)(Mar to Apr, 2009).
6 See xll!ifli!' 20.04.2009· (~'I'1!t"l'~E:iJ*fIi!lI'In"il!"lB r1l"UJ ~)
o [Over 50010 F5 students take "eam-money" courses]. The newspaper Wen Wei Po reported the

study conducted by Hong Kong Federation of Youth Groups (Feb to Apr, 2009).
7 See http://www.am730.comhk/textlarticle.php?article=55817.1astretrieved 12.06.2011.

22
display a negative life orientation. 8 This age group has a higher probability than
other age groups to show multiple personal problems, including financial, mental
health, relationship, study problem and family issues (Lee, Wong, Chow, &
McBride-Chang, 2006; Yip & Law, 2008).' In essence, adolescents are generally
found unable to acquire an autunomous, independent and self-assured self-
understanding, just like a gigantic liner is traveling without a rudder.

Whether or not these problems of some nowadays' teenagers of Hong Kong are to
be dealt with through the use of experiential education/adventure-based practice
is already a question; least tu say whether these programs have a real impact on
its participants and observably, this has not been investigated in Hong Kong. If,
the use of experiential education/adventure-based practice would be connected tu
the promotion of the personal development of the Hong Kong adolescents, what
function has it fulfilled in the school context of Hong Kong?

1.2 Personal development as human function of copIng and livIng

Theoretically speaking, human beings are development agents. Developmental

signs are particularly obvious to be noticed from infants to adolescents. BiologicaV
Physical changes are dominant at the early stages of human development.
Quantitative changes, e.g. height and weight, reach its stability at its peak of
adolescent growth spurt. Parallel with this growth bloom, there emerge the emotional
development and social development. Adolescents evolve from identit'ying with
peer group at the junior adolescent stage to searching for self identification at the
late adolescent stage (Smetana, Campione-Barr, & Metzger, 2006; Steinberg &
Morris, 200 I). In a systematic way human beings have the potential to engage in
successive changes across time and events (Bomstein & Lamb, 2005).

8 There were two cases of Hong Kong teenage students committing suicide which happened in
January 2009 (04.01.2009 & 06.01.09). The second one took place less than 48 hours after the
first one had taken place, both were due to stress of study and examination. These two suicide
cases were striking to Hong Kong (cf. 1JIl¥ll • 09.01.2009· (-mtf;.=':.=':I1!I!I!!E r !3cffl*1lll
$:I!..l:M J i'.&:i<llMltt:3 BlW*) • [Two Students committed suicide within 3 days]
in Ming Pao Daily News. Another report of a research conducted in Oct, 2008 by Hong Kong
Federation of Education Workers (fiIl1t) showed that 46.5% of 617 primary and secondary
school teacher interviewees had problems of sleeplessness because of teaching stress; and ca.
4% had thought about committing suicide (sooxlll!l¥ll • 08.01.2009· (f.I1fl1iE:iJ:k 4%ltilii
96~) 0 [Suicidica1 teachers under great pressure] in Wen Wei Po.
9 See hlqJ11hk.nows.yshoo.c0m/25~441i111-~~223000239.h1ml, IastIOtriovod 12.062011

23
 In earlier times, there were debates that adolescent development could
have been predominately determined either by the nature, for example, in terms
of genetic determination and heredity, or the nurture, for instance, education
and socialization. The Chinese sayings, "~:7C" (author's translation: The
nurture can win over what the nature has given) and "::='jJ!i5i::J\ +" (author's
translation: what constitutes the three-year-old has determined the eighty-year-
old) also display the nature-nurture controversy. The contemporary developmental
scientists, however, agree to the mutually influential relation between the natural
and nurturing conditions which interact to foster the systematic formation
of human beings across the life span (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger,
1998; Elder, 1998; Lemer & Steinberg, 2009). In order to respond flexibly to
environmental stimulation, people should better be empowered to flexible
mobility/self-movement and self-regulation for the sake of maintenance, survival
and reproduction of life, human beings develop co-evolutionarily with their
context across the life span (Lemer & Steinberg, 2009).
A human being is, on the one hand, a product, and an active producer of
his or her ontogeny, on the other. Dynamic collabomtions between the action of
a human being and the feedback of the context, which allow a continual coping
mechanism, are believed to make life possible. According to Brandstaedter (2006),
the reciprocal process of "action-feedback-self-organization-further-action"
brings forth human development (Brandtstiidter, 2006). A personal development,
in other words, is an outcome of the process in which a self reflects on one's
interaction to understand the present status and hislher behavior towards the
context in which (s)he is in, and wholhow (s)he would like to be in the coming time
for the sake of a good coping with the circumstances. Sometimes, the striving for
development can be intentional. But sometimes, self development, "as the result
of person-environment transaction," can be a functional mther than an intentional
one (Brandtstiidter, 2006, 826). A personal development does not take place only
once and then cease, Elder (1998) further stated a human development takes place
continuously in network of shared relation with changing times and places. An
individual, embedded and shaped by historical times, constructs continuously also
his or her own development through making choices and taking actions within the
constraints and opportunities of history and social circumstances (Elder, 1998).
Development is necessary and functional for human beings. Many educators
have always paid attention in exploring factors/conditions, which may enhance,
or otherwise hinder, the development of individuals.

Looking back historically, one of the founders of the modem experiential

education schools and institutions, Kurt Hahn (1886-1974) has used experiential

24
education to inspire his students to realize their full potential, because he believed
in the Greek poet Pindar's saying: ''There is more in you than you think" (Cheung,
2007, p.3)! Hahn believed that the younger generation does not become indolent
according to fate. Young people actually ''have the joy of movement [and] an
enterprising curiosity. They are ready for sensible self-denial. They dream ahead.
They have a faithful memory, and, above all, great compassion".10 Hahn believed
that it is a matter of whether adults can bring them into a fitting environment
or refreshing experience, in which young people may discover that ''they are
more than they can think of' - ''plus est en vous" (Cheung, 2007, p.14) ." Hahn
perceives that there is an intrinsic need for the young people to develop their full
potential. According to the teenager's potential, Hahn arranged special learning
environment for them (Beard & Wilson, 2006; Eberle, 2010b; Kolb & Kolb,
2009; *tfI~ & ¥)Jj(_, 2002, etc.).

