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Evolution of Sanitation and
Wastewater Technologies through
the Centuries
Evolution of Sanitation and
Wastewater Technologies through
the Centuries
Edited by
A. N. Angelakis and J. B. Rose
Published by IWA Publishing
Alliance House
12 Caxton Street
London SW1H 0QS, UK
Telephone: +44 (0)20 7654 5500
Fax: +44 (0)20 7654 5555
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First published 2014

© 2014 IWA Publishing
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The information provided and the opinions given in this publication are not necessarily those of IWA and should not be
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 9781780404844 (Paperback)

ISBN 9781780404851 (eBook)
Contents
List of reviewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•⁄ xix

List of authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•⁄ xxiii
Prolegomena: Probing the past and facing the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•⁄ xxvii
Chapter 1
Sanitation and wastewater technologies in Minoan Eraâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…1
A. N. Angelakis, E. Kavoulaki, and E. G. Dialynas
1.1 Prolegomenaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…1
1.2 Physical Setting of the Island Creteâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . â•…2
1.2.1 Locationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…2
1.2.2 Climatic conditionsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…3
1.2.3 Hydrologyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“â•…4
1.3 Major Sanitary Technologies in Minoan Eraâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…4
1.3.1 Use of harvested water in minoan creteâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…5
1.3.2 Sewerage and drainage systemsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…6
1.3.3 Bathrooms and lustral basinsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…10
1.3.4 Roadsâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…14
1.3.5 Toilets or lavatoriesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . â•…16
1.3.6 Outlets and disposal and reuse sitesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…19
1.4 Conclusionsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…20
1.5 Referencesâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…22
vi Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
Chapter 2
Sanitation and wastewater technologies in Harappa/Indus valley
civilization (ca. 2600–1900 BC)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…25
Saifullah Khan
2.1 Introductionâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…25
2.2 Physical Settingsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…26
2.3 History, Culture, and Town Planning of Indus Valley Civilizationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…27
2.3.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…27
2.3.2 Historyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…27
2.3.3 Cultureâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…28
2.3.4 Town planningâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…29
2.4 Water and Sanitationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…32
2.4.1 The great bathâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…32
2.4.2 Water treatmentâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…33
2.4.3 Baths and wellsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…33
2.4.4 Drainage systemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . â•…35
2.4.5 Irrigation systemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…35
2.4.6 Rainwater harvesting and storage systemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…36
2.4.7 Public toiletsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…38
2.4.8 Dockyard at Lothalâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…39
2.5 Conclusionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . â•…39
2.6 Referencesâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…40
Chapter 3
Sanitation and water management inÂ€ancient South Asiaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…43
Hilal Franz Fardin, Annick Hollé, Emmanuèle Gautier-Costard, andÂ€Jacques Haury
3.1 Introductionâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…43
3.2 Wastewater Management During the Harappan Periodâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…43
3.2.1 Indus Valley palaeogeography and cultureâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . â•…44
3.2.2 Sanitation centralised systemsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…44
3.2.3 Sanitation decentralised systemsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…46
3.2.4 Harappan wastewater management perspectivesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…46
3.3 Wastewater Management During Early Historic Timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . â•…47
3.3.1 Northern and Central South Asiaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…47
3.3.2 Southern South Asiaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…47
3.4 Discussion: Cultural and Technical Innovations andÂ€Diffusions in Ancient South Asiaâ•⁄ â•…49
3.5 Conclusion and Perspectivesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…51
3.6 Referencesâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…52
Chapter 4
Evolution of sanitation and wastewater technologies in Egypt
through centuriesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…55
Fatma A. El-Gohary
4.1 Introductionâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…55
Contents vii
4.1.1 Historical perspectiveâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…55

4.1.2 Evolution of sanitation in ancient timeâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…56
4.2 Sanitation in Ancient Egyptâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . â•…61
4.3 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Modern Worldâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . â•…62
4.3.1 International levelâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…62
4.3.2 Trends in the development of wastewater services in Egyptâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…63
4.4 Conclusionsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…67
4.5 References â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…67
Chapter 5
Sanitation and wastewater in the Central Andean Region, Peru:
An overview from Pre-Columbian and Colonial times to nowadaysâ•⁄ . . . . . . . â•…69
A. Reyes-Knoche
5.1 Introductionâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…69
5.1.1 The environmentâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . â•…69
5.1.2 Indicative timelineâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…73
5.1.3 Population developmentâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…74
5.1.4 Water qualities over timeâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . â•…74
5.1.5 Water availability versus demandâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…76
5.2 Pre-Columbian Era (ca. 3000 BC to 1532 AD)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…76
5.2.1 Eradication of hungerâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…79
5.2.2 No water-related diseasesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . â•…80
5.3 From the Spanish Colony (1532–1821) to Early Republican Times Around the
Beginning of the XX Centuryâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…80
5.3.1 Colonial settlementsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . â•…80
5.3.2 Water resources managementâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…81
5.3.3 Urban water supply and sanitationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…81
5.3.4 Rural water supply and sanitationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…85
5.4 From Around the Beginning of the XX Century Till Todayâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . â•…86
5.4.1 Snap-shots of water supply and sanitation developmentâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…86
5.4.2 Protection of water sources, pollution hazards, and water qualitiesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . â•…93
5.4.3 Actual developments and trendsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…94
5.5 Conclusionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . â•…95
5.6 Referencesâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…95
Chapter 6
History of urban wastewater and stormwater sanitation technologies
inÂ€Hellasâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…99
G. P. Antoniou, G. Lyberatos, E. I. Kanetaki, A. Kaiafa, K. Voudouris, and
A.Â€N.Â€Angelakis
6.1 Prolegomenaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…99
6.2 Prehistoric Timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…101
viii Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
6.2.1 Minoan creteâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…101

6.2.2 Other locationsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…106
6.3 Historical Timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…107
6.3.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…107
6.3.2 Classical periodâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . â•…108
6.3.3 Hellenistic periodâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . â•…109
6.3.4 Roman period (ca. 67 BC–330 AD)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…116
6.4 Medieval Timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…123
6.4.2 The Byzantine period (ca. 330–1453 AD)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . â•…124
6.4.3 The Venetian period (ca. 1204–1669 AD)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . â•…128
6.5 Modern Timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“ â•…130
6.5.1 The Ottoman period (ca. mid 14th–1923 AD)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…130
6.5.2 The Present times (1900 AD to the present)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . â•…135
6.6 Future Trendsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…135
6.7 Discussion and Conclusionsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . â•…136
6.8 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…141
Chapter 7
Evolution of sanitation and wastewater technologies in Iran through the
centuries: Past and presentâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…147
Saeid Neirizi, Seyed Ali, Seyed Navid Mahmoudnian, and JalalÂ€Jooshesh
7.1 Introductionâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…147
7.2 Traditional Wastewater Disposal Systems in Urban andÂ€Rural Regions of Iranâ•⁄ . . . . â•…148
7.2.1 Coastal regions near Persian Gulf and Caspian Seaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…148
7.2.2 Central regionsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…149
7.2.3 Mountainsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…149
7.3 Absorbing Well (Septic and Leaching Cesspool or Cesspit)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…149
