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Green Energy and Technology

Kwame Awuah-Offei Editor

Energy Efficiency
in the Minerals
Industry
Best Practices and Research Directions
Green Energy and Technology
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8059
Kwame Awuah-Offei
Editor

Energy Efficiency
in the Minerals Industry
Best Practices and Research Directions

123
Editor
Kwame Awuah-Offei
Department of Mining and Nuclear
Engineering
Missouri University Science and
Technology
Rolla, MO
USA

ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)

Green Energy and Technology
ISBN 978-3-319-54198-3 ISBN 978-3-319-54199-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54199-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017955235

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Kwame Awuah-Offei

Part I Ground Fragmentation

2 Energy Distribution in the Blast Fragmentation Process . . . . . . . . . 11
Braden Lusk and Jhon J. Silva
3 Effect of Hole Stemming Practices on Energy Efficiency
of Comminution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Calvin J. Konya and Anthony Konya
4 Effect of Wave Collision on Fragmentation, Throw,
and Energy Efficiency of Mining and Comminution . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Catherine Johnson
5 Energy Efficiency of Drilling Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Celal Karpuz
6 Energy Efficiency in Rock Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
José A. Sanchidrián, Pablo Segarra and Lina M. López

Part II Material Handling

7 Energy-Efficient Loading and Hauling Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Ali Soofastaei, Elnaz Karimpour, Peter Knights and Mehmet Kizil
8 Energy Efficiency in Cable Shovel Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Kwame Awuah-Offei
9 Benchmarking Energy Consumption of Truck Haulage . . . . . . . . . 159
Lalit Kumar Sahoo, Santanu Bandyopadhyay and Rangan Banerjee
10 Role of the Operator in Dragline Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Maryam Abdi-Oskouei and Kwame Awuah-Offei

v
vi Contents

Part III Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy

11 Energy-Efficient Comminution: Best Practices and Future
Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Bern Klein, Chengtie Wang and Stefan Nadolski
12 Energy Efficiency of Electrowinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Michael S. Moats
13 Plant Automation for Energy-Efficient Mineral Processing . . . . . . . 233
Jocelyn Bouchard, Daniel Sbarbaro and André Desbiens
14 Energy Management Systems in Copper Smelting: The Atlantic
Copper Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
José Maria Tejera, Guillerno Rios, Tasio Martínez
and Miguel Palacios

Part IV Renewable Energy and Miscellaneous Topics

15 Solar Energy Applications in Mining: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . 273
José Pablo Paredes Sánchez
16 Energy-Efficient Mine Ventilation Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Nuray Demirel
17 Technology Selection and Sizing of On-Board Energy Recovery
Systems to Reduce Fuel Consumption of Diesel-Electric Mine
Haul Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Petrus J. Terblanche, Michael P. Kearney, Clay S. Hearn
and Peter F. Knights
Chapter 1
Introduction

Kwame Awuah-Offei

Abstract The goal of this book is to present the current knowledge regarding
energy efficiency implications of mining processes and future research directions.
This introductory chapter explains the purpose and motivation for this book, pro-
vides highlights of the book, provides strategies that a reader can use to read the
book, and identifies the key unanswered questions that require further research. It is
my hope that this book will be a valuable resource for industry professionals and
researchers and stimulate further discussions on energy efficiency in mining.

Keywords Energy efficiency
Energy
Mining
Minerals industry

1.1 Introduction

Total energy costs are high for most mines because mining is an energy intensive
activity. Energy cost is a key consideration for mining professionals and researchers
that drive decisions on research and initiatives on energy efficiency. As pointed out
by Levesque and co [1], the prevalence of energy efficiency initiatives in the
minerals sector is closely correlated with energy prices. In recent years, however,
concerns about climate change, the carbon footprint of products, and the related
internalizing of associated costs are also driving decisions related to energy con-
sumption and efficiency in the minerals sector. Finally, energy costs are important
to mining professionals because the overall energy efficiency of mining is affected
by the efficiency of all parts of a mineral project. Energy is consumed by all the
processes in the mineral life cycle.
A volume like this one that discusses best practices and provides research
directions for the future is long overdue. As energy consumption, the associated
climate change impacts, and costs have become increasingly important, mineral

K. Awuah-Offei (&)
Mining and Nuclear Engineering Department, Missouri University of Science and
Technology, 226 McNutt Hall, Rolla, MO 65401, USA
e-mail: kwamea@mst.edu

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

K. Awuah-Offei (ed.), Energy Efficiency in the Minerals Industry, Green Energy
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54199-0_1
2 K. Awuah-Offei

industry professionals and researchers have had to look at a variety of sources to

gather information about best practices and ongoing and future research initiatives.
To the best my knowledge, no volume like this exists in the English literature that
collates contributions from various experts into one resource for industry profes-
sionals and researchers.
This volume presents the current state of the art regarding energy efficiency
implications of mining processes. The book is divided into four main sections:
ground fragmentation; material handling; mineral processing and extractive met-
allurgy; and miscellaneous topics. The main sections follow, to a large extent, the
unit processes of mining so that the reader can instinctively know where to find
things. Besides attempting to explain the purpose and motivation for this volume,
this introductory chapter tries to summarize the highlights of the chapters contained
in this book, provide strategies that a researcher or an industry professional can use
to read the book and identify the key unanswered questions that require further
research.

1.2 Highlights

The first section of this book includes five chapters that discuss energy efficiency
implications of blasting and ground fragmentation in mining [2–6]. The section
starts with an overview of the energy distribution during ground fragmentation by
blasting [2]. This chapter provides a basic introduction to the basic theories on the
energy content of explosives, how that energy is released to the surrounding rock
mass during detonation, and the different forms that energy is transformed into
during explosives. By itself, the discussions in this chapter can inform a mining
engineer’s decisions on explosive selection, blast design, and execution. However,
the chapter also serves as a useful introduction to the next four chapters in this
section.
The last of these chapters experimentally examines the energy efficiency of rock
fragmentation using blasting [6]. The researchers determined the proportion of the
explosive energy transformed into seismic wave energy, kinetic energy, and frac-
ture energy transferred during the blasting process. They conducted experiments at
two quarries to determine the energy proportions using the seismic field from
seismograph records, initial velocity of the blasted rock face obtained from
high-speed video footage, and fragment size distributions from image analysis of
the muckpile material, respectively. Their work shows that the maximum total
energy measured, in these experiments, accounts for at most 26% of the available
explosive energy, indicating that the energy efficiency of blasting is rather low.
One of the remaining three chapters deals with the energy efficiency of drilling,
which is the method for creating a means of loading explosives into rock for
fragmentation [5]. The remaining two chapters deal with the effect of hole stem-
ming and detonation wave collision on fragmentation results and energy efficiency
of blasting [3, 4].
1 Introduction 3

The second section of the book, which covers material handling, contains four
chapters that deal with the energy efficiency of material handling operations [7–10].
The section opens with an overview of energy efficiency implications of loading
and hauling equipment [7]. The next two chapters deal, respectively, with shovels
and trucks, which together constitute the most common loading and hauling method
[8, 9]. The first of the two provides a review of the current literature on cable shovel
energy efficiency while the second deals with approaches for benchmarking energy
efficiency of trucks.
The final chapter in this section presents a framework for assessing dragline
energy efficiency using equipment monitoring data [10]. The authors present a
three-step approach involving: (1) assess energy efficiency using data from dragline
monitoring systems to estimate an overall performance indicator; (2) quantify the
relationship between different operating parameters and the energy efficiency
indicator; and (3) improve the energy efficiency performance of operators by using
the results to optimize operator training.
The third section deals with energy efficiency implications of mineral processing
and extractive metallurgy and contains four chapters [11–14]. Given the signifi-
cance of comminution energy in any discussion of energy efficiency in mining, it is
perhaps befitting that this section begins with a chapter on the best practices and
future research needs for energy efficient comminution [11]. The next chapter
discusses electrical energy consumption in electrowinning of metals from solution
[12]. The chapter shows that to achieve energy efficient electrowinning a plant has
to maximize current efficiency and optimize electrolysis parameters. The chapter
also concludes that significant energy savings can only be achieved by changing
one of the underlying electrochemical reactions or reducing the anode overpoten-
tial. The next chapter deals with plant process control and real-time optimization
approaches that are used to achieve lower specific energy requirements by lowering
variability in key process variables and determining more appropriate operating
points [13]. The chapter also presents case studies to illustrate the current state of
the art in process plant automation for energy efficiency. The final chapter in this
section presents the case of the Atlantic Copper in Huelva, Spain, which was the
first copper smelter in the world to receive ISO 50001 energy management certi-
fication [14]. The chapter presents Atlantic Copper’s experience, process, and
results in energy management.
The final section, which includes three chapters, deals with renewable energy in
mining and other miscellaneous topics [15–17]. The use of renewable energy in
mining is one of the major energy innovations in the last decade. The first chapter in
this section discusses the integration of solar energy in mines’ energy supply to
enable them address energy and sustainability challenges [15]. The chapter dis-
cusses recent developments in solar energy in the mining industry and presents case
studies where this framework has been successfully applied to incorporate solar
energy into the mining energy supply mix. The second chapter in this section deals
with energy efficient practices in mine ventilation [16]. Mine ventilation is an
ancillary operation in underground mining that can have significant energy
4 K. Awuah-Offei

efficiency implications. The second chapter of this section discusses the energy
efficiency implications of this important aspect of underground mining systems.
The final chapter of the section investigates the technical and economic feasi-
bility of installing an energy recovery system (ERS) on diesel electric drive mine
haul trucks [17]. On a mine haul truck, an ERS saves energy by recovering energy
when the truck brakes during descent into the pit and puts that energy back into the
system during ascent out of the pit. The chapter evaluates the technical and eco-
nomic viability of various ERS technology using simulation. The work shows that
lithium-ion batteries are infeasible because of poor charging rate while electrolytic
double-layer capacitors are infeasible because of its low cycle life.
Electromechanical flywheels are judged the most cost-effective option.