This may be understood from the psychological perspective, whereby individuals

have the need to earn their self-esteem and eventually attaining self-fulfillment
(Maslow, 1987). To explain in terms of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, one can
see that young people, given that they have their lower needs gradually fulfilled,
begin to strive for higher needs, needs for self-esteem and self-worth, needs of
understanding and knowing, and even the need to grow towards self-actualization
(Maslow, 1999), the desire to become everything that one is capable of being!
becoming. Self-actualization is characterized by acceptance of self and others,
openness, relatively deep but democratic relationships with others, creativity, and
independence (Maslow, 1987). Having the need to search for self, adolescents,
in comparison to children, are more motivated and more self-directed to explore
new experience and new learning. Also, they orient themselves not only to
pure knowledge, but also to life situations like dating or more freedom to make
independent choices on moral issues. Eventually, adolescents are likely to desire
to create meaning out of experiences and to realize one's personal potential in
life, striving for persoual growth. Such personal growth, suggested Maslow,
concems a holistic integration of an individual, including cognitive perception of
self-worth, behavior, and relationship to others and to the environment (Maslow,
1987).
For Hahn, education that incorporates experience into it is meant to give
opportunity for young people to grow. For instance, according to his experience,

10 Hahn's words in the "Address given at Maidstone in 1962", quoted by McLachlan, see 1970, p.7.
11 ''Grow to be who you are" or ''Wcrde, der du bist!" is a saying from Pindar. See Hahn, 1934, 224.

25
he began to employ the nature, especially the sea as the new "classroom" to help
youngsters gain individual insights in how they relate to themselves, to others, and
to the external context, thus developing character (Hahn, 1947). Hahn discovered
that adventurous expeditions can "build up the [watchmen's] virtues, vigilance,
endurance, victorious patience, coolness in danger, resourcefulness and decision"
(Hahn, 1947). For Hahn, the sea as an adventure-inherent element does not only
imply a learning environment of danger and challenge, but it is ''where ever-
present potential threat required ever mobilized resources of [rescuing service]"
(Brereton, 1970, p.57), which impell people to live in a just and a commpassionate
way. In Hahn's conceptual framework, the restoration of spiritual awareness and
spiritual strength to committing to justice and compassion is of all importance
(Hahn, 1965b).

What experiential education in its initial emergence has (been intended to)
fulfill(ed) might look different than what it has/can fulfill(ed) in the Hong Kong
context. In this research, one postulate is that experiential educationladventure-
based practice connects to the enhancement of personal development of the Hong
Kong adolescents.

1.3 Experiential education and personal development

In the Hong Kong context, late adolescence is a detennining phase. For instance,
late adolescents usually become leaders of the junior youth in the school context.
Their leadership and social capabilities will be put into tests because they are
seemingly the more mature students in comparing to the junior stodents at
schools. If they don't take this challenge and try exercising their talents at schools,
building up their sense of efficacy, they might end up getting frustrated about
their own strength and weakness. Also, they are about to give serious thoughts
to their further study subjects and career path. There is a need for them to get
aware of and be able to tell their own selves where they want to go and what they,
occupationally, want to become. Such determination has to be, at the same time,
cautiously made and tenderly suited to their personality, interest and (life) mission.
If they don't take this decision-making personally and carefully, but just get into
any path that is expected from them, without their full and true commitment to it,
there might be a danger that they gradually get doubtful about their life purpose
and meaning and get dissatisfied with what they wonld be working on, even when
it wonld become a success.

26
 Personal development, for these late adolescents, would mean the
nourishment of oneself for the sake and benefit of oneself. The nourishing process
can be seen as the bridge of the gap between the present state, in wbich individuals
are, and the becoming state, in wbich they look forward to be in. If individuals
cannot get aware of such present and becoming states, they hardly find ways to
bridge the gap, getting themselves nourished and getting their full potential out
to respond to the external challenges. Self-understanding is therefore essential for
this gap bridging (cf. Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 2006).

In Hong Kong, teenagers will likely be confronted most severely with identifying
themselves and making decisions. This is not easy for them because of all the
seemingly contradictiog voices from their parents, the global cultural influences
and their own wishes (Dimmock, 1998; Luk-Fong & Brennan, 2004; Zhang,
2005). After 150 years of British colonial govemance, the global, especially the
English-speaking, cultore has grafted onto the living of people in Hong Kong.
The educational system, namely, the school context, can reflect the crossbreeding
cultore of both the distant and the predominant local Chinese values and beliefs.
As many educational policies are imported from the British and American
perspectives, there exists clashing between many seemingly integrated hut
actually competing notions of the various cultures. As a result, in dealing with
the inconsistent cultural valueslbeliefs and practices, adolescents have a lot of
confusion in understanding themselves (see more on 5.3).
Among all the confusions, it is obvious to see the difficulty for teenagers
to position themselves as ouly a fragment of or as an intergrated part to the whole
in bighly-efficient-<ifflnanding society. Ideally, the sense ofwortbiness is believed to
come from the essence of the whole being, but when young people observe that more
values are actusl\y given to a particular fragmented area, like academic performance,
it is likely that they will get confused about the bighly-clairned value given to a
success coming, not from only a fragment, but from the whole. In fact, each piece of
fragmented area cannot stand on its own when it belongs to a system, for each piece is
interacted with one another. One may understand this with a complete jigsaw picture
that is actusl\y composed of many small pieces. The picture will not be completed if
even one small jigsaw piece is lost. It would be important for late adolescents to see
the value of development as a whole in a balanced way" (cf. Reform Proposal, EDB,
2000; for discussion on findings, see section 5.3.1.3).

12 See "Senior Secondary Curriculum Guide (Booklet 1)", http://cdl.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/cnsI

sscLweb/hbnllenglishlindex.html, last retrieved 15.06.2011.