7.3.1 The location of absorbing well within the buildingâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…150
7.3.2 Discharge of absorbing wellsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…151
7.3.3 The role of absorbing wells in treating domestic wastewaterâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…153
7.3.4 Problems and consequences of absorbing wellsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…153
7.3.5 Operation and maintenance of absorbing wellsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…156
7.3.6 Social acceptabilityâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…156
7.3.7 The overall economic impactsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“ â•…156
7.4 Sanitationâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…157
7.4.1 Comparison between the traditional Iranian baths withÂ€thoseÂ€ofÂ€other nations
Common traitsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…157
7.4.2 The architecture of ancient baths in Iranâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . â•…158
7.4.3 The bath’s spatial connectionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…158
7.4.4 The climatology of traditional bathsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…159
7.4.5 The bath’s position at the construction siteâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…159
7.4.6 Materials used in the construction of the bathsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . â•…159
7.4.7 Heating system in traditional bathsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…160
Contents ix
7.4.8 Water supplyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…160

7.4.9 Light and lightingâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . â•…160
7.4.10 Decoration of bathâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . â•…161
7.4.11 Frameworks and archesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…162
7.4.12 Hoornoâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…162
7.4.13 Bathing rites and customsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…162
7.4.14 Customs inside the bathâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…162
7.4.15 Bathing materialsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . â•…163
7.4.16 People working in public bathsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“ â•…163
7.4.17 The time for using public baths in the pastâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…164
7.4.18 Ancient baths in Iranâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . â•…164
7.5 Present Situationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…166
7.5.1 Managementâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…166
7.5.2 Technologiesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…167
7.5.3 Achievementsâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…170
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…173
Conclusionsâ•⁄
7.7 Referencesâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…174
Chapter 8
Sanitation and wastewater and stormwater management in ancient
KingdomÂ€ofÂ€Macedonia, Hellasâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…175
A. Kaiafa, E. Papanikolaou, V. Melfos, C. Papacharalampou,
and K. Voudouris
8.1 Introductionâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…175
8.2 General Characteristics and Water Supplyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…176
8.3 Sanitation and Wastewater Hydraulic Works inÂ€AncientÂ€Macedoniaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…177
8.3.1 Aigai (Vergina)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…178
8.3.2 Pellaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…179
8.3.3 Dionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…181
8.3.4 Olynthusâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…184
8.3.5 Thessalonikiâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…185
8.3.6 Amphipolisâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…186
8.3.7 Philippoiâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…187
8.4 Conclusionsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…189
8.5 Referencesâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…189
Chapter 9
The history of the development of urban sanitation and wastewater
technologiesÂ€in Cyprusâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . â•…191
Panayiota Azina and Nicholas Kathijotes
9.1 Prolegomenaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…191
9.2 Physical Settingâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…191
9.2.1 Locationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…191
9.2.2 Climatic conditionsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…192
x Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
9.3 Hydrologyâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…193

9.3.1 Precipitationâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…193
9.3.2 Air temperaturesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…193
9.3.3 Windsâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…194
9.4 Development of Sanitation and Wastewater through the Melleniaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…194
9.4.1 Prehistoric Timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…194
9.4.2 Historical Timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . â•…195
9.4.3 Medieval timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…204
9.4.4 Modern times (1571–1960 AD)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“â•…204
9.4.5 Present time (Republic of Cyprus) (1960–today)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…205
9.5 Epilogueâ•⁄
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . â•…206
9.6 Referencesâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…206
Chapter 10
The history of sanitation and wastewater management in Portugalâ•⁄ . . . . . . â•…209
Santino Eugénio Di Berardino
10.1 Historical Contextâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…209
10.2 Middle Ages Sanitation in Portugalâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…213
10.3 Sanitation in Recent Times: Evacuation, Drainage andÂ€Treatmentâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…215
10.4 Example of Sustainable Sanitation in Portugal the Christ Conventâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…218
10.5 Water Supply to the Castle And The Monasteryâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . â•…219
10.5.1 Rain water supplyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…219
10.5.2 Water supply of the monastery by an aqueductâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…220
10.5.3 Storage and distribution of waterâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…221
10.5.4 Runoff and drainageâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…222
10.6 Sewage Drainage and Treatmentâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . â•…223
10.7 Concluding Remarksâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…225
10.8 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…226
Chapter 11
From Volubilis to Fez: Water, witnessed aÂ€transfer of an
International Heritageâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . â•…227
H. Benqlilou, S. Bensaid, and M. El Faiz
11.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…227
11.2 Volubilis Hydraulic Systemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…228
11.2.1 Public fountainsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . â•…231
11.2.2 Volubilis housesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…232
11.2.3 Thermal bathsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…233
11.2.4 Latrinesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…233
11.3 Management and Maintenance of The Volubilis Hydraulic Systemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…234
11.4 Fes Hydraulic Systemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…235
11.4.1 Mosques and Islamic schoolsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“â•…239
11.4.2 Fez housesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…241
Contents xi
11.4.3 Public latrinesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…241

11.4.4 Handicraftâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…242
11.4.5 Bathhouseâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…242
11.5 The Issue of Maintenance of The Fez Hydraulic System: The Al-Fachtali Modelâ•⁄ â•…242
11.5.1 The legal constraints of the modelâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…242
11.5.2 The mathematical formulation of the modelâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…243
11.5.3 The terminological aspects of the problemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…245
11.5.4 Scope and contributions of the mathematical model of al-Fachtaliâ•⁄ . . . . . . . â•…245
11.6 Similarities Between Fes and Volubilis Hydraulic Systemsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…246
11.7 Evolution of The Hydraulic System of Fes and Volubilisâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…247
11.9 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…249
Chapter 12
Sanitation and wastewater technologies in ancient Roman citiesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . â•…251
Giovanni De Feo, Sabino De Gisi, and Meisha Hunter
12.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…251
12.2 Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies in Pompeiiâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…252
12.2.1 Toilets and cesspitsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…252
12.2.2 Drainage and sewerage systemsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…253
12.3 Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies in Herculaneumâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…255
12.4 Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies in Ostiaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…261
12.6 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…266
Chapter 13
The sanitary system in ancient Roman civilization: An insight
on Tunisiaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…269
Olfa Mahjoub and Mohamed Thameur Chaibi
13.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…269
13.1.1 A historical glimpse on Roman Tunisia (Africa Proconsularis)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . â•…269
13.1.2 Chapter structure and scopeâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…270
13.2 Water Resources and Supplyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…271
13.3 Sanitary System in Roman Tunisiaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…275
13.3.1 Sanitary system and urban planningâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…275
13.3.2 Access to sanitation and social considerationsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . â•…277
13.4 Connection to Sewers and Wastewater Collectionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…278
13.4.1 Public premisesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . â•…279
13.4.2 Private housesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…281