1.3 How to Use This Book

This book intended to be a resource for mine managers and engineers who want to
improve the energy efficiency of their operations and, thereby, increase production
efficiency and sustainability. It is also intended to be a resource for researchers
looking for a comprehensive review of the literature on energy efficiency in the
minerals industry. Each chapter is written by subject-matter experts who have
contributed to the literature on the topics they have written in this book and are
familiar with the current knowledge and outstanding questions that need further
research. I anticipate that there will be two kinds of users for this book: industry
practitioners and researchers.
For industry professionals, I suggest they start with this introduction. They can
take note of the description of the various sections of the book as outlined in
Sect. 1.2. The professional can then refer to the particular section of the book or the
particular chapter that is of interest. It is my hope that each chapter provides an
adequate overview of the energy efficiency consideration in the particular area for
an industry professional. However, in case further reading on the subject is
required, the list of references in the chapters is a good starting point for any
professional.
For researchers, this volume is a good starting place for research on various
energy efficiency topics in mining. Each of these chapters is a good review paper
that summarizes the state of the art and provides citations to the relevant literature in
the area. For the beginning graduate student or the seasoned researcher, the chapters
in this book represent a valuable resource for energy efficiency research in the
minerals sector. In some cases, complimentary chapters (especially, those in the
same section) can provide additional resources that will be useful for any energy
efficiency research endeavor.
1 Introduction 5

1.4 Future Research Directions

This volume provides many suggestions for industrial best practices that managers
and engineers across the mine life cycle can use to improve the energy efficiency of
the mines. Each of these suggestions is backed by sound research. However, many
other areas still require further research so we can bridge the gap between theo-
retical benchmarks and actual energy efficiency performance.
Comminution and material handling are still the main areas that show the most
potential for energy efficiency improvement. The gap between theoretical bench-
marks and current best practice is still wide. For example, as I have pointed out
earlier, Sanchidrián and colleagues estimate that the maximum total energy mea-
sured during a blast does not exceed 26% of the available explosive energy [6]. We
will need to reimagine how we remove in situ material and reduce its fragment sizes
to the sizes required to liberate valuable minerals from gangue in order to bridge
this gap.
Certainly, research that uses holistic, systems-based approaches (e.g.,
mine-to-mill techniques) that lead to globally optimal systems should be encour-
aged over approaches that optimize subsystems alone [4, 11, 18, 19]. At a mini-
mum, any energy efficiency improvement initiative should evaluate the effect of
improving a subsystem along the mining energy chain on the global energy effi-
ciency of the mine. Management should not pursue any energy improvement ini-
tiative that improves a subsystem but does not result in overall energy
improvement. Hence, future research that aims to improve mining energy efficiency
should always consider the system-wide effects of any efforts to optimize energy
efficiency.
Specific areas that can provide the necessary improvement in energy efficiency
of comminution and material handling include research that helps us improve our
understanding of energy transformations during blasting so that we can direct more
of the explosives energy toward useful work. Also, we need better understanding of
how operators affect energy efficiency of material handling machines. This is
necessary to clarify the relationship between specific operator practices and energy
efficiency. Finally, to facilitate more energy efficient comminution, we need to
better understand fracture mechanics in rocks.
In addition to comminution and material handling, especially in light of climate
change and its implications for mining, there is a need for research that facilitates
optimal integration of renewable energy sources into mines. We need more research
that provides means for determining optimal hybrid systems for different operating
and economic conditions [20]. This is particularly important for mines in remote
areas where there is little to no energy infrastructure.
Finally, as I have argued elsewhere [21], we need research that properly artic-
ulates the return on investment for public policy that facilitates energy efficiency in
the minerals industry. Typically, manufacturing and residential energy consumers
get the bulk of the policy attention when it comes to energy efficiency. However,
mining is very energy intensive and a significant energy consumer in many
6 K. Awuah-Offei

economies. In particular, electricity consumption by the mining industry makes up a

significant portion of the energy use in developing countries with significant
extractive industries [22]. Hence, it will be of public interest to increase the energy
efficiency of mines in order to improve the energy efficiency of the entire economy.

1.5 Conclusions

It is my hope that this volume will be a valuable resource for industry professionals
and researchers. The work in this volume represents the state of the art regarding
key topics in energy efficiency in the minerals sector. The breadth of coverage and
the depth in each of the chapters make it a useful resource for all managers and
engineers interested in energy consumption and efficiency at the mine site. Above
all, I hope that this volume will spur on further discussions on all aspects of energy
efficiency in mining.

References

1. Levesque M, Millar D, Paraszczak J (2014) Energy and mining—the home truths. J Clean
Prod 84:233–255. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.12.088
2. Lusk B, Silva JJ (2018) Energy distribution in the blast fragmentation process. Energy Effi
Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
3. Konya CJ, Konya A (2018) Effect of hole stemming practices on energy efficiency of
comminution. Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
4. Johnson C (2018) Effect of wave collision on fragmentation, throw and energy efficiency of
mining and comminution. Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
5. Karpuz C (2018) Energy efficiency of drilling operations. Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract
Resour Dir
6. Sanchidrián JA, Segarra P, López LM (2018) Energy efficiency in rock blasting. Energy Effi
Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
7. Soofastaei A, Karimpour E, Knights P, Kizil M (2018) Energy efficient loading and hauling
operations. Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
8. Awuah-Offei K (2018) Energy efficiency in cable shovel operations. Energy Effi Miner Ind
Best Pract Resour Dir
9. Sahoo LK, Bandyopadhyay S, Banerjee R (2018) Benchmarking energy consumption of truck
haulage. Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
10. Abdi-Oskouei M, Awuah-Offei K (2018) Role of the operator in dragline energy efficiency.
Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
11. Klein B, Wang C, Nadolski S (2018) Energy efficient comminution: best practices and future
research needs. Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
12. Moats MS (2018) Energy efficiency of electrowinning. Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract
Resour Dir
13. Bouchard J, Sbarbaro D, Desbiens A (2018) Plant automation for energy efficient mineral
processing. Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
14. Tejera JM, Rios G, Martínez T, Palacios M (2018) Energy management systems in copper
smelting: the atlantic copper case study. Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
1 Introduction 7

15. Sanchez JPP (2018) Solar energy applications in mining: a case study. Energy Effi Miner Ind
Best Pract Resour Dir
16. Demirel N (2018) Energy efficient mine ventilation practicesjosé pablo paredes sánchez.
Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
17. Terblanche PJ, Kearney MP, Hearn CS, Knights PF (2018) Technology selection and sizing
of on-board energy recovery systems to reduce fuel consumption of diesel electric mine haul
trucks. Energy Effi Miner Ind Best Pract Resour Dir
18. Schofield N, Moore J, Carswell J (2013) Mine to mill reconciliation. AusIMM Bull 38–42
19. Nadolski S, Klein B, Elmo D, Scoble M (2015) Cave-to-Mill: a Mine-to-Mill approach for
block cave mines. Min Technol 124:47–55. doi:10.1179/1743286315Y.0000000001
20. Carvalho M, Romero A, Shields G, Millar DL (2014) Optimal synthesis of energy supply
systems for remote open pit mines. Appl Therm Eng 64:315–330. doi:10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2013.12.040
21. Awuah-Offei K (2016) Energy efficiency in mining: a review with emphasis on the role of
operators in loading and hauling operations. J Clean Prod. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.01.035
22. Oladiran MT, Meyer JP (2007) Energy and energy analyses of energy consumptions in the
industrial sector in South Africa. Appl Energy 84:1056–1067. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2007.
02.004
 Part I
Ground Fragmentation
Chapter 2
Energy Distribution in the Blast
Fragmentation Process

Braden Lusk and Jhon J. Silva

Abstract The study of energy distribution in a blast fragmentation process is the

subject of active research. The complexity of the phenomena and the high intensity
and speed of some of the physical processes occurring during an explosion such as
high pressures and temperatures make measuring of the energy distribution a very
difficult task. Because of the limitation of current technologies to measure the actual
energy released in an explosion, the assessment of energy distribution is done
considering the balance between the ideal energy stored in the explosive and the
effects of the released energy in the surrounding media. To study the ideal amount
of energy in the explosive, it is necessary to use thermophysics and thermodynamic
principles, while the effects in the surrounding media are explained using materials
deformation theories, material fracture models, and dynamics. This chapter will
review the basic principles behind the assessment of the ideal energy in the
explosives and discuss the most accepted theories about the distribution of the
energy in the surrounding media when an explosion takes place.