27
 Moreover, it is imaginable that teenagers would have to leam to
identify themselves not only as interdependent individuals; they also need to
identify themselves as independent individuals. Living in a city like Hong
Kong, whereby the lifestyle may be modernized, following many global trends.
However, the underlying mentality is still very Chinese - collective. It is common
to see people, particularly young people, get frustrated by often being expected
to be submissive to authorities, on the one hand, and being expected to be
independently decisive, on the other. In fact, there are times, when people need
to think and act interdependently, and there are also times, when people need to
think and act independently. The interdependent and the independent self do not
necessarily contradict with each other. However, it would be a learning process
for adolescents to find out when and how they would consider a decision, an
action and a responsibility collectively andlor independently (for discussion on
findings, see section 5.3.1.2).
Last but not lease, it would be foreseeable to see adolescents who will
have to leam to orient themselves and their life according to their values and
belief. In Hong Kong, a rich materialistic life has been heavily emphasized, just
like other cosmopolitsn cities. People generally have to face the confrontation
with their own value and belief system, conceming the questions like "what is
worth for one's life" and "what a person is seeking". Late adolescents will not be
spared from this struggle, particularly when they are at the developmental phase
of searching for life orientation, life meaning and life purpose. If they would only
equate what belongs to ''this worldly" to what may goes beyond, then they may
hardly come to realize there is the possibility that things can be mysteriously
linked together and an individual can be at the same time, self to - self, other
and transcendence - relevant. One central aspect of spirituality is the experience
of humility, in which an individual may be able to recognize the presence of
other beings (things/human beings). These, the whole, all together, can generate
something more than only one individual can bring forth. Therefore, life may be
taken in a very different way, when adolescents may be able to aware of not only
being materialistic, but also being spiritual (for further explication of the concept
"spirituality", see section 2.4.2.4; discussion on findings, see section 5.3.1.1).

In the Hong Kong context, where there is no official religion, it is common that
Hong Kong Chinese practices rituals and observes a variety of Chinese traditioua1
values and beliefs. These may find their traces back to the main Chinese religions,
but the religiosity of these Chinese religions do not exhibit itself as most of the
other monotheist andlor polytheist religions do. This non-religiosity may be
understood as something that is spiritual and transcendental. The spiritual is

28
found to relate to life issues, to values and beliefs that will lay their influences
on life matters and to ritual practices that also construct life patterns to certain
extent (fur further explication of the concept "spiritoality", see section 2.4.2.4;
discussion on findings, see section 5.3.1.1). In this regard, as it is believed that
it is the intention of adventure-based practice/programs to provide opportunities
for participants to explore and develop their values and beliefs that immediately
connect to their life issues, the implicit characteristics of the spiritual dimension
of the program participants is supposed to come up to the surface.

It is the postulate that experiential education, especially adventure-based

programs, have been taken into the secondary school context to respond to the need
of enhancing adolescents' self-understanding, particularly their perceived self-
concept, self-efficacy, and also their spiritual dimension, thus enhancing personal
development. Still, before this can be interpreted as the function of experiential
education!adventure-based practice, the extent of its use, the understanding and
the impact of it, which are included in the phenomenal picture of experiential
education in the secondary school context of Hong Kong, are on a scientific quest.

1.4 Purpose and design of the study

1.4.1 Key concerns of Investigation: Self-concept, self-efficacy, learning

climate and spiritual dimension

The increasing use of experiential education, especially adventure-based

programs, in the global context has opened up new researching opportunities.
In the field of experiential education, there are increasing evidences, from the
distant context, such as in the English- and German-speaking contexts, showing
that some experiential education! adventure-based programs claimed a significant
positive impact on adolescents' social, behavioral and intellectual perspective
change (Eberle, 2010a; Ewert, 1987; Hattie, Marsh, Neill, & Richards, 1997;
Kiimmel, Hampel & Meier, 2008, etc.).

More specifically, Griffin and LeDuc (2009) found out that adventure programs
showed its catalytic effect to adolescents' spiritual growth. These stodies
highlighted different aims, which experiential education strove toward, which,
in general, entailed enhancing of self-confidence, social relationship, youngsters'
sense of responsibility and sense of compassion. This resembled the original
proposed goals of one of the key founders of those programs, Kurt Halm (Hahn,

29
1965a; Hahn 1965b). Many researchers show that adventure-based programs
generally lay influence on participants' self-development (Shek and Sun, 20 I 0).

Seeing the frequent use of adventure-based program in Hong Kong but seeing
that there is not yet a scientific and an extensive study on the phenomenon of this
trend, there is a need to comprehend what is really going on for the adolescents
in schools. As shown by some researches, the investigation supposes that the
adventure-based programs would also have certain impact on the participants'
perception to their self-concept and self-efficacy. Moreover, such programs
are often used to establish successful team work/spirit. Then, the participants'
view to learning climate may be changed. This is also one consideration in the
investigation.

While there are a wide range of research, giving focus to self-understanding,

particularly self-concept, self-efficacy in the field of experiential education,
particularly adventure-based practice, the spiritual dimension/the self-
transcendence dimension of personal development is still gaining insufficient
attention or seldom investigated in experiential education and/or adventure-
based practice, as suggested by some researchers (Beard & Wilson, 2006; Poll
& Smith, 2003). If experiential education, especially adventure-based program,
claims to be able to enhance personal development, then the development in
the positive change that comes along with spiritoal dimension should also be
taken into consideration, or else, it is not yet a full check-out of the influence of
adventure-based programs on participants (Griffin & LeDuc, 2009; Heintzman,
2003; Heintzman, 2010).
Moreover, increasing amount of research suggests that outdoor
adventure experiences should be promising in nurturing the spiritoal dimension
of individnals (AshIey, 2007; Benson, Roehlkepartain, Hong, Henderson, &
Bialeschki, 2008; Griffin & LeDuc, 2009; Heintzman, 2010, etc.). In particular,
the solo experience (Daniel, 2007; Griffin and LeDuc, 2009, etc.) and the nature
experience (Ashley, 2007; Heintzman, 2010; Loeflier, 2005, etc.), etc. are thought
to be responsive to the desperate seeking of something that is spiritual. This study,
therefore, will take the spiritual dimension into account.