xii Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
13.5 Wastewater Treatment and Reuseâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…282

13.6 Roman Sanitary System and Public Healthâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…283
13.7 Conclusionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…285
13.8 Sanitary Facilities in Selected Roman Cities in Tunisiaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . â•…286
13.8.1 Sanitation facilities in Carthageâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…286
13.8.2 Sanitation and water facilities in Bulla Regia (Henchir Hammam Darradji)â•⁄ â•…291
13.8.3 Sanitation facilities in Tuburbo Majus (Henchir Kasbat)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…293
13.8.4 Sanitation facilities in Thugga (Dougga)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…293
13.10 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…296
Chapter 14
Revisiting the technical and social aspects of wastewater management
inÂ€ancient Koreaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…301
Mooyoung Han and Mikyeong Kim
14.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…301
14.2 Wastewater Management in Traditional Houses ofÂ€Ancient Koreaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…302
14.2.1 Water and wastewater flow in a traditional householdâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…302
14.2.2 Nutrient flow generated by typical traditional houseâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…303
14.2.3 Wastewater management system in a traditional villageâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…303
14.3 Technical Aspects of Traditional Wastewater Treatmentâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . â•…305
14.3.1 Water dropwort fieldsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…305
14.3.2 Jetgan toiletâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…305
14.3.3 Pit latrine toiletâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…306
14.3.4 Separated excreta jars (Ojum-janggun and Ddung-janggun)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . â•…307
14.4 Social Education for Wastewater Managementâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . â•…307
14.5 Importance and Characteristics of Traditional Wastewater Management Practicesâ•⁄ â•…308
14.5.1 The separation of faeces with urineâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…308
14.5.2 Resource recovery from wastewaterâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…308
14.5.3 Small-scaled and decentralized managementâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . â•…308
14.5.4 Ecological concepts in wastewater management systemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…308
14.5.5 Emphasis on social responsibilityâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…309
14.6 Lessons from the Past for the Improvement of Current Wastewater
Management Systemsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…309
14.8 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…311
Chapter 15
Drainage and sewerage systems at ancient Athens, Hellas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…313
E. D. Chiotis and L. E. Chioti
15.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…313
15.2 Types of Drainage and Sewerage Structures: Pipelines,Â€Channels
and Galleriesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…315
Contents xiii
15.3 Drainage of Representative Areasâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…317

15.3.1 Drainage in the hydrologic basin north of the Acropolis hillâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…317
15.3.2 Drainage at the southern slopes of the Acropolis hillâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…318
15.4 Underground Structures of Doubtful Interpretationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…320
15.5 Lavatories and Latrinesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . â•…322
15.6 Possible Sanitation Problemsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…323
15.6.1 Sanitation and water supply at the excavation for the
New Acropolis Museumâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…323
15.6.2 The Plague during the Peloponnesian warâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…325
15.8 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…327
Chapter 16
Sewerage system of Diocletian’s PalaceÂ€in Split – Croatiaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…331
Jure Margeta, Katjia Marasović, and Snježana Perojević
16.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…331
16.2 Palace Water Systemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…333
16.3 Drainage System of the Palaceâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . â•…334
16.3.1 The conceptâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…334
16.3.2 Elements of the sewerage system and its characteristicsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…336
16.3.3 After roman periodâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…338
16.4 The Discussion and Conclusion – Lesson Learnedâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…341
16.5 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…343
Chapter 17
The evolution of sanitation in the rural area of Southwest China: With case
of Dai villages of Xishuangbana, Yunnan provinceâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…345
Xiao Yun Zheng and Yao Yu Zheng
17.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…345
17.2 Sanitation in the Dai Traditional Societyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…346
17.2.1 Personal sanitationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…346
17.2.2 Water facilities of daily lifeâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…347
17.2.3 Tap waterâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…350
17.3 Transformation of Sanitation in Dai Areasâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…350
17.3.1 Water supplyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…350
17.3.2 Current situation of water useâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“â•…350
17.3.3 Sanitation changeâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . â•…351
17.3.4 Popularization of toiletâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . â•…352
17.3.5 The changes of the wastewater managementâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . â•…353
17.4 Evaluating the Impact of the Development of Sanitationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . â•…354
17.4.1 The social changesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…354
17.4.2 Environmental impactsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…355
17.4.3 Cultural impactsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…356
17.6 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…359
xiv Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
Chapter 18
Evolution of sanitation services in the city of Rome between urban
developmentÂ€and environmental qualityâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…361
Renato Drusiani, Alessandro Zanobini, and Gianmarco Margaritora
18.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…361
18.2 The Cloaca Maximaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…362
18.3 The Role of the Roman Sewer Systemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…364
18.3.1 Management aspectsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…364
18.3.2 Organizational and regulatory aspectsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . â•…370
18.4 Development of the Sewerage-Water Treatment SystemÂ€after the Fall of the
RomanÂ€Empireâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“ â•…373
18.4.1 Sewer network development from the Middle Ages
until the end of the 19th centuryâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…373
18.4.2 Present-day configuration of the sewer system of the Capitalâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . â•…377
18.4.3 Future development of a sustainable urban drain system
for the city of Romeâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…379
18.6 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…382
Chapter 19
History of the Sewerage System inÂ€Barcelona, Spain: From its Origins
toÂ€GarciaÂ€Faria Planâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…383
Montse Martinez, Pere Malgrat, Cristina Vila, Roman Llagostera, and
Miquel Salgot
19.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…383
19.2 Roman Sewerageâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…385
19.3 Medieval Barcelonaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…387
19.4 18th and 19th Centuryâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…389
19.5 The Problem of Soil’s and Water’s Putrefaction: The Miasmasâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…390
19.6 Characteristics of the Sewer System in Barcelona Before the Cerdà Planâ•⁄ . . . . . . . â•…392
19.7 From Cerdà to García Fàriaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…392
19.8 ‘Salus Populi Suprema Lex Est’: The Utopia ofÂ€GarciaÂ€Fariaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…394
19.10 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…398
Chapter 20
A brief history of the sewerage system inÂ€Prague and the role of William
Heerlein Lindleyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…401
Jan Palas, Jaroslav Jásek, and Ondrej Benes
20.1 A Short History of Sanitation in the City of Pragueâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…401
20.1.1 Prague – history and first sewersâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…401
20.1.2 Progress over next centuriesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…402
20.2 Towards a Modern Concept of Sanitation Systemâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…402
20.2.1 The first tender for the Prague master planâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…402
Contents xv
20.2.2 The second master plan tenderâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…404

20.3 The Arrival of W. H. Lindleyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…405
20.3.1 When two are fightingâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . â•⁄405
20.3.2 Building the new sewers of pragueâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…407
20.4 The First Wastewater Treatment Plantâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“â•…409
20.4.1 Construction and operation start-upâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…409
20.4.2 Between the warsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…413
20.4.3 Post-war yearsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…415
20.5 Epilogueâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . â•…416
20.6 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…416
Appendix Iâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…417
Appendix IIâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . â•…417
Chapter 21
Waterborne diseases in the Hippocratic treatise: Airs, Waters, Placesâ•⁄ â•…419