Keywords Explosive energy
Fracture
Vibration
Detonation

Blasting Fragmentation

2.1 Introduction

In the rock blasting process, there are two main considerations: the explosive and
the confining rock media. The effects of the energy released by the explosives in the
rock media and measured as fragmentation, ground movement, and vibration
among others, are dependent on the characteristics of the explosive products.

B. Lusk
Missouri S&T, 226 McNutt Hall, 1400 N Bishop Avenue, Rolla, MO 65401, USA
e-mail: blusk@mst.edu
J. J. Silva (&)
University of Kentucky, 504 Rose Street, 234H M&MRB, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
e-mail: jhon.silva@uky.edu

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 11

K. Awuah-Offei (ed.), Energy Efficiency in the Minerals Industry, Green Energy
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54199-0_2
12 B. Lusk and J. J. Silva

It is also a function of the initial conditions and the properties of the rock media.
The varying levels of initial conditions and properties of the rock media are often
characterized simply as confinement. When the energy is released from the
explosive, a chemical reaction involving a fast oxidation reaction occurs. As a
consequence of the oxidation, a significant amount of heat is generated. The heat
increases the temperature of the gasses, expanding the gasses into a volume much
larger than the original volume. As a result of the rapid expansion of the gasses, a
high pressure is developed. The high pressure in the gasses will perform different
tasks in the confining media in the form of plastic and elastic deformation,
movement, rock damage and fracturing, among others. The release of energy in the
explosive involves changes of the matter between different states from solid to
liquid and gaseous and also will produce changes in its chemical state. Engineers
and scientists use thermophysics principles to assess the temperatures and amounts
of energy required to change the matter (the explosive) between the different states.
On the other hand, they use thermochemistry to study variations in the chemical
state. Both disciplines allow us to quantify the changes in internal energy (U) and
enthalpy (H) [3]. A low input energy is required to start the process of releasing the
internal energy stored in the explosive. In the initial stage, the bonds in the
molecules are broken in an endothermic process. Once the process has started, the
changes in the chemical state of the explosives will allow the formation of products
resulting in the liberation of the energy of the explosive in an exothermic reaction
[5, 7]. To better understand the balance of energy stored in the explosive, this
chapter will review the basic physical concepts of heat, temperature, and work.
Because the explosive matter changes between different states, the chapter will
also review the heat capacity, latent heat of fusion, heat of vaporization, and heat of
transitions. Changes in the chemistry of the explosives will produce heat of reac-
tion, heat of formation, heat of combustion heat of detonation, and heat after burn.
Chemistry and state changes are usually measured and quantified by assessing the
internal energy and the enthalpy of the explosive.
To study the tasks or effects of the energy released by the explosives in the
surrounding media, it is also necessary to review the concepts of rock fracture and
rock fragmentation. Rock fracture deals with the study of generation and propa-
gation of one or more cracks while rock fragmentation not only studies generation
and propagation of many cracks but also the total energy consumed by the sur-
rounding media and the final size distribution of the fragments [14]. Fragmentation
also includes rotation and movement of individual rock particles, which produces
grinding during movement. To better understand the rock fragmentation process,
this chapter will review the Griffith energy balance concept, the strain energy
released rate, fracture surface energy, and the fracture surface energy consumed. It
is commonly accepted that the release of energy from the explosives in the rock
media will be distributed in different functions such as: (1) the energy that produces
plastic deformation in the crushed zone adjacent to the blasthole and is used in the
borehole expansion, (2) the energy to create new cracks and new surfaces in the
fractured zone, (3) the energy used to extend and open the current cracks in the
fractured zone, (4) the energy to mobilize the rock fragments and provide an initial
2 Energy Distribution in the Blast Fragmentation Process 13

velocity to flying rock fragments, (5) the energy that provides initial angular
velocity to rotating rock fragments, (6) the energy consumed in heating the rock
mass, (7) the seismic energy carried by the stress waves out of the fractured zone,
and (8) other forms of energy including radiant energy in form of electromagnetic
radiation, sound, light, and others.
All of the functions described briefly above consume portions of the overall
energy contained in the explosive product. The distribution of this energy is dic-
tated by many factors. Each function is critical in the analysis of the fragmentation
process. As a finite quantity of energy exists in a column of explosive, the sum of
energy consumed by all functions must be equal to that available. Many of these
functions are well defined in the literature and practice; however, the overall energy
balance and some specific functions are not clearly understood and thus are debated
widely in the literature. This chapter discusses some of the most accepted and
proposed distributions found in recent research.

2.2 Stored Energy in the Explosives and Release Balance

The energy produced when explosives react is an oxidation process. A similar

process occurs in a combustion reaction. The main difference between the two
chemical reactions (detonation and combustion) is the high velocity of the reaction
in an explosion. In the simplest definition, an explosion can be defined as a
chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen and releases heat. Under
this concept, the explosive can be called the reactant, and the source of oxygen is
called the oxidizer. During the process, new chemical substances or products are
created from the reactant and the oxidizer. In chemistry, the difference between the
internal energy of the reactant and the products is called heat of reaction. In the case
where the reactant is an explosive such heat is known as heat of explosion. The
amount of heat generated in an explosion is indirectly measured by the energy
content in an explosive. It is related to the characteristics of the explosive material
and the available quantity of oxidizer to burn all the reactant to its most highly
oxidized products. The resulting products will have the lowest internal energy. The
relevant characteristics of the explosive are quantities often determined experi-
mentally. Because of the speed of the reaction and the complex process involved in
an explosion, some of the quantities can be measured, but others need to be esti-
mated from secondary information. Among the most significant characteristics of
an explosive used to estimate the level of energy stored in the explosive are
(1) density, (2) detonation velocity, and (3) detonation pressure. Based on these
parameters, it is possible to assess the theoretical energy available in the explosive
and the energy available to do useful work. The amount of oxidizer required can be
determined using oxygen balance analysis of the explosion phenomena.
The chemical reaction of the explosion needs to generate expanding product
gasses. If no gasses are generated in the process, the released energy of the
explosive will remain in the reactant as heat and no mechanical work will be
14 B. Lusk and J. J. Silva

transferred from the explosive to the surrounding rock. In this, we explain the
oxygen balance analysis and include a discussion of the most significant explosive
properties relevant to the stored energy.

2.2.1 Reaction Product Hierarchy

Most of the industrial explosives consist of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen
and are called CHNO explosives [3]. The order of products formed during an
explosion is known as the reaction product hierarchy. The “rules of thumb” state
that:
1. All nitrogen becomes N2,
2. All available oxygen goes first to convert hydrogen to water H2O,
3. Any oxygen left after H2O formation burns carbon to CO,
4. Leftover oxygen from step (3) converts CO to CO2,
5. Leftover oxygen from step (4) forms O2 and is available for use in secondary
reactions,
6. Traces of NOx (mixed oxides of nitrogen) are always formed, and
7. Any leftover carbon becomes solid residue.
A practical example is the reaction of cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine
(O2NNCH2)3, best known by the Research Department Formula X (RDX). Its
oxidizing reaction is as follows:

C3H6N6O6

1. All nitrogen becomes N2:

6N ! 3N2

2. All available oxygen goes first to convert hydrogen to water H2O

6H þ 3O ! 3H2 O ð3O remainingÞ

3. Any oxygen left after H2O formation burns carbon to CO

3C þ 3O ! 3CO ðall O was consumedat this pointÞ

2 Energy Distribution in the Blast Fragmentation Process 15

4. Leftover oxygen from step (3) converts CO to CO2.

There is no O, so no CO2 is formed
So the overall reaction of RDX is:

C3 H6 N6 O6 ! 3N2 þ 3H2 O þ 3CO

This is the initial reaction sequence of RDX, but some products remain reactive
after the initial reaction is complete and they will undergo to further reactions [3].

2.2.2 Oxygen Balance (OB)

The amount of energy stored in the explosive and the amount of energy that can be
released is related to the capacity to bring the reactant to its most highly oxidized
products. If there is enough oxygen in the process, the heat of explosion will be
maximized, and the production of gaseous products will be optimum. Knowing the
required amount of oxygen is fundamental to knowing the optimum performance
conditions for the explosion. The calculation of the oxygen balance is straightfor-
ward and can be done assuming that the general formula for the explosive is:

Cx Hy Nw Oz ð2:1Þ

Assuming that all the carbon could be oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO2) and all
hydrogen is transformed into water (H2O), then Eq. 2.2 gives the number of oxygen
atoms required for exact balance after explosion.
y
OB ¼ z  2x  ð2:2Þ
2

If OB in Eq. 2.2 is zero or positive, then there is enough oxygen for the
explosion. However, a negative value will indicate a lack of oxygen in the reaction,
meaning not all the energy is released in the process. If the OB is expressed in terms
of the weight of oxygen compared to the weight of explosive (considering that the
atomic weight of the oxygen is 16), Eq. 2.2 becomes:

1600
y
OBð%Þ ¼ z  2x  ; ð2:3Þ
MWexpl 2

where MWexpl is the molecular weight of the explosive.