1.4.2 Research question and pnrpose of the stndy

In view of the situation in Hong Kong, the study set out to achieve two aims.
First, it is the intention of the study to be the first empirical research to establish a

30
current phenomenal picture of adventure-based programs in the secondary school
context of Hong Kong. It has hypothesized that participants, by taking part in the
programs, will acquire a stronger belief in their self-concept, self-efficacy (cf.
Hattie, Marsh, Neil and Richards, 1997; etc.), will have an improved view in the
learning climate and participants will reflect deeper upon their life issue, which
is regarded to be concerned with the spiritual dimension (Griffin & LeDuc, 2009;
etc.). Secondly, based on the phenomenal picture, the study attempts to interpret
what functions the adventure-based programs have fulfilled in connection with
the Hong Kong context, with regard to, particularly, the spiritual dimension and
concept of individuality (section 2.3 will further clarify more clearly with the
research question).

1.4.3 Design ofthe study

By means of a case study methodology, it will try to answer the research questions.

Figure 1: Case study presented in central layer, peripheral layer and contextual
layer (source: by author)

Contextual layer:
Descriptive findings on phenomenon of adventure-based
programs in the genm! secondary school context in Hong Kong

Peripheral layer:
Descriptive findings 00 specific schooVchurch oootext of the
adventure-based progrm

Central layer:
Descriptive findings on adolescent participants' learning in the
adventure·based program

The case study will be presented with a central layer, a peripheral layer and a
contextual layer (cf. Figure 1). The central layer is the center of the case. It focuses
closely on adventure-based programs, particularly the perceptual understanding
and learning of the student participants in the programs. At the peripheral layer,
the case describes the program circumstantial information. Particularly, the