Maria E. Galanaki
21.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…419
21.2 Cities Exposed to Warm Winds – Profusive and SaltishÂ€Watersâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…420
21.3 Cities Exposed to Cold Winds – Hard and Cold Watersâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . â•…423
21.4 Cities which Lie Between the Summer and the Winter Rising of the Sunâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . â•…423
21.4.1 Cities lying towards sunriseâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…423
21.4.2 Cities lying towards sunsetâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…423
21.5 Other Kinds of Healthy and Unhealthy Watersâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…424
21.5.1 Stagnant watersâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…424
21.5.2 Waters flowing from rocks and from soils which produce
thermal watersâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…424
21.5.3 Salty watersâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…424
21.5.4 Rain and snow watersâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . â•…425
21.5.5 River and lake watersâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…425
21.6 Conclusionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…426
21.7 Appendix of Hippocratic Medical Termsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…426
21.8 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…427
Chapter 22
Ancient Greek and Roman authors onÂ€health and sanitationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…429
Heikki S. Vuorinen
22.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…429
22.2 Therapeutics Above Allâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . â•…429
22.3 Airs, Waters, Placesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…431
22.4 Galenâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . â•…431
22.5 Sanitation After Allâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…432
22.6 Non-Medical Authors on Sanitationâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…433
22.7 Epilogueâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . â•…434
xvi Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
22.8 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…435

Appendix Iâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…436
Chapter 23
Historical development of sanitation from the 19th century to nowadays:
Centralized vs decentralized wastewater managementÂ€systemsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . â•…437
Paolo Roccaro, Antonella E. Santamaria, and Federico G.A. Vagliasindi
23.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…437
23.2 Wastewater Collection and Treatment in the 19th Centuryâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…438
23.3 Centralized Wastewater Treatment Plants: The Gold Technologyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…444
23.4 Decentralized Systemsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . â•…448
23.5 Kuhn and the Scientific Revolution: Is Back Progress the Future
ECO-Sanitation?â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…454
23.6 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…454
Chapter 24
The history of land application and hydroponic systems for wastewater
treatment and reuseâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . â•…457
V. A. Tzanakakis, S. Koo-Oshima, M. Haddad, N. Apostolidis, and
A. N. Angelakis
24.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…457
24.2 Evolution of Wastewater Collection and Land Application and Hydroponic
TreatmentÂ€Systemsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…458
24.2.1 Bronze ages (ca. 3200–1100 BC)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…458
24.2.2 Indus valley civilizations (ca. 2600–1900 BC)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . â•…459
24.2.3 Historical times (ca. 800 BC–330 AD)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…460
24.2.4 Medieval times (ca. 300–1500 AD)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…463
24.2.5 Aztecs (ca. 1100–1521 AD)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…464
24.2.6 Modern times (ca. 15th to the present)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…464
24.3 Environmental Concerns and Public Healthâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…468
24.4 Emerging Trendsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…472
24.6 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…474
Chapter 25
Evolution and impacts of water and industrial wastewater management in
Lavrion, Hellasâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…481
Kostas Komnitsas, Anthimos Xenidis, Nymphodora Papassiopi,
Andreas Angelakis
25.1 Introductionâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…481
25.2 Ancient Activitiesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…483
25.3 Modern Activities and Related Environmental Impactsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . â•…485
25.5 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…491
Contents xvii
Chapter 26
The Water Court of Valencia, Spain (Wastewater)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…493
F. Hernández-Sancho and M. Molinos-Senante
26.1 Origenâ•⁄
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . â•…493
26.2 The Scope of the Water Court: Huerta De Valenciaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . â•…493
26.3 Managing the Farmer Communitiesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…496
26.4 Constitution and Organisation of the Water Courtâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…497
26.5 Water Court Processesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . â•…498
26.6 Spoken Trialsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“â•…499
26.7 Enforcement of Judgmentsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . â•…501
26.8 Other Issuesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…502
26.9 Conclusionsâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. â•…503
26.10 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…503
Chapter 27
An overview and synthesis of the evolution of sanitation, and wastewater
technologies through the centuries: past,Â€present, and futureâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . â•…505
J. B. Rose and A. N. Angelakis
27.1 Prolegomenaâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“ â•…505
27.2 Prehistorical Timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…506
27.3 Historical Timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…508
27.4 Case Studiesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“ â•…513
27.5 History of Water Borne Diseasesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…515
27.6 Sanitation in Modern Timesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . â•…516
27.7 Sanitation in Present Times and for Cities of the Futureâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . â•…519
27.7.1 Healthy waters understoodâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…519
27.7.2 Resource recovery facilitiesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…520
27.7.3 Potable water reuseâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . â•…521
27.7.4 Integrated water resource management (IWRM)â•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…524
27.8 Epilogueâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . â•…524
27.9 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . â•…525
List of reviewers
Dr. Mohammad Ebrahim Azari Najaf Abad, KU Leuven, Hydraulics Division, Kasteelpark Arenberg
40, Leuven, 3001, Belgium, mohammad.azari@student.kuleuven.be
Prof. (Em.) Stylianos Alexiou, Univ. of Crete, Iraklion, Hellas.
Dr. Andreas N. Angelakis, Institute of Iraklion, National Foundation for Agricultural Research (N.AG.
RE.F.), 71307 Iraklion, Hellas, info@a-angelakis.gr
Dr. Akissa Bahri, Coordinator, African Water Facility, African Development Bank, 13, rue du Ghana,
B.P. 323–1002 Tunis Belvédère, Tunisia, A.BAHRI@AFDB.ORG.
Prof. Constantin Canavas, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, D-21033
Hamburg, GERMANY, costas.canavas@phl.uoc.gr
Dr. Manos Chalkiadakis, University of Oxford, St Antony’s College, Oxford, UK, manoschalkiadakis@
yahoo.gr
Prof. Giovanni De Feo, University of Salerno, Department of Civil Engineering, via Ponte don Melillo,
1–84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy, g.defeo@unisa.it
Prof. Walter Dragoni, Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università di Perugia, Piazza Università 1-
06123â•––â•–Perugia, Italy, wd2698@yahoo.com
Prof. Pengfei Du, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, P.R. China, dupf@
tsinghua.edu.cn
Prof. Angela F Danil de Namor, Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2
7XH, UK, a.danil-de-namor@surrey.ac.uk
Dr. Giorgos Facorellis, Department of Antiquities and Works of Art Conservation, Technical Educational
Institute of Athens, Aghiou Spyridonos, 12210 Athens, Hellas, yfacorellis@yahoo.com
Dr. Maria Galanaki, Iraklion, Hellas, galanakimaria@hotmail.com
xx Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
Prof. Hemda Garelick, Department of Natural Sciences, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, London
W4 4BT, UK, H.Garelick@mdx.ac.uk
Prof. Fatma El Gohari, National Research Center, Water Pollution Research Department El behooth Str.,
Dokki, Cairo, Egypt, fgohary@hotmail.com
Prof. Yuri Gorokhovich, Lehman College, City University of New York, Department of Environmental,
Geographical and Geological Sciences Gillet Hall 315, 250 Bedford Park Blvd. West, Bronx, NY 10468,
USA, yuri.gorokhovich@lehman.cuny.edu
Prof. Mooyoung Han, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Eng., #35–302 Seoul National University,
Shinrimdong Kwanakgu, Seoul, Korea, myhan@snu.ac.kr
Prof. Benoit Haut, Université Libre de Bruxelles, C.P. 165/67, 50 Av. F.D. Roosevelt, 1050 Bruxelles,
Belgium, bhaut@ulb.ac.be
Prof. Francesc Hernandez-Sancho, Department of Applied Economics II. University of Valencia, Spain,
Francesc.Hernandez@uv.es
Prof. Blanca Jiménez, Division of Water Sciences, Secretary of the International Hydrological Programme
(IHP) UNESCO, Paris, France, bjimenezc@iingen.unam.mx
Prof. Ioannis Kalavrouziotis, Chair, Department of Environment and Natural Resources Management,
University of Western Hellas, Agrinio, Hellas, ikalavru@cc.uoi.gr and ikalabro@yahoo.com
Dr. Eleni I. Kanetaki, 67 Dimocharous str., 11521 Athens, Hellas, eleni.kanetaki@gmail.com
Prof. George P. Karatzas, School of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Chania,
Hellas, karatzas@mred.tuc.gr
Prof. Nicholas Kathijotes, Department of Civil Engineering & Geomatics Cyprus University of
Technology P. O. Box 50329, Limassol, 3603 Cyprus, nicholas.kathijotes@cut.ac.cy
Prof. Tapio Katko, Tampere University of Technology, Institute of Environmental Engineering and
Biotechnology, Finland, tapio.katko@tut.fi
Prof. Albert Koenig, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR,
P.R. China, kalbert@hkucc.hku.hk.