In the case of RDX, the oxygen balance is given by:

C3 H6 N6 O6 : x ¼ 3; y ¼ 6; w ¼ 6; z¼6

and
16 B. Lusk and J. J. Silva

MWexpl ¼ 12:01  3 þ 1:008  6 þ 14:008  6 þ 16  6 ¼ 222:126;

where 12.01, 1.008, 14.008, and 16 are the atomic weight of carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and oxygen, respectively. So Eq. 2.3 results for RDX in:
 
1600 6
OBð%Þ ¼ 623 ¼ 21:61%
222:126 2

In the case of RDX, the OB indicates that the combustion will be incomplete,
and a large amount of toxic gasses such as carbon monoxide will be present.
Commercial explosives target the OB close to zero to minimize the production of
harmful gasses and optimize the explosive properties. The OB evaluation of
explosives is a tool to improve the mixture of explosives (combination of negative
with positive oxygen balanced explosives) but the analysis, and the explosion
process is much more complex, and the final results cannot be predicted only using
the OB concept.

2.2.3 Properties of Explosives Related to Energy Stored

in the Explosive

2.2.3.1 Density

The density of the explosive is closely related to the velocity of detonation

(VOD) of the explosive. The density is frequently used to estimate the VOD of the
explosive. There are different definitions of density depending on the application
and conditions including:
• Theoretical maximum density (TMD),
• Bulk density,
• Loaded density.
The TMD is the mass per unit volume of a single crystal of the explosive. It is
sometimes referred as the “crystal density of the explosive”. Eremenko [6] pro-
posed a relationship between the TMD and the hydrogen content of substitute
organic molecules as:

qTMD ¼ ai  ki H; ð2:4Þ

where ai and ki are constants dependent upon the chemical structural group and H is
the percentage by weight of hydrogen in the explosive molecule.
2 Energy Distribution in the Blast Fragmentation Process 17

2.2.3.2 Velocity of Detonation (VOD)

The velocity at which the detonation wave travels through an explosive column is
called the velocity of detonation. The performance of an explosive is often mea-
sured by its VOD. In general, a reduction in the VOD will cause a reduction in the
detonation pressure as well as in the availability of the released energy of the
explosive.
There are different methodologies to calculate the VOD of an explosive, ranging
from empirical calculations based on the molecular structure of the explosive [3],
up to direct methodologies such as the Mettegang method, which is based on the
breaking of wires at known distances and the interruption of electrical currents
while the explosive is detonated. VOD is also measured by monitoring the change
in resistance in cables or probes embedded in the explosive during detonation.
Among the variables affecting the VOD of explosives are: (a) the relationship
between VOD and density; and (b) the diameter of the charge and its relationship to
VOD are of particular interest for practical applications.
Although there is a relationship between VOD and density for most explosives,
the relationship is not linear. However, for some industrial explosives such as
trinitrotoluene (TNT) and pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), intervals of the
relationship between q and VOD can be considered linear and given by:

VOD ¼ a þ bq; ð2:5Þ

where a and b are empirical constants depending to the type of explosive and q is
the density of the unreacted explosive. The explosive can have varying density
according to the amount of void spaces in the total volume of explosive. If the zero
void density is known [the theoretical maximum density (TMD)], the VOD at other
densities can be estimated using Eq. 2.6 as:
   
q q
VOD ¼ VOD0 þ 1:5 1  ; ð2:6Þ
qTMD qTMD

where VOD′ is the VOD at the TMD density.

Experimental testing has shown two important aspects of the diameter of the
explosive and its relationship with the VOD. The first is the concept of the ideal
VOD and the critical diameter or failure diameter. Figure 2.1 shows a plot of VOD
versus diameter for ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO) and two types of emulsions
[11]. The ideal VOD, ðVODi Þ can be seen as the VOD when the diameter of the
explosive is infinite, at this point the, maximum VOD is reached for that specific
explosive material. As the diameter becomes smaller, the steady-state detonation
velocity decreases until the VOD is lower than sound speed in the unreacted
explosive material. The steady state can no longer be maintained and the detonation
can fail. This diameter is known as the critical or failure diameter ðDcrit Þ or ðDf Þ.
The value of Df depends on the confinement conditions, particle size of the
18 B. Lusk and J. J. Silva

Fig. 2.1 VOD versus charge diameter. (Adapted from [3])

explosive material, initial density, and initial temperature of the unreacted explosive
material.
Sun [3] proposed an empirical relationship (Eq. 2.7) between charge diameter
and the VOD of an explosive.
b
VOD ¼ VODideal  ed2 ; ð2:7Þ

where b is a constant related to the explosive under consideration (b = −2810 for

ANFO), and d is the diameter of the explosive charge.

2.2.3.3 Detonation Pressure

The detonation phenomena are a very complex process occurring in 3D conditions.

Despite its 3D nature, the study of detonation is simpler to describe using 1D
theories such as the Chapman–Jouguet (CJ), [8] the Zel’dovich [13], von Neumann
[12], and Döring [4] (ZND) theories. The CJ theory assumes that the detonation
2 Energy Distribution in the Blast Fragmentation Process 19

Fig. 2.2 Detonation process

process occurs in three zones called the fresh mixture (unreacted explosives), the
reaction zone and the products zone (oxidized explosives) (Fig. 2.2).
Under the Chapman–Jouguet theory, the reaction zone shrinks to zero and the
products are assumed to flow at a locally sonic speed relative to the shock, which is
called the Chapman–Jouguet condition [8]. Using CJ theory, the detonation pres-
sure can be estimated using Eq. 2.8.

q  VOD2
PCJ ¼ ; ð2:8Þ
cþ1

where PCJ is the detonation pressure in gigapascals (GPa); q is the density of the
unreacted explosive in g/cm3 and c is the adiabatic gamma function that can be
defined as the ratio of specific heats of the detonation product gases; and VOD is
the velocity of detonation in km/s.
The detonation product gases are molecules such as H2O, CO2, CO, N2, etc.
Assuming that for most industrial explosives and mixtures, the composition is
similar at high temperatures and pressures, at the CJ condition c can be assumed as
3 (c ¼ 2:83 and c ¼ 2:73 for PETN and TNT, respectively). Equation 2.8 can be
written as:

q  VOD2
PCJ ¼ ð2:9Þ
4

2.2.4 Energy Stored in the Explosive

The energy stored in the explosive material can be calculated based on the chemical
composition of the explosive, assuming that the chemical reactions have reached
equilibrium and that all reaction products have the same temperature. To reach the
chemical equilibrium, the OB should be close to zero as in many industrial
explosives. The internal energy of a substance is defined as the total quantity of
energy that it possesses by virtue of the presence, relative positions, and movements
of its components molecules, atoms, and subatomic units. The kinetic energy is
represented by the energy of vibration between the atoms of a molecule and the
motion of electrons within the atoms. This portion of energy is determined by the
20 B. Lusk and J. J. Silva

temperature and molecular structure of the substance. The potential energy is

represented by the attractive and repulsive forces acting between molecules, atoms,
electrons, and other atomic elements.
Before the calculation of the energy stored in the explosive, it is necessary to
define some key terms.

2.2.4.1 Heat of Reaction

Using thermochemistry concepts, the heat of reaction can be defined as the dif-
ference in the internal energy when a chemical substance changes states due to
changes in the bond between molecules. The heat of reaction is also known as the
enthalpy of reaction. When a chemical reaction occurs at constant pressure and
temperature, the heat developed (released or absorbed) is equal to the change in
enthalpy.

DH ¼ DU þ PDV; ð2:10Þ

where DH is the change in the enthalpy, DU is the change in the internal energy, P
is pressure, and DV is the change in the volume. Using the ideal gas law, Eq. 2.10
can be written in the form of:

DH ¼ DU þ DnRT; ð2:11Þ

where Dn is the difference of gaseous moles for products and reactants, R is the gas
constant (8.3143 J/mole), and T is temperature (298.15 K).
For example, if gaseous hydrogen molecules are burned with gaseous oxygen
molecules to form water in the gaseous state:

2H2 þ O2 ! 2H2 O ð2:12Þ

In the initial state, there are (H–H) bonds and (O–O) bonds that are destroyed to
create in a final state (H–O) bonds. The internal energy stored in the bonds in the
initial state are different from those in the final state. The difference is the heat of
reaction. Because the heat of reaction is measured regarding the changes in the
state, it is necessary to define a “standard state” defined as 25 °C (298 K) and 1 atm
of pressure for engineering purposes. The heat of reaction at the standard state can
be calculated as the difference between the standard heats of formation of the
products and the standards heats of formations of the reactants (Hess’s law).
X X
DHro ¼ DHfoðproductsÞ  DHfoðreactantsÞ ; ð2:13Þ

where DHro is the heat of reaction at the standard state and DHfo is the heat of
formation at the standard state. The heat of formation can be considered a special
case of heat of reaction and is defined next.
2 Energy Distribution in the Blast Fragmentation Process 21

2.2.4.2 Heat of Formation

This is the enthalpy change involved in making a particular compound, or mole-

cule, from its elements where both the elements and the final compound are at
standard-state conditions. For example, nitrogen dioxide (NO2ðgÞ ) is formed from
the combination of nitrogen oxide (NOðgÞ ) and one molecule of oxygen [2O atoms,
(O2ðgÞ )] all in gaseous state.