31
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January their retreats were raided and they ‘were forcibly
hurried off by a great number of people in arms and disguised,
whom they could not resist, and carried by the same violence
to Edinburgh.’ (Scots Mag., viii. 43.) Thirty-one officers arrived
at Edinburgh on 19th January, and Grossett was sent next day
to recover those mentioned in the text.
[620] The Duke of Cumberland arrived in Edinburgh on
30th January.
[621] Not identified.
[622] Letter xxv. p. 394.
[623] This officer may have been the second major of the
3rd (Scots) Guards, the only regimental officer of the name
who held the rank of colonel at this time.
[624] Letter xxviii. p. 395.
[625] Not identified.
[626] Letter xxix. p. 395.
[627] Should be Bligh’s regiment, the 20th, now the
Lancashire Fusiliers.
[628] Letter xxx. p. 396.
 [629] Letter xxxi. p. 396.
[630] William, 8th earl, suc. 1720. In 1745 he was a captain
in the 3rd (Scots) Guards: he served on Cope’s staff at
Prestonpans; commanded the Glasgow (volunteer or militia)
regiment at Falkirk; was also colonel of the Edinburgh
regiment. In 1757 he was appointed Governor of Gibraltar,
where he died in 1761, being then a lieut.-general.
[631] Letter xxxiii. p. 398.
[632] This is that Thomas Smith who, in 1728, for an act of
consummate audacity acquired vast fame, became for a while
the darling of the British nation, and in the Navy received the
nickname of ‘Tom of Ten Thousand.’ Although only junior lieut.
of H.M.S. Gosport, while in temporary command he forced the
French corvette Gironde to lower her topsail as a salute to the
British flag when passing out of Plymouth Sound. For this
exploit he was summarily dismissed the service on the
complaint of the French ambassador, but, according to
tradition, was reinstated the following day with the rank of
post-captain (see Thackeray’s Roundabout Papers, No. 4, ‘On
Some Late Great Victories’). Modern investigation has
somewhat qualified the dramatic story of the reinstatement,
but not of the initial act. Smith was naval commander-in-chief
in Scotland from February 1746 to January 1747 when he
became rear-Admiral; in 1757, Admiral of the Blue. He
presided at the court-martial which condemned Admiral Byng.
He died 1761.
To those interested in Jacobite history his memory should
ever be cherished as the benignant guardian, if jailer, of Flora
Macdonald. When Flora was first made prisoner in Skye in the
second week of July, she was taken on board the ship of the
merciless Captain Ferguson (ante, p. 244), in which she was
detained for three weeks. Luckily for her, General Campbell
was also on board and treated Flora with great kindness. The
general handed her over to Commodore Smith, with whom she
remained a prisoner until her arrival in London in the middle of
November, a period of three and a half months. Home, in his
History, says that ‘this most worthy gentleman treated Flora
not as a stranger, nor a prisoner, but with the affection of a
parent.’ Bishop Forbes tells the same story: he ‘behaved like a
father to her, and tendered her many good advices as to her
behaviour in her ticklish situation.’ Smith permitted Flora to go
ashore in Skye to see her mother. When lying in Leith roads
he presented her with a handsome suit of riding clothes and
other garments, as well as an outfit for a Highland maid who
had hurriedly left Skye to accompany the lady in her captivity.
[633] Guild Hall Relief Fund. See Appendix.
[634] The 8th now The King’s (Royal Liverpool) Regiment.
[635] Apparently meaning ‘notify.’
[636] Eyemouth.
[637] A bylander or bilander is a two-masted ship, rather
flat-bottomed, used chiefly in the canals of Holland.
[638] Sic in copy, ‘and vissibly’ is probably a mistake for
‘invisibly.’
[639] Author of Medical Heroes of the ’Forty-five: Glasgow,
1897.
[640] Barclay acted as justice of the peace for Prince
Charles, enlisted men, and collected the excise.
[641] Maule was a writer in Stonehaven and procurator-
fiscal of Kincardine. He served as an ensign, probably in Lord
Ogilvy’s regiment.
[642] Dr. Lawson seems to have been the father of John
Lawson, junior, who served in the Jacobite army.
[643] Keeper of a public-house in Stonehaven.
[644] The occasion of this Memorial and the circumstances
attending its production will be found fully detailed in chap. vi.
of The Last of the Royal Stuarts, by Herbert M. Vaughan:
London, 1906.
[645] I am indebted to Miss Nairne, Salisbury, for this
translation.
[646] These lists make no pretence to completeness. They
are extracted from a manuscript Jacobite army list which I
have been compiling for many years. In it I have noted down
the name of every gentleman properly authenticated that I
have come across when studying the history of the period.
[647] Clanranald, Boisdale, Glengarry, and Bishop Hugh
Macdonald did not rise in arms, but were all imprisoned for
being concerned in the Rising.
 [648] Interesting information on the raising of Fairburn’s
men is given by the French envoy, writing to the French
Foreign Minister: Lady Mackintosh, he says, ‘a bien été imitée
par une autre fort jolie personne de son âge, nommée Barbe
Gourdon, femme de Mekensie de Ferbarn, le plus
considérable des vassaux et des parens de milord Seaforth.
Celle-cy n’a pas banni son mari; mais, malgré luy, elle a vendu
ses diamants et sa vaisselle pour lever des hommes. Elle s’en
a ramassé cent ciquante des plus braves du païs, qu’elle a
joint à ceux de miladi Seaforth, sous la conduite de son beau-
frère.’
This ‘beau-frère’ may mean Kenneth, her husband’s
brother, or it may mean Barisdale who was married to her
husband’s sister. Young Lentron in the List of Persons
concerned in the Rebellion is termed a schoolboy. I find no
mention of this Barbara Gordon in the Mackenzie clan history.
[649] James Gordon, son of the laird of Glasterum,
Banffshire. Born 1664; died 1746; consecrated secretly as
Bishop of Nicopolis in partibus, 1706; Vicar-apostolic in
Scotland, 1718. Lord John Drummond, Clanranald, and
possibly Lady Clanranald (née Macleod) were Roman
Catholics.
[650] Frederick of Hesse Cassel was the consort of Ulrica,
sister and successor of Charles xii. He was crowned King of
Sweden 1720; died 1751. His nephew, Frederick, Prince,
afterwards Landgrave, of Hesse, married Princess Anne,
daughter of George ii., 1740: he brought Hessian troops to
Scotland in February 1746.
[651] Alexander Gordon of Auchintoul (Banffshire). Entered
the Russian service 1693; married the daughter of his
kinsman, Patrick Gordon of Achleuris, the celebrated General
of Peter the Great. Was a colonel at the battle of Narva (1700),
where he was captured and detained prisoner until Peter’s
victory at Pultowa (1709). Rose to be a Russian major-
general. Joined Mar’s Rising, 1715, and was made lieutenant-
general (October 1715); commander-in-chief (February 1716)
of the Jacobite Army on Mar’s leaving Scotland. Was at
Bordeaux, and too ill to join the attempt of 1719. Though living
in Banffshire in 1745, he felt too old to go ‘out.’ Died 1752. He
wrote a History of Peter the Great, published after his death, in
Aberdeen, 1755.
 [652] Captain Wm. Hay, groom of the bedchamber to the
Chevalier.
[653] Robert (Gordon) but for the attainder Viscount of
Kenmure; eldest son of William, 6th Viscount, who was
executed for his share in the ’15. He was an ardent Jacobite;
he died in 1741, aged about thirty, and was succeeded by his
brother John, who joined Prince Charles at Holyrood, accepted
the command of a troop of horse, but deserted the following
day. See Murray’s Memorials, pp. 53, 227.
[654] Not identified; may be Nisbet of Dirleton and
Callendar of Craigforth.
[655] French Minister of Finance.
[656] Walter Stapleton, lieut.-col. of Berwick’s regiment;
commandant of the Irish picquets and brigadier in the French
army; wounded at Culloden and died of his wounds.
[657] Henry Ker of Graden, Teviotdale, heir of an ancient
family of moss troopers; b. 1702; served in the Spanish army,
1722-38, when he returned to Scotland; was aide-de-camp to
Lord George Murray and titular aide-de-camp to the Prince;
the best staff officer the Jacobites possessed. Captured in May
in the Braes of Angus; tried for his life, and in vain pleaded his
Spanish commission; sentenced to death but reprieved;
released in 1748; died a lieut.-col. in the Spanish service 1751.
(Leishman, A Son of Knox, p. 20.) Ker wrote an account of the
operations in the last two months of the campaign, printed in
The Lyon, i. 355.
[658] This statement of Daniel’s is opposed to all reliable
evidence, and the note in the Drummond Castle MS. is
correct. The desire of his enemies was to throw the blame of
the disaster on Lord George Murray. Even the Prince seems to
have talked himself into a similar belief (see post, p. 240). The
responsibility lay on Prince Charles himself, as is told in the
Introduction.
[659] Keppoch’s brother Donald, killed at Culloden. Donald
MacDonell of Tirnadrish (or Tiendrish), a cousin of Keppoch;
he was the only Jacobite officer taken prisoner at Falkirk. He
was executed at Carlisle in October.
[660] Alexander Mackay of Auchmony, who long afterwards
married Angusia, d. of Angus Macdonell, Glengarry’s son,
referred to on p. 277.
[661] The house of Gordon of Glenbucket at Tomintoul in
Strathavon.
[662] See ante, p. 118.
[663] His chamberlain or steward.
[664] For the authenticity of this manifesto, see ante, p.
132.
[665] Generally ‘Strathdearn,’ the valley of the Findhorn.
[666] ‘Clan Chattan,’ the Macphersons, Mackintoshes and
Farquharsons; probably here meaning the Macphersons.
 INDEX
Abercromby, Francis, of Fetterneir, 164 n.
Aberdeen, rebels in, 285-6;
presbyterian ministers preach against the rebels, 202;
no election of magistrates during the rebellion, 119, 124;
requests aid from lord Loudoun, 134;
rebels demand £215 of levy money from Old Aberdeen, 135;
masters of King’s College taxed, 136;
public fast observed, 136;
rebels attempt to cause a mutiny among the Macleods, 140;
the rebels march to engage the Macleods, 140;
skirmish at the fords of Don, 143-4;
the rebels collect levy money, 147, 150;
the citizens maltreated and plundered by Macgregors, 148;
rebels march through the town in their retreat from Stirling, 149;
arrival of the duke of Cumberland, 151;
Bisset’s sermon on the good behaviour of the rebels, 189 and n;
popish and non-jurant meeting houses destroyed, 56;
Gordon’s hospital garrisoned by the duke of Cumberland;
the duke leaves the town, 159;
militia raised and governors appointed, 160;
military law paramount, 162;
rioting by the soldiers, 163 and n.
—— George Gordon, 3rd earl of, 123 and n.
Aberdeenshire, the rebellion of 1715, 130;
lord Lewis Gordon issues his burning order, 134-5 and n.
Abernethy presbytery testify to the loyalty of Mr. John Grant,
minister of Abernethy, 317.
—— brother of Mayen, 121.
Abertarff, 89;
 the presbytery exonerate rev. John Grant of Urquhart, 316.
Aboyne, earl of, 131.
Achires. See Ogilvie.
Achoynanie. See Grant, Thomas.
Adams, Mr., cipher name for the king of France, 63.
Agnew, sir Andrew, 206 n.
Aird, 89.
Airlie, Anne, countess of, 35 n.
—— James, earl of, 35 n.
—— John, earl of, 35 and n.
Albemarle, William, earl of, 163 n, 417.
Alisary, South Uist, 250 n.
Alloa, operations of rebels at, 353-8.
Altimarlach, battle of, between Sinclair of Keiss and Campbell of
Glenurchy, 71 n.
Amelot de Chaillou, M., 9 and n, 10, 12, 14, 15, 47, 57.
Ancrum, William, lord, afterw. marquess of Lothian, his expedition
to Curgaff, 152 and n;
orders the destruction of houses where arms were found, 161-2
and n, 163;
is removed from Aberdeen because of the rioting of the soldiers,
163 n;
succeeded by lord Sempill, 164 and n.
Anderson, captain, 61 n.
Appin, 86.
—— laird of. See Stewart, Dugald.
Applecross, 75, 77.
Arbuthnott, Alexander, of Knox, commissioner of customs, 50 and
n, 381, 385.
Ardgour, 84.
—— laird of. See Maclean.
Ardloch, laird of. See Mackenzie.
Ardnamurchan, 82-3.
Argyllshire Highlanders at the battle of Falkirk, 363 n, 364.
Arisaig, 81, 229 and n.
Assynt and its proprietors, 73-4 and n.
Atholl, William, [Jacobite] duke of, 344 n, 410.
Auchengaul. See Crichton.
Auchlunkart (Auflunkart), 288, 290.
Auchmeddan. See Baird, William.
Auchmony. See Mackay, Alexander.
Auldearn, battle of, 76 n.
Avachy. See Gordon.