Prof. Kostas Komnitsas, School of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete,
Polytechnioupolis, Akrotiri, 73100 Chania, Hellas, komni@mred.tuc.gr
Prof. Demetris Koutsoyiannis, Department of Water Resources, School of Civil Engineering, National
Technical University of Athens, Zografos Campus, 1570 Athens, Hellas, dk@itia.ntua.gr
Prof. Jens A. Krasilnikoff, Department of History and Area Studies, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Demark,
hisjk@hum.au.dk
Dr. Arun Kumar, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Civil Engineering (Block 5, Room 204) New
Delhi 110016, India, arunku@civil.iitd.ac.in
Dr. Pietro Laureano, IPOGEA,Vico Conservatorio s.n., 75100 Matera, Italy, ipogea@ipogea.org
Dr. Giusy Lofrano, Sanitary Environmental Engineering Division Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Salerno, Fisciano, Salerno-Italy, giusylofrano@gmail.com
List of reviewers xxi
Prof. Yiannis Lolos, Department of history and Archaeology, University of Thessaly, Volos, Hellas,
ylolos@otenet.gr
Prof. Gerasimos Lyberatos, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens,
Zografos Campus, 1570 Athens, Hellas, lyberatos@chemeng.ntua.gr
Dr. Olfa Mahjoub, Institut National de Recherche en Genie Rural, Eaux et Forets (INRGREF), Tunis,
Tunisia, olfama@gmail.com.
Prof. Nikos Manassis, Department of Water Resources, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical
University of Athens, Zografos Campus, 1570 Athens, Hellas, nikos@itia.ntua.gr.
Prof. Laila Mandi, Environmental Sciences, University Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, Morocco, mandi@
uca.ma
Dr. Andrea Mangano, Water Resources Consultant, former Director of international Operation of Acea
Spa, Rome, Via Ticino 7, 00198 Roma, Italy, andreamangano@yahoo.it.
Prof. Jure Margeta, University of Split, Faculty of Civil Engineering Architecture and Geodesy 21000
Split, Matice Hrvatske 15, Croatia, margeta@gradst.hr
Prof. Aradhana Mehra, Dept. of Environmental Geochemistry and Health Faculty of Education,
Health and Sciences, University of Derby, Kedleston Road, Derby DE22 1GB, UK, a.mehra@derby.
ac.uk
Prof. Gideon Oron, Environment Water Resources, The Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion
University of The Negev, Israel, gidi@bgu.ac.il
Prof. Nikolaos Paranychianakis, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Hellas, niko.paranychianakis@
enveng.tuc.gr
Prof. Paolo Roccaro, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Catania, Viale
Andrea Doria, 6, 95125 Catania, Italy, proccaro@dica.unict.it.
Dr. Apostolos Roubelakis, Dept of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Southampton University Hospitals,
Southampton SO16 6YD, UK, roube@hotmail.com
Prof. Kalliopi A. Roubelakis Angelakis, Dept. of Biology, University of Crete, Iraklion, Hellas,
poproube@biology.uoc.gr
Prof. Joan B. Rose, Dept. of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824,
USA, rosejo@msu.edu
Prof. Miquel Salgot, Soil Science Laboratory, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona,
Spain, salgot@ub.edu
Prof. Anna I. Strataridaki, Department of History and Education, University of Crete, Rethymnon,
Hellas, astrat@edc.uoc.gr
Prof. Marco Tallini, Dept of Structural, Water and Soil Engineering, L’Aquila University, Italy, marco.
tallini@univaq.it
Prof. Aldo Tamburrino, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile, atamburr@ing.uchile.cl
Dr. Maria Tsibidou Avloniti, IΣT′ EΠKA, Thessaloniki, Hellas, mtsimbidou@yahoo.gr
xxii Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
Prof. Vassilios A. Tsihrintzis, Laboratory of Reclamation Works and Water Resources Management,
National Technical University of Athens, Zografos Campus, 1570 Athens, Hellas, tsihrin@otenet.gr
Prof. Kostas Voudouris, Lab. of Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology, School of Geology, Aristotle
University, 54124 Thessaloniki, Hellas, kvoudour@geo.auth.gr
Prof. Jiří Wanner, Department of Water Technology and Environmental Engineering, Institute of
Chemical Technology, CZ-166 28, Technická 5, Prague 6, Czech Republic, jiri.wanner@vscht.cz
Dr. -Ing. Peter Wilderer, EASA Institute of Advanced Studies on Sustainability, Munich, Germany,
peter.wilderer@mytum.de
Dr. Nikos Zarkadoulas, Department of Water Resources, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical
University of Athens, Zografos Campus, 1570 Athens, Hellas, ps03014@yahoo.gr
Prof. Nina Zarrineh, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Dept. Hydrology and Hydrological Engineering,
Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium, Nina.Zarrineh@vub.ac.be
Dr. Xiao Yun Zheng, Yunnan Academy of Social Sciences, Kunming, China, zhengxy68@163.com
Prof. Anastasios Zoumpoulis, Dept. of Chemistry, Aristotle University, 54124 Thessaloniki, Hellas,
zoubouli@chem.auth.gr
List of authors
Dr. Seyed Ali Mahmoudian, Shahid Abdollah Zadeh St. Keshavarz Bulvd, National Water and Wastewater
Engineering Company, Tehran, Iran, s.a.mahmoudian@gmail.com or seyedali@nww.co.ir
Dr. Andreas N. Angelakis, Institute of Iraklion, National Foundation for Agricultural Research (N.AG.
RE.F.), 71307 Iraklion, Hellas, info@a-angelakis.gr
Mr. Georgios Antoniou, Deinokratous 73, 11521Athens, Hellas, antonioug@tee.gr
Dr. Nick Apostolidis, Global Development Leader, 201 Charlotte St, Brisbane QLD, 4000 Australia,
napost13@gmail.com
Ms. Panagiota Azina, Sewerage Board of Paphos, POB 60474, Paphos, 8103 Cyprus, pk.azina@edu.cut.
ac.cy
Ing. Ondrej Benes, VEOLIA VODA ČESKÁ REPUBLIKA, a.s., Prague, Czech Republic, ondrej.benes@
veoliavoda.cz
Dr. Hanane Benqlilou, National Office for Electricity and Potable Water ONEE, International Institute
for Water and Sanitation IEA, Bouregreg Treatment Plant, BP Rabat-Chellah, 10002 Rabat, Morocco,
hbenqlilou@iea.ma
Prof. Semir Bensaid, National Office for Electricity and Potable Water ONEE, International Institute
for Water and Sanitation IEA, Bouregreg Treatment Plant, BP Rabat-Chellah, 10002 Rabat, Morocco,
sbensaid@iea.ma
Dr. Lamprini E. Chioti, Depart. of Archaeology and History, University of Athens, Athens, Chelidoreon
14, 14564 Athens, Hellas, chioti_lambrini@hotmail.com
Dr. Efstathios D. Chiotis, Chelidoreon 14, Athens 14564, Hellas, former Director at the Institute of
Geology and Mineral Exploration, Athens, Hellas, echiotis@otenet.gr
Dr. Manolis G. Dialynas, DIALYNAS SA, Environ. Techn., 71304, Iraklion, Hellas, md@dialynas.com
xxiv Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
Dr. Renato Drusiani, FederUtility, Rome, Italy, acqua@federutility.it

Prof. Giovanni De Feo, University of Salerno, Department of Industrial Engineering, via Ponte don
Melillo, 1–84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy, g.defeo@unisa.it.
Dr. Sabino De Gisi, ENEA, Water Resource Management Laboratory (UTVALAMB-IDR), via Martiri di
Monte Sole 4, 40129 (BO), Italy, sabino.degisi@enea.it
Dr. Santino Di Berardino, Laboratório Nacional de Energia e Geologia, I.P., Portugal, santino.
diberardino@lneg.pt
Prof. Mohammed El Faïz, Cadi Ayad University Marrakech, Morocco, menaraagdal@gmail.com.