2NOðgÞ þ O2ðgÞ ! 2NO2ðgÞ

From calorimetry information, it is known that the values for the standard
enthalpy of formation for the compounds involved in the reaction are:
O2ðgÞ 0 kJ/mol, reactant
NOðgÞ 90.25 kJ/mol, reactant
NO2ðgÞ 33.18 kJ/mol product
So, the heat of formation can be calculated using Eq. 2.13 as:
 
33:18 kJ 90:25 kJ kJ
DHro ¼ 2 mol   2mol  þ 1 mol  0
mol mol mol
DHro ¼ 114:1 kJ

In this example, DHro is negative, meaning that heat is liberated during the
reaction and the process is exothermic, on the contrary, positive values mean that it
is necessary to supply energy to the reaction and the reaction will be endothermic.

2.2.4.3 Heat of Detonation (Detonation Energy)

The detonation energy is the heat of reaction of the explosive going to explosive
products. It does not include any heat generated by secondary reactions of the
explosive or its products with air. At this point, it is necessary to highlight that the
detonation energy calculated using Eq. 2.11 will be different from the energy in a
real detonation. Reviewing Eqs. 2.10 and 2.11, it is apparent that the heat of
reaction is also a function of the temperature, volume, and pressure at the moment
of the reaction. Some properties of the explosive such as the density and VOD, and
some detonation properties such as the detonation pressure along with character-
istics of the surrounding media where the detonation take place will affect those
variables, thus affecting the detonation energy.
There are different methodologies to measure the detonation energy experi-
mentally in the lab (using a bomb calorimeter device) or in the field under some
limitations. The bomb calorimeter device works by measuring the temperature
increase of the water surrounding detonated explosives confined in a chamber
22 B. Lusk and J. J. Silva

Fig. 2.3 Bomb calorimeter device

(stainless steel bomb). Figure 2.3 shows a basic schematic of a bomb calorimeter
device.
For example, the detonation energy of the explosive RDX with the elemental
formula given by C3 H6 N6 O6 can be calculated using Eq. 2.13. The overall reaction
using the reaction product hierarchy rule of thumb for RDX is:

C3 H6 N6 O6 ! 3N2 þ 3H2 O þ 3CO

From calorimetry information, it is known that the values for the standard
enthalpy of formation for the compounds involved in the reaction are:
C3 H6 N6 O6ðsÞ 14.7 kcal/g mol, reactant
N2ðgÞ 0 kcal/g mol, product
H2 OðlÞ −68.317 kcal/g mol product
COðgÞ −26.415 kcal/g mol product
So the heat of formation can be calculated using Eq. 2.11 as:
 
0 kcal ð68:317Þ kcal ð26:415Þ kcal 14:7 kcal
DHro ¼ 3 þ3  þ3  1
g mol g mol g mol g mol
DHro ¼ 298:9 kcal=g mole

If that value is compared to the experimental value of −335.4012 kcal/g mol [3],
there is a difference of 36.5012 kcal/g mol or −10.9%. The difference is due to
2 Energy Distribution in the Blast Fragmentation Process 23

changes in pressure and temperature in a real detonation. Also, when the reaction
product hierarchy is changed, for example, assuming that all the hydrogen burns to
H2O and all the remaining oxygen react with the carbon to form CO2, the theo-
retical estimated will be different from the previous calculation.

2.2.4.4 Energy as Expansion Work

Ideally, if the reaction products can be expanded all the way down to atmospheric
pressure, the expansion work (the work that the released gaseous detonation
products exert on the borehole wall) should be almost equal to the detonation
energy. If the detonation process is plotted using the pressure–volume (p–v)
Hugoniot plane (Fig. 2.4), the expansion work can be defined in Eq. 2.14.

Zv
u2
Ew ¼ p dv  ; ð2:14Þ
2
v1

where Ew is the expansion work and u is the particle velocity in the detonation
process. If the expansion work is expressed using the main variables in the problem,
the expansion work can be expressed using:

PCJ
Ew ¼ ; ð2:15Þ
2qCJ

Fig. 2.4 p-v Hugoniot plane

24 B. Lusk and J. J. Silva

where PCJ is the detonation pressure (Eq. 2.8) and qCJ is the density, both variables
at the Chapman–Jouguet condition. The density at the CJ condition can be
expressed as:

1þc
qCJ ¼ qo ; ð2:16Þ
c

where qo is the initial density of the explosive (unreacted explosive) and as seen
before c is the adiabatic gamma constant. Combining Eqs. 2.7, 2.8 and 2.15 in
Eq. 2.14, the expansion work can be calculated as:
c 2b
Ew ¼ 2
VOD2ideal  ed2 ð2:17Þ
2ð 1 þ c Þ

This expression allows us to examine the incidence of VOD and charge diameter
in the expansion work. Higher VOD will result in higher Ew . Also, considering that
parameter b is always negative, decreasing the diameter will decrease the expansion
work (Ew ).

2.2.4.5 Final Remarks

Thermodynamic and thermophysics analysis allows for the calculation of the

energy stored in the explosive through the calculation of the heat of formation and
heat of reaction; however, whether the assumption of reaction product hierarchy is
valid or not would influence such calculations. The expansion work energy can be
assessed using Eq. 2.13 or 2.14. Nevertheless, three variables can change the
energy attributed to an explosive the: (a) pressure (confinement), (b) temperature,
and (c) volume conditions. For example, in a detonation in a rock mass, the gen-
erated gasses will begin to escape to the atmosphere through openings and cracks.
The temperature, volume, and pressure vary, changing the equilibrium of the
reaction between products and reactants, thus changing the expansion work energy.
So the actual amount of energy delivered in a blast is unknown but can be estimated
from the amount of energy stored in the explosive and the assessment of the amount
of energy as expansion work.

2.3 Balance and Use of the Expansion Work Energy

Delivered to the Surrounding Rock

Significant research has been performed to determine specific applications of

energy produced from the detonation of explosives for rock blasting. The debate is
ongoing with regards to the actual quantities of energy expended in different aspects
of the blasting process. The release of energy and subsequent fragmentation,
Another random document with
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hesitation Maudslay pointed to a worn-out bench vice and asked
whether he could take his rank among the other workmen if he could
fix it as good as new before the end of the day. He was told to go
ahead. He resteeled and trued the jaws, filed them up, recut and
hardened them, and before the time set had it together, trimmer and
in better shape than any of its neighbors. It was examined, admired
and accepted as his diploma as a journeyman.
His advancement was rapid, and in about a year, while still only
nineteen, he was made general foreman and maintained his
leadership without the slightest difficulty. He remained with Bramah
for eight years, during which time the two laid the foundation for
many of the modern machine tools, more especially the slide-rest
and screw-cutting lathe. We have already considered Maudslay’s
work done in connection with Bramah and little need be added here
in regard to it. During this time Bramah invented the hydraulic press,
but the cup-leather packing which is so essential a part of it was
suggested by Maudslay.
He left the Pimlico shop because Bramah would not give him more
than 30 shillings ($7.50) a week, and with a single helper started a
little blacksmithing and jobbing shop on his own account near Wells
and Oxford streets in London.
His first customer was an artist who gave him an order for an iron
easel. Business prospered and he found plenty of work. His
reputation was established, however, in connection with the
Portsmouth block machinery, which was described in the last
chapter. The building of this machinery occupied about eight years,
from 1800 to 1808. The design was substantially Brunel’s, but Mr.
Nasmyth says that “every member of it was full of Maudslay’s
presence and the mechanical perfection of its details, its
practicability and adaptability show his handiwork at every turn.”
Soon after this work was undertaken, Maudslay moved his shop to
Margaret Street, near Cavendish Square. During the building of the
block machinery Maudslay had met Joshua Field, who had been
engaged as a draftsman in the Portsmouth dockyards under Sir
Samuel Bentham and had worked with him in the development of the
machinery. Field was transferred to General Bentham’s office at the
Admiralty in 1804, and a year later joined Maudslay. Five years later
they moved to Lambeth on the south side of the Thames and bought
an old riding school on Westminster Road on what was formerly a
swampy marsh. Here the firm of Maudslay & Field continued its long
and famous career. Few firms have influenced mechanical
development more, and for many years it was one of the leading
machine shops of the world. Here Maudslay did his life work as one
of the leaders in the development not only of machine tools but of
the steam engine, both stationary and marine. After his death in
1831 the business was continued by Mr. Field, who outlived him
many years, and by Maudslay’s son and grandson, both of whom
were fine mechanics and men of great influence.
It was in connection with the slide-rest and screw-cutting lathe that
Maudslay is best known. Too much value cannot be placed on the
slide-rest and its combination with a lead screw, operated by change
gears. It is used in some form in almost every machine tool and is
one of the great inventions of history.
Like most of the great inventions, it was the work of many men. In
crude applications, parts of it date back to the Middle Ages.
Leonardo da Vinci caught an inkling of it. French writers in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries describe and illustrate devices
which involve the parts of it. Fig. 13, reproduced from an illustration
in the old work of Besson, first published in 1569,[32] shows a lead
screw. The copy from which this illustration was taken is printed in
Latin and is in the Astor library, New York. The upper shaft had three
drums; the middle one carried the rope which was manipulated by
the operator. Of the drums at the ends, the one at the left operated a
lead screw and the one on the right, the piece being cut. The two
outer weights held the follower up against the lead screw. The
cutting was, of course, intermittent, as in all the earlier types of
lathes. The idea of the lead screw occurs in other French works of
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the lathe shown in Fig.
14, from a French book published in 1741,[33] gears instead of ropes
were used to connect the rotation of the lead screw with that of the
work, but if the idea of change gears was contemplated, it was not
developed.
[32] “Des Instruments Mathématiques et Méchaniques, &c., Inventées
par Jacques Besson.” First Latin and French Edit., 1569. Plate 9. Two later
editions were published at Lyons, one in 1578 and one in 1582. The same
copper plates were used in the three editions.
[33] Holtzapffel: “Turning and Mechanical Manipulation,” Vol. II, p. 618.
London, 1847.