Baggot, John, in command of the prince’s Hussars, 150 and n,

185, 202.
Baird, William, of Auchmeddan, 128 and n.
Baleshare, 243 n.
—— laird of. See Macdonald, Hugh.
Balhaldy. See Macgregor, William.
Balmerino, Arthur, lord, 173 n, 181 and n, 183, 190, 203;
his character as given by captain Daniel;
the quarrel with lord George Murray, 200;
at the battle of Falkirk, 410;
surrenders after Culloden, 216.
Balmoral, laird of. See Farquharson.
Balnagowan, lairds of. See Ross.
Baltimore, 244-5.
Balveny castle, 287 n.
Banffshire and the rebellion, 111-164;
lord Lewis Gordon issues his burning order, 134-5 and n.
Bannerman, sir Alexander, of Elsick, 148 and n, 149.
Barra, 79.
Barrel’s regiment, 152 n, 153.
Barry, Dr., 62.
Barrymore, James, 4th earl of, 21 and n, 23, 47.
Bartlet, writer in Aberdeen, taken prisoner by the rebels, 137.
Battereau’s regiment, 418.
Beinn Ruigh Choinnich, 249 n.
Belintomb, laird of, 281 n.
Benbecula, 230, 231, 237, 252 and n, 253.
Ben Nevis, 86.
Birkenbush, laird of. See Gordon.
Bisset, John, minister in Aberdeen, his sermon on the good
behaviour of the Jacobite army in Aberdeen, 189 and n.
Black Watch soldiers shot in the Tower for desertion, 42 and n.
Blair castle, siege of, 206 and n.
Blakeney, William, lieut.-governor of Stirling castle, 358 and n,
385, 418;
letter to, from general Hawley, 393.
Bland, Humphrey, major-general, enters Aberdeen, 151;
at Old Meldrum, 153 and n;
marches to Huntly, 154.
Blelack. See Gordon, Charles.
Bligh’s regiment, 368 and n, 417.
Boat o’ Bridge, 289 and n.
Bog o’ Gight, 290 and n.
Boisdale. See Macdonald, Alex.
Bonar, near Creich, 110.
Borradale house, 229 and n.
Bourbon, the, taken by the English, 151 n.
Boyne, Banffshire, 120 and n.
Braco. See Duff, William.
Braemar, 92.
Breadalbane, John, 1st earl of, defeats the Sinclairs at Altimarlach,
71 n.
Brett, colonel, secretary to the duchess of Buckingham, 11 and n.
Bright, Mr., cipher name of the earl of Traquair, q.v.
Brodie, Alex., of Brodie, writes to Ludovick Grant, upbraiding him
for not joining Cope, 272 and n, 274.
Brown, captain, of Lally’s regiment, escapes from Carlisle, 192
and n.
—— J., cipher name of Murray of Broughton, q.v.
Bruce, Robert, minister of Edinburgh, 90 and n.
Brucehill. See Forbes.
Buchan of Achmacoy, 124.
Buckingham, Katherine, duchess of, 10 and n, 16, 21, 23.
Burke, Edmund, 227, 229 n, 231 n, 234 n.
Burnet, Mr., cipher name of prince Charles. See Stuart.
—— of Kemnay, 124, 132, 147, 162.
Burnett, sir Alex., of Leys, 124.
Butler, Mr., 47, 48, 57.

Caithness and the Jacobite rising, 71-2 and n.