Prof. Fatma El Gohari, National Research Center, Water Pollution Research Department El behooth Str.,
Dokki, Cairo, Egypt, fgohary@hotmail.com
Dr. Hilal Franz Fardin, Paris 8 University, Ladyss (UFR 7533â•––â•–CNRS), French Institute of Pondicherry
(Umifre 21â•––â•–CNRS/MAEE) Social Sciences Dept., France, franz.fardin@ifpindia.org.
Dr. Maria Galanaki, Iraklion, Hellas, galanakimaria@hotmail.com
Prof. Emmanuele Gautier-Costard, Geography Department, University Paris 8 and Laboratory of Physical
Geography (CNRS/UMR 8591), 1 place Aristide Briand, 92195, Meudon Cedex, France, Emmanuele.
Gautier@cnrs-bellevue.fr
Prof. Marwan Haddad, Civil Engineering Department, Water and Environmental Studies Institute
(WESI), An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine, haddadm@najah.edu
Prof. Mooyoung Han, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Eng., #35–302 Seoul National University,
Shinrimdong Kwanakgu, Seoul, Korea, myhan@snu.ac.kr
Prof. Jacques Haury, Department of Ecology, Agrocampus Ouest, 65 rue de Saint-Brieuc, CS 84215,
35042 Rennes, France, jacques.haury@agrocampus-ouest.fr
Prof. Francesc Hernandez-Sancho, Department of Applied Economics II. University of Valencia, Spain,
Francesc.Hernandez@uv.es
Dr. Annick Hollé, Laboratory of Social Dynamics and Spatial Recomposition (CNRS/UMR 7533), Geography
Department, University Paris 8, 2 rue de la Liberté, 93526, Saint-Denis Cedex, France, annick.holle@free.fr
Dr. Meisha Hunter, Li/Saltzman Architects, PC, 62 White Street, New York, NY 10013, USA, mhunter@
lisaltzman.com
Dr. Jaroslav Jásek, Pražské vodovody a kanalizace, a.s., Prague, Czech Republic, jaroslav.jasek@pvk.cz
Mr. Jalal Jooshesh, No.14, Payam St, Ershad Bulvd,Toossab Consulting Engineer, Mashhad, Iran,
j.jooshesh@toossab.net
Dr. Asimina Kaiafa, School of Architecture, Aristotle Univ., 54124 Thessaloniki, Hellas, minakasar@
gmail.com
Dr. Eleni I. Kanetaki, 67 Dimocharous str., 11521 Athens, Hellas, eleni.kanetaki@gmail.com
Prof. Nicholas Kathijotes, Department of Civil Engineering & Geomatics Cyprus University of Technology
P. O. Box 50329, Limassol, 3603 Cyprus, nicholas.kathijotes@cut.ac.cy.
List of authors xxv
Dr. Eliza Kavoulaki, Archeological Museum of Iraklion, 71202 Iraklion, Hellas, panexam@yahoo.gr
Dr. Saifullah Khan, Institute of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning, University of Peshawar, KPK,
Pakistan, Saifullahkhan33@gmail.com
Dr. Mikyoung Kim, Korea Institute of Construction Technology 283, Goyangdae-Ro, Ilsanseo-Gu,
Goyang-Si Gyeonggi-Do, 411-712 Republic of Korea, mkkim@kict.re.kr
Prof. Kostas Komnitsas, School of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete,
Polytechnioupolis, Akrotiri, 73100 Chania, Hellas, komni@mred.tuc.gr
Dr. Sasha Koo-Oshima, The Office of Water, EPA, 1200 Pennsylvania Ave., NW, Mail Code 4101 M,
Washington, D.C. 20460-0001, USA, Koo-Oshima.Sasha@epamail.epa.gov
Mr. Roman Llagostera, City Council of Barcelona, Torrent de l’Olla, 218–220, 08012 Barcelona, Spain,
rllagostera@bcn.cat
Prof. Gerasimos Lyberatos, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens,
Zografos Campus, 1570 Athens, Hellas, lyberatos@chemeng.ntua.gr
Dr. Olfa Mahjoub, Institut National de Recherche en Genie Rural, Eaux et Forets (INRGREF), Tunis,
Tunisia, olfama@gmail.com.
Dr. Katja Marasovič, University of Split, Faculty of Civil Engineering Architecture and Geodesy 21000
Split, Matice Hrvatske 15, Croatia; katja.marasovic2@gmail.com
Split, Matice Hrvatske 15, Croatia; margeta@gradst.hr
Mr. Pere Malgrat, CLABSA, Acer, 16. 08038 Barcelona, Spain, pere@clabsa.es
Prof. Gianmarco Margaritora, Roma Sapienza University Rome, Italy, gianmarco.margaritora@
uniroma1.it
Split, Matice Hrvatske 15, Croatia, margeta@gradst.hr
Mrs. Montse Martinez, CLABSA, Acer, 16. 08038 Barcelona, Spain, montsem@clabsa.es
Prof. Pierluigi Martini, Associazione Idrotecnica Italiana, Rome, Italy, segreteria@idrotecnicaitaliana.it
Prof. Aradhana Mehra, Faculty of Education, Health and Sciences, School of Science, Univ. of Derby,
Derby DE22 1GB, UK, A.Mehra@derby.ac.uk
Dr. Vasilios Melfos, School of Geology, Aristotle Univ., 54124 Thessaloniki, Hellas, melfosv@geo.auth.gr
Dr. Maria Molinos-Senante, Department of Mathematics for Economics. University of Valencia, Spain.
Maria.Molinos@uv.es
Dr. Saeid Neirizi, No.14, Payam St, Ershad Bulvd, Toossab Consulting Engineer, Mashhad, Iran, s.neirizi@
toossab.net
Ing. Jan Palas, Národní Technické Muzeum, Prague, Czech Republic, jan.palas@ntm.cz
Dr. Eleni Papanikolaou, School of Geology, Aristotle Univ., 54124 Thessaloniki, Hellas, papelen@geo.
auth.gr
xxvi Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
Dr. Chrysoula Papacharalampou, School of Geology, Aristotle Univ., 54124 Thessaloniki, Hellas,
x.papaxaralampou@gmail.com
Prof. Nymphodora Papassiopi, School of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, National Technical
University of Athens, Zografos Campus, 15780 Athens, Hellas, papasiop@metal.ntua.gr
Dr. Snježana Perojevič University of Zagreb, Faculty Architecture, Mediterranean centre for built heritage
21000 Split, Bosanska 4, Croatia, snjezana.perojevic@gmail.com
Dipl.-Ing. Alexander Reyes-Knoche, PhD candidate, International Independent Consultant, Management
Consulting and Development Cooperation, Allmendweg 5, D-68526 Ladenburg, Germany, alexander.reyes-
knoche@web.de
Prof. Paolo Roccaro, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Catania, Viale
Andrea Doria, 6, 95125 Catania, Italy, proccaro@dica.unict.it.
Prof. Joan B. Rose, Dept. of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State Univ., East Lansing, MI 48824, USA,
rosejo@msu.edu
Prof. Miquel Salgot, Soil Science Laboratory, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de Barcelona, Joan XXIII,
s/n. 08028 Barcelona, Spain, salgot@ub.edu
Dr. Antonella E. Santamaria, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Catania,
Viale Andrea Doria, 6, 95125 Catania, Italy, asantama@dica.unict.it
Dr. Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, National Research Institute for Rural Engineering, Water and Forestry
P.O. Box 10, 2080, Ariana, Tunisia, olfama@gmail.com
Dr. Vasileios Aim. Tzanakakis, Agricultural Services, Region of Crete, Iraklion, Hellas, vetzanakakis@
cyta.gr
Prof. Federico G. A. Vagliasindi, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Catania, Viale Andrea Doria, 6, 95125 Catania, Italy, fvaglias@dica.unict.it.