Figure 13. French Screw-Cutting Lathe, Previous to 1569

 Figure 14. French Screw-Cutting Lathe, about 1740

The slide-rest was also known. An illustration of a French slide-

rest, published long before Maudslay’s time, is reproduced in Fig. 3.
In Bramah’s original “slide-tool,” the tail-stock and slide-rest were
combined.[34] It was made about 1795 by Maudslay while still his
foreman. How much of the design was Bramah’s and how much
Maudslay’s we cannot tell. It was a light, flimsy affair and very
different from the slide-rests Maudslay was making only a few years
later.
[34] Buchanan: “Practical Essays on Mill Work and Other Machinery.”
London, 1841. Volume of Plates.

In none of these was the slide-rest combined with change gears

and a power-driven lead screw. It was this combination which formed
Maudslay’s great contribution, together with improvements in
proportion and in mechanical design which raised the device from an
ingenious but cumbersome mechanical movement to an instrument
of precision and power. Jesse Ramsden, a famous instrument
maker, is said to have made a small lathe in 1775, which had change
wheels and a sliding tool holder moved by a lead screw. The writer
has been unable to find any illustration or description of it, and if
such a lathe existed, it certainly did not exert a very wide influence.
The combination was anticipated in Bentham’s famous patent of
1793. In this patent Bentham says: “When the motion is of a rotative
kind, advancement (of the tool) may be provided by hand, yet
regularity may be more effectually insured by the aid of mechanism.
For this purpose one expedient is the connecting, for instance, by
cogged wheels, of the advancing motion of the piece with the
rotative motion of the tool.”[35] This patent contained no drawings,
and the suggestion was not, so far as is known, embodied in any
definite construction.
[35] See the British patent records. Patent No. 1951, dated April 23,
1793.

Many men were working at the problem of generating an accurate

screw thread. The use of dies was quite well known, but their design
and workmanship was of the crudest order and their product of the
same character; and they were inadequate for the making of any
large threads. Holtzapffel’s book on “Turning and Mechanical
Manipulation,” published in London, 1847, describes some of the
attempts of the earlier mechanics to devise other means.[36] At the
famous Soho works in Birmingham a workman by the name of
Anthony Robinson cut a screw 7 feet long and 6 inches in diameter
with a square, triple thread. After the cylinder had been turned, paper
was cut and fitted around it, removed, marked in ink with parallel
oblique lines, then replaced on the cylinder and the lines were
pricked through with a center punch. The paper was again removed
and dots connected by fine lines with a file. The alternate spaces
between the lines were then cut out with a chisel and hammer and
smoothed by filing. A block of lead and tin, as a temporary guide nut,
was then cast around the partially formed screw. Adjustable cutters
were fixed upon this guide nut and it was used as a kind of tool-
holding slide-rest, being rotated around the screw by hand levers,
thereby cutting the finished thread. In other words, a lead screw was
cut on the piece itself and the temporary nut was used as a tool
holder to finish the work.
[36] Holtzapffel. Vol. II, pp. 635-655.
 One method used for some purposes was to coil two wires around
a core in close contact with each other. One of these was then
removed, leaving a space corresponding to the hollow of the thread.
The core and remaining wire were then dipped in melted tin and
soldered together. In some cases they were actually used in this
form as the desired screw thread. In others, the helical wire was
used to guide a sleeve nut which controlled a tool used to cut a
thread located farther up on the length of the core.
Another method resorted to was that of grooving a smooth cylinder
by a sharp-edged cutter standing at the required pitch angle and
relying on the contact of the knife-edge to produce the proper
traverse along the cylinder as it was rotated, thus developing the
screw. This method is not so crude as it seems and was one of those
used by Maudslay himself. He also used a flat steel tape wound
about a cylindrical bar, but he found the inclined knife method more
satisfactory. The device which he used was a mechanism of
considerable refinement. He employed cylinders of wood, tin, brass
and other soft metals accurately mounted to revolve between
centers. The hardened knife was crescent-shaped, nearly fitting the
cylinder, and fixed at the required angle with great precision by
means of a large graduated wheel and tangent screw. A chasing tool
carried by a small, adjustable slide cut the thread as the stock
moved forward under the incisive action of the inclined knife edge.
Hundreds of screws, both right and left, were made by this device,
and their agreement with each other is said to have been
remarkable. This was the way in which Maudslay generated his first
lead screws.
With the best of the screws so obtained Maudslay made the first
screw-cutting lathe a few years prior to 1800, shown in Fig. 15,[37]
which had two triangular bars for a bed, and was about three feet
long. The headstock carried a live spindle, which was connected with
a lead screw by a pair of gears, and a slide-rest ran upon the
triangular bars under control of a lead screw having four square
threads per inch. In this machine he at first used different lead
screws for different pitches. The inner end of the lower spindle in the
headstock had a two-jawed driving device, which might be
disconnected and into which various lead screws might be fitted.
Later he added change gear wheels.
[37] No. 1601 in South Kensington Museum, London. Cat. M. E.
Collection, Part II, p. 266.

The great idea of using a single lead screw for various pitches, by
means of change gears, was Maudslay’s own. Fig. 16 shows how
rapidly the idea was developed.[38] This machine, built about 1800, is
distinctly modern in appearance. It has a substantial, well-designed,
cast-iron bed, a lead screw with 30 threads to the inch, a back rest
for steadying the work, and was fitted with 28 change wheels with
teeth varying in number from 15 to 50. The intermediate wheel had a
wide face and was carried on the swinging, adjustable arm in order
to mesh with wheels of various diameters on the fixed centers.
Sample screws having from 16 to 100 threads per inch are shown on
the rack in front. Both of these lathes are now in the South
Kensington Museum in London. With lathes of this design, Maudslay
cut the best screws which had been made up to that time. One of
these was 5 feet long, 2 inches in diameter, with 50 threads to the
inch, and the nut fitted to it was 12 inches long, thus engaging 600
threads. “This screw was principally used for dividing scales for
astronomical and other metrical purposes of the highest class. By its
means divisions were produced with such minuteness that they
could only be made visual by a microscope.”[39]
[38] No. 1602 in South Kensington Museum, London. Cat. M. E.
Collection, Part II, pp. 266-267.
[39] “Autobiography of James Nasmyth,” p. 140. London, 1883.

Some idea of how far Maudslay was in advance of his time is

shown by the fact that the wooden pole-lathes in Fig. 2 represent
fairly the state of the art at that time. This form had been in use in
many countries for centuries. One of these wooden lathes, built in
1800, the same year as Maudslay’s lathe, Fig. 16, is also in the
South Kensington Museum, and was in use as late as 1879. Similar
lathes are said to be still used by chair makers in certain portions of
England.[40]
 [40] No. 1596 in South Kensington. Museum, London. Cat. M. E.
Collection, Part II, p. 264.