—— George Sinclair, earl of, defeated by Campbell of Glenurchy
at Altimarlach, 71 n.
Callendar, of Craigforth, 33 n.
Cameron, Alexander, killed by Grant of Knockando, 103 n.
—— —— S. J., brother of Lochiel, 87 and n.
—— Dr. Archibald, 97 n, 217, 219.
—— Donald, of Glenpean, 229.
—— —— of Lochiel, 5 and n, 15 n, 17, 24-8 n, 34, 36, 38, 41, 44-
6, 48, 58, 65-7;
his interview with Murray of Broughton in Edinburgh, 16;
opposes the conversion of his people to Romanism, 87;
sends prince Charles’s Declaration to Forbes of Culloden, 95;
at the battle of Falkirk, 413;
at Culloden, 416.
Cameron, Ludovick, of Torcastle, 84 and n.
—— Margaret, sister of Lochiel, 82 n.
Cameronian covenanters, 43 and n.
Camerons, 87;
at the battle of Prestonpans, 407;
at the battle of Falkirk, 409, 411;
at Culloden, 417.
—— of Morven, 84.
Campbell, lieut., of the Edinburgh regiment, 364.
—— of Inverawe, attempts to capture the duke of Perth, 118 n.
—— Alexander, lieut., taken prisoner at Keith by the rebels, 155.
—— —— minister of Inverary, 85.
—— Co., commissioner of customs, 381, 385.
—— Donald, befriends the prince in Harris, 233 and n, 235.
—— sir Donald, of Ardnamurchan, 83 and n.
—— Dugald, of Achacrossan, 244 n.
—— Duncan, 260.
—— sir Duncan, of Lochnell, 83.
—— sir James, of Auchenbreck, 6 and n, 14 n, 16, 26, 45 n, 48,
52, 58.
—— John, of Mamore [aftw. duke of Argyll], 259 and n, 373 n.
—— —— yr. of Mamore, col. of the Argyllshire Highlanders, 363
and n, 364 , 373 n, 410.
—— sir John, of Glenurchy, aftw. earl of Breadalbane, q.v.
—— Primrose, wife of lord Lovat, 44 n.
Campbells of Argyll at Culloden, 418.
Campo Florido, Spanish ambassador at Paris, 22 n.
Carberry hill, 405, 408.
Carlisle, surrender of, 118 n;
occupied by the rebels, 173 n;
the siege, 182 n, 192-3;
Jacobite prisoners, 187 and n.
Carlyle, Alex., his Autobiography, 44 n.
Carnusy. See Gordon.
Carron water, 351, 384.
Carse’s Nook, 348-9, 383.
Castle Forbes, 154.
Castle Fraser (Muchals), Aberdeenshire, 98 n.
Castlelaw, Mr., collector of customs at Dunbar, 371.
Castle Leod, Strathpeffer, 78 n.
Cecil, William, Jacobite agent in England, 11 and n, 15, 16 n, 21,
23, 28.
Chalmers, George, principal of King’s College, Aberdeen, 138;
taken prisoner by the rebels, 145.
Charité, the, taken by the English, 151 n.
Chisholm, Roderick, of Comar, 90.
—— —— of Strathglass, 90, 99 and n.
—— —— og, killed at Culloden, 100 n.
—— William, son of Strathglass, physician in, and provost of
Inverness, 100 n.
Chisholms join the rebels, 99.
Cholmondeley’s regiment, 411, 417.
Church of Scotland clergy loyal to the government, 124-5;
threatened by the rebels, 149;
ridiculed by the soldiers, 162.
Clate, kirktown of, 153-4.
Clephan, captain, 61 n.
Clesterton, laird of. See Fea, James.
Clifton, skirmish at, 185-6 and n.
Cobham’s dragoons, 410, 418.
Cochrane, captain, prisoner with the rebels, 364.
—— Dr., of Roughfoil, 51 n.
—— Alex., of Barbachlaw, 51 n.
Cockburn, Adam, hosier, 62 and n.
Cogach and the Macleods, 74-5, 96.
Colyear’s regiment, 61 and n.
Commissioners of customs, letter to, from Walter Grossett, 383;
letter from, to Grossett, 385.
Congleton, 175.
Cope, sir John, 95, 103, 273;
his march to the north, 270 and n;
in Inverness, 271 n;
in Aberdeen, 114 and n, 115;
removes the town’s arms, 117;
at Dunbar, 341, 405;
position of his troops at Prestonpans, 405-6;
defeated, 408;
succeeded by Hawley, 409.
Coren, captain, 365 and n;
letter to, from the lord justice-clerk, 394.
Corn sent from the north of England to the rebels in Lochaber,
370, 396-7.
Corradale, South Uist, 238 and n, 239 and n, 246.
Craigie, Robert, of Glendoick, lord advocate, aftw. lord president,
269 and n;
letter from, to Walter Grossett, 379.
Crawford, major, 155.
—— John, earl of, 26 and n, 42 n.
Creich, 110.
Crichton of Auchengaul, joins lord Lewis Gordon, 130.
Crofts, lieut., taken prisoner at Falkirk, 158 and n.
Cromar, 92.
Cromarty, George, 1st earl of, 74 and n, 78 n.
—— George, 3rd earl, 75, 91, 109, 410, 415;
joins the rising, 95-97 and n;
claims to be chief of the Mackenzies, 100.
Crosby, captain, 159.
Culcairn, now Kincraig, 103 n.
—— laird of. See Munro, George.
Cullen, 205-7, 290.
—— house plundered by the rebels, 157 and n, 208.
Culloden, estimate of Jacobite forces, 178 n;
the rebels’ useless night march, 210-11 and n;
lord George Murray in favour of making a stand at Culloden,
212-213 and n;
prince Charles persuaded by lord George Murray to give the
place of honour to the Athole men, 239;
the prince adverse to giving battle, 240;
account of the battle, 414-19;
Daniel’s account of the battle, 213-15.
—— house attacked by Frasers, 106.
Culraik, 415-16.
Cumberland, William, duke of, 187 and n;
takes Carlisle, 192-3 and n;
in Edinburgh, 299 n, 365 and n;
in Stirling, 365;
at Perth, 303 n, 305 n, 367;
in Aberdeen, 151, 307 and n;
orders the destruction of nonjurant meeting places, 156;
withdraws his protection from the houses of Park and Durn, on
account of the rebels pillaging Cullen house, 157;
leaves Aberdeen, 159 and n, 208 and n;
at Nairn, 414;
at Culloden, 99 n;
disposition of his forces, 417;
the battle, 213-15, 414-19.
Cuming, of Kinninmonth, 121.
Cuming, yr. of Pitully, 121.
Cupbairdy. See Gordon.
Curgaff, 152.
Cuthbert, of Castlehill, 140 n.
—— major, brother of Castlehill, 140 and n, 143.