Mrs. Cristina Vila, City Council of Barcelona, c. Tarragona, 183, 08014 Barcelona, Spain, cvilaru@bcn.cat
Prof. Kostas Voudouris, Lab. of Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology, School of Geology, Aristotle
Univ., 54124 Thessaloniki, Hellas, kvoudour@geo.auth.gr
Dr. Heikki S. Vuorinen, Hjelt Institute, Department of Public Health, FI-00014 University of Helsinki,
Finland, heikki.vuorinen@helsinki.fi
Prof. Anthimos Xenidis, National Technical University of Athens, School of Mining and Metallurgical
Engineering, Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Hellas, axen@metal.ntua.gr
Dr. Alessandro Zanobini, ACEA, Roma ,Italy, a.zanobini@aceaspa.it.
Dr. Xiao Yun Zheng Xiao Yun, Yunnan Academy of Social Sciences, Kunming, China, zhengxy68@163.com
Dr. Yao Yu Zheng, PAYAP University, Mae-Kow Chiang Mai, 50000 Thailand, yypayap@163.com
Prolegomena: Probing the past and facing
the future
‘O μoια γα´ρ ως επí τo πoλύ τα μέλλoντα τoις γεγoνó σι.

Most future facts are based on those in the past.
Euripides, 480–406 BC, Ancient Greek Tragic
It is well documented that most of the technological developments relevant to water supply and
wastewater are not achievements of present-day engineers but date back to more than five thousand
years ago. Already during the Bronze Age such. developments were driven by the necessities to make
efficient use of natural resources, to make civilizations more resistant to destructive natural elements, and
to improve the standards of life, both at the public and private level. With respect to the latter, Minoans
in the island of Crete (ca. 3200–1100 BC) and an unknown civilization (ca. 2600–1900 BC) in Indus
valley at Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Lothal developed advanced, comfortable, and hygienic lifestyles,
as manifested by efficient sewerage systems, bathrooms and flushing toilets, which can be compared to
the modern wastewater system of today, re-established in Europe and North America only a century and
half ago. The amazing evolution and development of structures for bathing, sanitary and other purgatory
installations can be traced from the Minoan palaces and houses at Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Lothal
up to the cities of Ancient Egypt, of the Hellenistic period, of the Chinese Dynasties and Empires to the
facilities built during the Roman period. It is interesting that very unsanitary conditions and overcrowding
were widespread throughout Europe and Asia during the Middle Ages, resulting periodically in cataclysmic
pandemics such as the Plague of Justinian (541–542AD) and the Black Death (1347–1351AD), which killed
tens of millions of people and radically altered societies.
The book ‘Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies Through the Centurie’ presents the
major achievements in the scientific fields of sanitation throughout the millennia from a wide geographic
perspective. It provides valuable insights into ancient wastewater technologies and management with their
apparent characteristics of durability, adaptability to the environment, and sustainability. A comparison
of the water technological developments in several civilizations is undertaken. These technologies are the
underpinning of modern achievements in sanitary engineering and wastewater management practices. It is
the best proof that ‘the past is the key for the future.’
xxviii Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries
A timeline of historical developments associated with sanitation and wastewater management worldwide
through the last 5500 years of humankind´s history is considered. A chronological order is followed with
emphasis to the major periods and the corresponding worldwide civilizations.
Rapid technological progress in the twentieth century created a disregard for past water technologies
that were considered to be far behind the present state of knowledge and engineering. There is a great deal
of unresolved problems, still, related to the wastewater management principles, such as decentralization
of treatment processes, durability of the water projects, cost effectiveness, and sustainability issues such
as protection from floods and droughts. In the developing world, such problems were intensified to an
unprecedented degree.
Moreover, new problems have arisen such as the contamination of surface and groundwater. Naturally,
intensification of unresolved problems led societies to revisit the past and to reinvestigate the successful past
achievements. To their surprise, those who attempted this retrospect, based on archaeological, historical,
and technical evidence were impressed by two things: the similarity of principles with present ones and
the advanced level of wastewater engineering and management practices in the past.
Most likely urbanization will continue to increase. The proportion of people living urban areas might
rise to 80–90% of the global population. This means that innovativeâ•–sanitation technologies must be
developed to regulate and manage municipal wastewater and stormwater. Many of these technologies will
be based on decentralized principles, will serve different sizes of buildings from single-family homes
to high-rise buildings, public or commercial buildings. Treated water might be readily reused locally
for various purposes such as toilet flushing, watering gardens or car washing. Sludge fromâ•–decentralized
plantsâ•–can be used as fertilizer as demonstrated in the past at various locations in the world. Also, measures
and technologies for harvesting rainwater in order to reduce the flood risk and increase water availability
need to be further developed.
There is much we can learn from past technologies and practices that were implemented. This includes
for example design philosophy, adaptation to the environment, and decentralization management of water
and wastewater projects, architectural tied to operation aspects, and sustainability as a design principle.
It is time to think about managing the complete water cycle, to do so with impunity we look towards
probing the past, forging the future.
70 authors and or co-authors from several disciplines and regions of the planet developed the chapters
in this book. The disciplines include Archaeology, History, Engineering, Life sciences, Health sciences,
History of Medicine, Environmental sciences, Biology and Geosciences. The geographical coverage is
very wide, with prominence in the Mediterranean world. However, several other civilizations from other
parts of the world, such as Asia (Iran, India, China, and Korea), Central Europe, and South America are
also covered. The themes of the Chapters included are from prehistoric to medieval and even modern
times. All Chapters submitted were peer-reviewed by at least two reviewers and the Editors.
The book is organized in six parts. The first three chapters in the first Part are introductory mainly
referring to pre historical civilizations. The eleven chapters in the second Part refer to historical
civilizations (including Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic and Roman) over the globe. The six chapters in
the third Part, should be considered as case studies; major cities with long histories are included. The
following two Chapters in the fourth Part address the history of water borne diseases. The final four
chapters in the fifth Part mainly deal with cases in the modern times. The last chapter (sixth Part),
summarizes and synthesizes the conclusions, comparison, and lessons learned with some commentary
on the future.
We appreciate the efforts and contributions of the authors who have written a compilation of the labours
of humankind to bring sanitation to the people and cities. We are particularly grateful to Dr. Peter A.
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The other version current in Usagara, in the north of the Colony,
says nothing of the serpent or the hot water, but states that the
sorcerers began by ordering large beer-drinkings in every village.
When the pombe had produced its effect, the villagers were initiated
into the conspiracy, and received their dawa, of whose composition
no details are given, but which, in this case also, was supposed to
possess the power of making them invulnerable, so that the bullets of
the Germans would simply be changed into water as soon as they left
the rifle-barrel. The Majimaji soon discovered, in the course of
numerous battles that this was not the case, but nevertheless, the
fanaticism of these natives, who, under a murderous fire, charged up
to within a spear’s length of the machine-guns—the bumbum, as they
call them—is truly astonishing.