About 1830, shortly before his death, Maudslay designed and

constructed a lathe with a face-plate 9 feet in diameter operating
over a pit 20 feet deep. This lathe had a massive bed and was used
to turn flywheel rims. It was fitted with a boring bar and was capable
of boring steam cylinders up to 10 feet in diameter. We regret that no
picture of this lathe is available. It would be interesting as it would
show in a striking way the development of the slide-rest and lathe in
the hands of this great mechanic.
Maudslay’s work on the screw thread was not confined to the
lathe. He improved the system of taps and dies whereby they were
made to cut the threads instead of squeezing them up, and he
introduced the use of three or more cutting edges.[41] He made the
first move toward the systematizing of thread sizes and made a
series of taps from 6 inches in diameter, for tapping steam pistons,
down to the smallest sizes used in watch work. The diameters of
these taps varied by eighths and sixteenths of an inch, and their
threads were determined by the respective strengths of each screw.
He established for his own use definite standard pitches. Many
copies of these threads found their way to other shops and
influenced the construction of similar tools elsewhere. In fact,
Holtzapffel says: “I believe it may be fairly advanced, that during the
period from 1800 to 1810, Mr. Maudslay effected nearly the entire
change from the old, imperfect, accidental practice of screw making
to the modern, exact, systematic mode now generally followed by
engineers; and he pursued the subject of the screw with more or less
ardour, and at an enormous expense, until his death.”[42]
[41] Holtzapffel, Vol. II, p. 646.
[42] Ibid., Vol. II, p. 647.
Figure 15. Maudslay’s Screw-Cutting Lathe

About 1797
 Figure 16. Maudslay’s Screw-Cutting Lathe

About 1800

While we would not detract from the ingenuity of others who

conceived the idea of the slide-rest and lead screw, enough has
been given to show that no other mechanic of his day appreciated
their possibilities as he did, and none embodied them in forms as
useful. The fact that for many years the slide-rest was popularly
known as “Maudslay’s go-cart” indicates that his contemporaries
recognized him as its originator.
The business at Lambeth grew steadily until it employed several
hundred men, and embraced the making of saw- and flour-mills, mint
machinery and steam engines of all kinds. With his keen mechanical
intuition he saw that the cumbersome wooden walking beam
characteristic of the Newcomen and Watt engines was unnecessary.
He therefore dispensed with it and drove direct from the engine
crosshead to the crank, thus making the first direct-acting engine,
which held the market for a long time. He built the first marine
engines in England, and his leadership in that field was
unchallenged for many years. Another of his inventions was the
punching machine for punching boiler plates and iron work. His
influence was felt in many directions in the field of machine design.
He was the first to point out the weakness of the clean, sharp
corners in castings which were so prized at that time, and advocated
the use of fillets, showing that they greatly increased the strength.
To the end of his life he retained his personal dexterity at both the
anvil and the bench. One of his greatest delights was to go into the
shop and “have a go” at a piece of work which his workmen found
impossible to do. One of his old workmen, years afterward, speaking
in kindling pride of him, said: “It was a pleasure to see him handle a
tool of any kind, but he was quite splendid with an 18-inch file.”
Nasmyth confirms this, saying: “To be permitted to stand by and
observe the systematic way in which Mr. Maudslay would first mark
or line out his work, and the masterly manner in which he would deal
with his materials, and cause them to assume the desired forms,
was a treat beyond all expression. Every stroke of the hammer,
chisel, or file, told as an effective step towards the intended result. It
was a never-to-be-forgotten lesson in workmanship, in the most
exalted sense of the term.... No one that I ever met with could go
beyond Henry Maudslay himself in his dexterous use of the file. By a
few masterly strokes he could plane surfaces so true that when their
accuracy was tested by a standard plane surface of absolute truth
they were never found defective; neither convex nor concave nor
‘cross-winding,’—that is, twisted.”[43]
[43] “Autobiography of James Nasmyth,” pp. 147-148. London, 1883.

Whitworth is usually credited with having been the originator of the

method of making plane surfaces three at a time, using them to
correct each other. Nasmyth, however, says that Maudslay used this
method and that surface plates so made were in daily use in his
shop. His testimony is so clear that it is given in full: “The importance
of having Standard Planes caused him [i.e., Maudslay] to have many
of them placed on the benches beside his workmen, by means of
which they might at once conveniently test their work. Three of each
were made at a time so that by the mutual rubbing of each on each
the projecting surfaces were effaced. When the surfaces approached
very near to the true plane, the still projecting minute points were
carefully reduced by hard steel scrapers, until at last the standard
plane surface was secured. When placed over each other they
would float upon the thin stratum of air between them until dislodged
by time and pressure. When they adhered closely to each other, they
could only be separated by sliding each off each. This art of
producing absolutely plane surfaces is, I believe, a very old
mechanical ‘dodge.’ But, as employed by Maudslay’s men, it greatly
contributed to the improvement of the work turned out. It was used
for the surfaces of slide valves, or wherever absolute true plane
surfaces were essential to the attainment of the best results, not only
in the machinery turned out, but in educating the taste of his men
towards first-class workmanship.”[44] Whitworth’s later success with
the generation of plane surfaces seems clearly to be a refinement
and outgrowth of Maudslay’s work.
[44] Ibid., pp. 148-149.

Maudslay’s standard of accuracy carried him beyond the use of

ordinary calipers, and he had a bench micrometer of great accuracy
which he kept in his own workshop and always referred to as “The
Lord Chancellor.” It was about 16 inches long and had two plane
jaws and a horizontal screw. The scale was graduated to inches and
tenths of an inch; and the index disk on the screw to one hundred
equal parts. Speaking from the standpoint of fifty years ago,
Nasmyth says: “Not only absolute measure could be obtained by this
means, but also the amount of minute differences could be
ascertained with a degree of exactness that went quite beyond all
the requirements of engineering mechanism; such, for instance, as
the thousandth part of an inch.”[45]
[45] Ibid., p. 150.

Maudslay’s record, as left behind him in steel and iron, would give
him a secure place in engineering history, but his influence as a
trainer of men is quite as great. He loved good work for its own sake
and impressed that standard on all in his employ. Clement, Roberts,
Whitworth, Nasmyth, Seaward, Muir and Lewis worked for him, and
all showed throughout their lives, in a marked way, his influence
upon them. Other workmen, whose names are not so prominent,
spread into the various shops of England the methods and standards
of Maudslay & Field (later Maudslay, Sons & Field) and made
English tool builders the leaders of the world for fifty years.
J. G. Moon, who afterwards became manager of James Watt &
Company of Soho, the successor of Boulton & Watt, was
apprenticed to Maudslay, Sons & Field and gives the following
picture of the shop at the zenith of its prosperity.
There were not more than perhaps a dozen lathes in use there, with cast-iron
box beds such as we now know; but nearly all the lathes had been constructed by
the firm itself and were made without a bed, the poppet or back center and the
slide-rest being supported on a wrought-iron triangular bar, varying in size from,
say, 3-in. to 6-in. side. This bar was supported on cast-iron standards, and
reached from the fixed lathe head to the length required of the “bed.” If the lathes
were self-acting, there were two such triangular bars with the guide screw running
between them. The advantage of these lathes was great, for if a large chuck job
was on hand, the bars could be withdrawn from the fixed head, supported on
standards, and anything that would miss the roof or swing in a pit beneath could
be tackled.
There was one screwing machine or lathe which all apprentices in the vice loft
(as the fitting shop in which the writer was apprenticed was called) had to work
during their curriculum—this was a small double-bar lathe with a guide screw
between. The fixed head was on the right of the operator, and the lathe was
worked by hand by means of a wheel very much like a miniature ship’s steering
wheel. This wheel was about 2-ft. diameter, with handles round the rim, and we
apprentices were put at this machine to develop the muscles of the right arm. The
advantages of having the fixed head on the right (instead of on the left, as in an
ordinary lathe) was that in cutting a right-hand thread the tool receded away from
the start and ran off the end, and thus prevented a “root in,” which might happen if,
whilst pulling at the wheel, you became absorbed in the discussion of the abilities
of a music-hall “star” or other equally interesting topics with a fellow-apprentice.
The writer remembers using a pair of calipers at that time, whose “points” were
about ¹⁄₂ in. wide for measuring over the tops of a thread. These were stamped “J.
Whitworth, 1830,” and formerly belonged to the great screw-thread reformer.
Nearly all the bar lathes were driven by gut bands, and one can remember gut
bands of 1-in. diameter being used.
 Most of the planing machines were made and supplied by Joseph Whitworth &
Co., and the tool boxes were of the “Jim Crow” type, which used to make a half-
turn round by means of a cord when the belt was shifted at the end of each stroke,
thus cutting each way. The forerunner of this used to interest the writer—a
machine in the vice loft that was variously called a shaping machine and a planing
machine. It was driven by means of a disc about 3-ft. diameter, with a slot down
the disc for varying the stroke. A connecting rod from the disc to the tool box
completed this portion of the machine. The tool box was supported and kept true
by two cylindrical bars or guides on each side, so that the whole arrangement was
like the crosshead of an engine worked by disc and connecting rod. On the top of
the tool box was fixed a toothed sector of a wheel, and at the end of each stroke
this sector engaged with a rack, and in this way the tool box took a half-turn and
was ready for cutting on the return stroke. The writer understands that it was from
this machine that Whitworth developed his “Jim Crow” tool box.
There was also a huge shaping machine, whose stroke was anything up to
about 6 ft., which was simply a tool box fixed on the end of a large triangular bar of
about 12-in. side with the “V” downwards. To the back of the bar was attached a
rack, and this, gearing with a pinion, gave the motion. It was a great fascination to
watch this ponderous bar with its tool box slowly coming forward out of its casing
and taking immense cuts.
Another machine tool that also used to interest the writer was a machine for
turning the crank pins of very large solid cranks, the crank pins being about 18-in.
to 20-in. diameter, and the crank shafts about 24-in. to 30-in. diameter. These
immense crank shafts used to be set in the center of the machine, and the tool
would travel round the crank pin until the work was completed, the feed being
worked by means of a ratchet actuated by leaden weights falling to and fro as the
machines slowly revolved.[46]
[46] Junior Institution of Engineers, pp. 167-168. London, 1914.