Dan, Mr., cipher name of Donald Cameron, of Lochiel, q.v.

Daniel, captain John, his Account of his Progress with Prince
Charles, 165-224;
joins the Jacobite army in Lancashire, 168;
endeavours to obtain followers for the prince, 169;
gets the better of a quaker, 169-70;
obtains a captain’s commission, 171;
joins Elcho’s guards, 173;
billeted in Derby, 176;
meets the duke of Perth, 181;
his horse stolen by the Jacobite soldiers;
deserted by his servant, 182;
helps himself to a horse, 183;
his intimacy with Balmerino, 183, 190-200, 203;
rescues two women at the crossing of the Esk, 188;
on the good behaviour of the army in England, 189;
marches north to Aberdeen, 202;
loses his company in a snowstorm, 203;
revives himself and horse with whisky, 203-4;
rejoins the army at Old Meldrum, 204;
receives from the prince a standard taken at Falkirk, 205;
his testimony to the influence of Forbes of Culloden, 207;
holds lord George Murray to be responsible for Culloden, 212;
his description of the battle, 213-15;
leaves the field with lord John Drummond, 215;
his wanderings after Culloden, 216-17;
his description of the naval fight between the English and
French, 220;
sails for France, 223.
Danish forts in Glenelg, 80.
Derby, 175-6.
Deskford, lord, 275 and n, 276 , 283 , 294 and n, 298 n.
Dickson, John, of Hartree, 52 n.
—— William, lieut. in Wolfe’s regiment, 399.
Dingwall, merchant in Aberdeen, taken prisoner by the rebels,
137.
Dougall, George, of the Janet, 398.
Dounan church, 113 n.
Drimnin, laird of. See Maclean, Charles.
Drumelzier, 19 n.
—— laird of. See Hay, Alexander.
Drummond, lord George, 208-9.
—— captain John, 66 and n.
—— lord John, 16, 17 n, 20, 49, 159, 194, 291, 354;
lands with troops in Scotland, 132 and n, 178 and n, 345;
one of his transports taken, 352 and n;
his Declaration, 132, 292 n;
letter to, from earl Marischal commanding his friends to join lord
John Drummond, 132, 292 n;
the authenticity of the letter, 132-3;
proposes to hang a few of the clergy of the church of Scotland,
149;
at the battle of Falkirk, 409-10, 413;
at Culloden, 215, 415-17;
letter from, to Moir of Lonmay, 293 n.
—— lord Lewis, 132 and n.
—— William, of Balhaldy. See Macgregor.
Duff, of Premnay, 124.
—— William, of Braco, 113 and n, 114, 123 and n.
Dumfries, rebel army in, 190 and n.
Dunbar, lady, of Durn, 157.
—— James, [Jacobite] earl of, 331 n.
—— sir William, of Durn, 121.
—— —— of Hemprigs, 72.
Dunbars of Caithness, 72 and n.
Dunbennan, 118 n.
Dundas, captain, prisoner with the rebels, 364.
—— Robert, of Arniston, lord president of the court of session, 50
and n.
Dundonald, Thomas Cochrane, earl of, 18 and n.
Duntulm castle, 262 n.
Durn. See Dunbar, sir William.
Durness parish, 73.
Dutch troops land at Berwick and the Tyne, 184 n.

Eccleston, 169.
Edgar, David, of Keithock, 3 n.
—— James, secretary to the Chevalier de St. George, 32 n, 34-5;
letters from, to Murray of Broughton, 3 and n, 18-19, 30;
letters to, from Murray of Broughton, 20 and n-27, 37-41, 45 and
n.
Edinburgh, the provost declines to defend the town, 341;
in possession of the rebels, 342;
garrisoned by English troops, 345 and n, 351;
cannon for the city walls, 352;
crowded with Jacobite prisoners, 352 and n.
Edinburgh regiment, 372 n.
Edwards, J., cipher name of the Chevalier. See Stuart.
Eguilles, marquis d’, 100 n, 101 n, 223 n.
Elcho, David Wemyss, lord, 43 and n, 61, 173 n, 361 and n, 410.
Elgin, magistrates request the laird of Grant to march to their
assistance, 297 n;
Grant’s letter explaining why he is unable to come, 296 n.
Ellis, Mr., cipher name of the Chevalier. See Stuart.
Ellon, 158.
Elphingstone, 355-7, 384.
—- colonel. See Balmerino, lord.
Elsick. See Bannerman, sir Alexander.
Enzie, Banffshire, 92, 120 and n.
Errol, James, earl of, 121 n.
—— Mary, countess of, 121 and n.
Erskine, Anne. See Airlie, countess of.
—— James, lord Grange, 45 n, 90 n.

Fachfield. See Thomson.

Falconer, Alexander, 121 n.
—— (Fawkener), sir Everard, secretary to the duke of
Cumberland, 306 and n, 335 and n;
report by, on the services of Walter Grossett, 400-2.
Falkirk, battle of, 194-8, 228 n, 278 n, 362-3, 409-13.
Fall, Mr., magistrate in Dunbar, 371.
Farquharson, of Balmoral, 118 and n.
—— Anne, wife of Æneas Mackintosh of Mackintosh. See
Mackintosh.
—— James, of Invercauld, 101 n, 117-18, 131.
—— —— of Monaltrie, 117 n-18.
Farquharsons, 277;
at the battle of Falkirk, 409;
at Culloden, 417.