Maudslay was a large man, over 6 feet 2 inches in height, with a

large, round head, a wide forehead, a good-humored face, and keen,
straightforward eyes. His ringing laugh and cordial manner made
friends everywhere and his kindliness and unvarying integrity held
them. It will repay anyone who cares to do so to look up the account
of him as given in the “Autobiography of James Nasmyth,” who went
to Maudslay as a young man and worked beside him as his private
assistant. In reading this affectionate account one can easily see
why Maudslay influenced those about him so deeply and why he
raised the standard of his craft. Like Nasmyth and many other great
mechanics, Maudslay became interested in astronomy, and at the
time of his death he was planning to build a 24-inch reflecting
telescope for his own use. He patented but few inventions, and relied
rather upon his reputation and workmanship to protect him. He was
full of quaint maxims and remarks, as true today as then, the
outcome of keen observation and wide experience. He used to say:
“First get a clear notion of what you desire to accomplish and then in
all probability you will succeed in doing it.” “Keep a sharp lookout
upon your material.” “Get rid of every pound of material you can do
without; put to yourself the question, ‘What business has this to be
there?’” “Avoid complexities. Make everything as simple as
possible.”
His shop was the pride of the country, and Nasmyth tells of the
intimate visits of Faraday, Bentham, Brunel, Chantrey the sculptor,
Barton of the Royal Mint, and Bryan Donkin the engineer, who used
to call and chat with him while he worked at his bench.
No better tribute to Maudslay and his influence can be given than
that of Nasmyth, who said that his “useful life was enthusiastically
devoted to the great object of producing perfect workmanship and
machinery; to him we are certainly indebted for the slide-rest and
indirectly so for the vast benefits which have resulted from the
introduction of so powerful an agent in perfecting our machinery and
mechanism generally. The indefatigable care which he took in
inculcating and diffusing among his workmen and mechanical men
generally, sound ideas of practical knowledge and refined views of
constructions, has and ever will continue to identify his name with all
that is noble in the ambition of a lover of mechanical perfection. The
vast results which have sprung from his admirable mind, are his best
monument and eulogium.”[47]
[47] T. Baker: “Elements of Mechanism,” p. 232. Second Edition with
remarks by James Nasmyth. London, 1858-1859.
 CHAPTER V
INVENTORS OF THE PLANER
In almost no case is the crediting of invention more difficult than in
that of the planer. Not only was this tool the product of many men but
no single man stands out clearly as Maudslay, for instance, does in
the development of the lathe. The invention of the metal planer has
been claimed in England on behalf of Spring of Aberdeen, James
Fox, George Rennie, Matthew Murray, Joseph Clement and Richard
Roberts. The planer was in use in the United States so early that it
may also have been invented independently in this country, though,
without doubt, later than in England.
With the planer as with the lathe, the French were the pioneers.
Plumier, a French writer on mechanical subjects, published in 1754 a
description of a machine which had been used for some years,
consisting of two parallel bars of wood or iron connected at their
extremities. The article to be planed was fixed between them, and a
frame guided between the same bars was moved lengthwise by a
long screw and carried a tool which took a planing cut from the work.
The machine was intended for ornamenting the handles of knives
and was said by Plumier to have been an English invention. A
planing machine invented in 1751 by Nicholas Forq, a French clock
maker, for the purpose of planing the pump barrels used in the Marly
water works to supply the fountains at Versailles, is shown in Fig. 17.
These pump barrels were made up of wrought iron staves bound
together by hoops. There were quite a number of these barrels from
10 inches to 4 feet in diameter and from 7 feet to 10 feet long. The
illustration, taken from Buchanan’s “Mill Work,” published in 1841,[48]
is not complete, as it lacks the carriage carrying the planing tool
which was not shown on the original drawing. The general
construction of the machine however is quite clear. The built-up
barrel is shown in place. The cutter was carried backward and
forward between two parallel iron bars set horizontally through the
cylinder. Either the tool or the pump barrel must have been given a
rotative feed. Its action was therefore equivalent to planing on
centers, and it is said to have done this fairly large work in a
satisfactory manner.
[48] Buchanan: “Practical Essays on Mill Work and Other Machinery.”
London, 1841. Volume of Plates.
NOTE.—The spots on the photograph were the yellow stains of age on the original
plate
Figure 17. French Planing Machine by Nicholas Forq, 1751

Bentham described a planer in his well-known patent of 1793 and

Bramah in his patent of 1802. Matthew Murray is said to have built
one in 1814 to machine the faces of D-slide valves, which were
originally invented by Murdock in 1786 but improved by Murray in
1802. Richard Roberts built a planer in 1817 which is, without doubt,
the earliest planer now in existence. It is in the South Kensington
Museum in London and a picture of it is given in Fig. 20.[49] It will be
seen that the modern planer design was already beginning to take
shape. The chisel and file marks on the bed and ways indicate that it
was itself made without the use of a planer. It had vertical and
horizontal feeds, an angular adjustment and separate tool-feed for
the head, and a hinged clamp for the tool to allow it to lift on the
return stroke. The table, which was hand-operated through a chain
drive, was 52 inches long by 11 inches wide.
[49] No. 1619. Cat. M. E. Collection, Part II, p. 272.

George Rennie built a planer in 1820 with a movable bed operated

by a screw and furnished with a revolving cutting tool.[50] James Fox
built one in 1821, capable of planing work 10 feet, 6 inches long, 22
inches wide, and 12 inches deep, to plane the bars of lace
machines. Joseph Clement made his first planer in 1820 to plane the
triangular bars of lathes and the sides of weaving looms. Some
years later he built his “great planer,” a remarkable machine from
both a mechanical and a financial standpoint. A very full description
of it was given by Mr. Varley in the “Transactions of the Society of
Arts” in London in 1832,[51] illustrated by a set of copper plates made
from Clement’s own drawings. Clement’s reputation of being the
most expert draftsman of his day is well borne out by these
drawings. In this planer two cutting tools were used, one for the
forward and one for the return stroke. The bed ran on rollers,
mounted on a concrete foundation, which were said to have been so
true that “if you put a piece of paper under one of the rollers it would
stop all the rest.” It was fitted with centers and was used for planing
circular, spiral and conical work as well as flat work. It took in work 6
feet square and was hand-driven. The cutting speed must have been
low, for “the power of one man was sufficient to keep it in motion for
ordinary work, though two were employed to make long and full cuts
both ways.” For more than ten years it was the only one of its size
and it ran for many years night and day on jobbing work, its earnings
forming Clement’s principal income. Smiles says that his charge for
planing was 18 shillings, or $4.32, per square foot, which amounted
to about £10 per day of twelve hours, or, with two shifts, to about
$100 a day.[52] On this basis he must have machined an average of
about 11 square feet in twelve hours.
[50] Buchanan, p. xlii.
[51] Vol. XLIX, p. 157.
[52] Smiles: “Industrial Biography,” p. 306. Boston, 1864.

By 1840 the design of the planer had become fairly well settled
and its use general. In America, planers were built by Gay, Silver &
Company of North Chelmsford, Mass., as early as 1831. Pedrick &
Ayer of Philadelphia are also said to have built a planer at about the
same time. The early American tool builders will be taken up in a
later chapter.
Little is known of the personalities and histories of some of these
men, such as Spring of Aberdeen. Spring’s name is mentioned by
Smiles in his “Industrial Biography”[53] as one of the inventors of the
planer, but no further reference is made to him.
[53] p. 223.

James Fox was the founder of a well-known firm of machine-tool

builders in Derby. He was originally a butler, but his mechanical skill
turned him toward the design and building of lace machinery. The
gentleman in whose employ he had served furnished him with the
means of beginning business on his own account, and he soon
obtained work from the great firms of Arkwright and Strutt, the
founders of modern cotton manufacture. His planer, built about 1814,
was used in the manufacture of this machinery. It is described by
Samuel Hall, a former workman under Fox, as follows: “It was
essentially the same in principle as the planing machine now in
general use, although differing in detail. It had a self-acting ratchet
motion for moving the slides of a compound slide-rest, and a self-
acting reversing tackle, consisting of three bevel wheels, one a stud,
one loose on the driving shaft, and another on a socket, with a pinion
on the opposite end of the driving shaft running on the socket. The
other end was the place for the driving pulley. A clutch-box was
placed between the two opposite wheels, which was made to slide