From the coast to a little beyond Nyangao the character of the
vegetation is essentially different from that which we find farther
west. The greater part of the road (the barabara, in the carriers’
jargon, that is to say, the path cut to the regulation width on which
all the long-distance traffic takes place) runs as far as Nyangao
through thick scrub from 10 to 15 feet high, from which rise here and
there single trees of twice or three times that height. Several times in
the course of the day’s march the traveller comes across large open
spaces in the bush on either side of the path. It is clear from the
absence of underwood and the presence of charred stumps that this
is old cultivated ground—no doubt the sites of former villages. But
where are the huts and where the people who once hoed their
gardens here? Here we find a typical touch of African history, more
especially in recent times, when its primitive conditions have been
modified by the modern plantation system with its demand for
labour and the necessity for a native military force. Originally and in
himself the African is by no means shy, on the contrary, he is
inquisitive and fully alive to the attractions of town life and social
intercourse. But he cannot stand having his private affairs interfered
with. Every caravan of inland natives on their way to the coast,
whether to sell their supplies of wax, tobacco or what not, or to
engage themselves as labourers to some European, considered that
they had a natural right to expect food and drink from the villagers
along their route. Even the caravan of a white man is apt to make the
same sort of demands on the villagers. How often have I seen my
men scatter at every halt, to ask for some service or other—perhaps
merely the loan of a gourd dipper—at one or other of the straggling
huts, which may be half-a-mile apart. However good-natured and
obliging the native may be, he cannot put up with an indefinite
continuance of such disturbances to the quiet of his home life, and
therefore prefers to pull down his huts and build new ones in the
bush at a distance from the main road, where they can only be
reached by narrow side paths.
Anthropologically speaking, one might take the Wamwera for
Indians, such is the lustrous copper tone of their skins. At first I
thought that this marked redness of tint was a peculiarity of the
tribe, but have since met with many individuals of exactly the same
shade among the Makua of Hatia’s, Nangoo and Chikugwe, and a few
among the Yaos at this place and those at Mtua, and Mtama. In fact,
it seems to me very difficult to do any really satisfactory
anthropological work here—the types are too much mixed, and it is
impossible to tell from any man’s features the tribe to which he
belongs. Probably, indeed, there is no distinction of race at all, for
Wamwera, Wangindo, Wayao, Makonde, Matambwe and Makua
alike belong to the great sub-group of the East African Bantu. This is
one additional reason, when time is so precious, for giving to
anthropology even less attention than I had originally planned. Let
the gentlemen come out here themselves with their measuring
instruments, compasses and poles—we ethnographers have more
urgent work to attend to.
The Wamwera are just now in a deplorable condition. The whole of
this tribe was concerned in the rising, and though refusing to
acknowledge defeat in battle after battle, were ultimately forced to
take refuge in the bush. The mere fact of living for months without
shelter in the rainy season would of itself cause suffering enough;
and when we add that they have had no harvest, being unable to sow
their crops at the beginning of the rains, it can readily be understood
that numbers must have perished. Now that most of the ringleaders
have been secured and sent down to the coast, the survivors are
gradually coming forth from their hiding-places. But what a spectacle
do the poor creatures present! encrusted more thickly than usual
with dirt, emaciated to skeletons, suffering from skin-diseases of
various kinds, with inflamed eyes—and exhaling a nauseous
effluvium. But at least they are willing to face the white man—a sign
of newly-established confidence in our rule which must not be
undervalued.
Several hours’ hard marching from Nyangao bring us to the
residence of “Sultan” Hatia. He is the fourth of his name on this tiny
throne of the Makua. The grave of his predecessor, Hatia III, lies in a
deep cave on the Unguruwe mountain. This mountain is really a
promontory of the Makonde plateau projecting far into the Lukuledi
plain. It is visible from the road for several days before we reach it,
with its gleaming red cliff-face, which might fitly be described as the
emblem of the whole Central Lukuledi region. It also plays a great
part in the myths and legends of the local tribes. The traditions of the
past had already gathered round it before the burial of Hatia III; but
now that the dead chief rests in a dark ravine forbidden to every
profane footstep, from the toil and turmoil of his life, the Unguruwe
has become in popular belief a sanctuary where, on moonlight
nights, Hatia rises from his grave, and assembles the ghosts of his
subjects round him for the dance.
Hatia IV had returned to his capital just before our arrival, having
had some months’ leisure on the coast, in which to think over the
consequences of the rising. He impressed me as a broken man,
physically in no better case than his subjects; moreover he was no
better lodged, and certainly no better provided with food than they.
On the day of our halt at his village, he was more than ordinarily
depressed. A few hours previously a lion, whose impudence has
made him famous throughout the country, had in broad daylight
dragged a woman out of a hut, not far from the chief’s dwelling. The
prints of the enormous paws were still quite clear in the sand, so that
we could track the robber right round the hut in which a man with
his wife and child had been sitting at their ease. The great brute had
suddenly sprung on the woman who was sitting next the door. Her
husband tried to hold her, but was weak from illness, and could offer
no effectual resistance. Though for some time the poor creature’s
shrieks, “Nna kufa! Nna kufa!”—“I die! I die!”—could be heard in the
bush, growing fainter and fainter, no one could come to her help, for
the people have been deprived of their guns since the rising, and
even if they had had them, there was no ammunition, the
importation of this having been stopped some time ago.
The nephew and heir of Hatia IV is to take the part of avenger. He
is a handsome, jet-black youth with a small frizzled moustache on his
upper lip, and an enviably thick growth of woolly hair on his scalp.
Armed with a rifle, of which he is unconscionably proud, he has come
with us from Lindi in order to deliver his people from the plague of
lions. Such an expression is, in truth, no exaggeration as far as this
place is concerned. It is said that the whole length of the road from
Nyangao to Masasi has been divided between four pairs of lions, each
of which patrols its own section, on the look-out for human victims.
Even the three missionaries at Nyangao are not safe; Father Clement,
when out for a walk, not long ago, suddenly found himself face to
face with a huge lion, who, however, seemed quite as much startled
by the incident as the good Father himself.
After examining the architecture of the present Wamwera huts, I
can easily understand how the lion at Hatia’s could drag the woman
out from the interior. Anyone desirous of studying the evolution of
the human dwelling-house could very well see its beginnings here.
Most of these dwellings are nothing more or less than two walls,
consisting of bundles of grass roughly tied together, and leaning
against each other in a slanting position. The addition of gable-ends
marks quite a superior class of house. Besides this, the Wamwera
have been compelled to build their huts, such as they are, in the
untouched jungle, since they have lost all they had, even the
necessary implements for tillage and for clearing the bush. Their
villages, containing their only possessions of any value, were of
course levelled with the ground by our troops. The lion is shy of open
spaces, but feels at home in the pori, which he looks upon as his
natural hunting-ground, and where he can creep unseen close up to a
hut before making his deadly spring.
One point I must not forget. Even before leaving Lindi, my mouth
had watered at the descriptions I heard of the extraordinary
appearance presented by the Wamwera women. But I find that these
descriptions come far short of the reality. The famous Botocudos of
Brazil with their labrets are nothing to the southern tribes of German
East Africa. I had long known that the Makonde plateau and the
whole surrounding country belong to the region of the pelele, or lip
ring, but I have never come across a good illustration of earlier date
than my own. The accompanying reproductions of photographs will
show the nature of this extraordinary decoration more clearly than
any description.
The pelele, or, as it is called in Kimwera, itona, is only worn by the
women, but among them it is universal. It is a peg, in older persons
even an actual disc, of ebony, or else of some light-coloured wood
bleached snow-white with argillaceous earth, inserted in the upper
lip, which is perforated and stretched to receive it. Of course, a disc
the size of a two-shilling piece is not inserted all at once: the
operation is very gradual and begins by piercing the lip, between a
girl’s seventh and ninth year, with the end of a razor which is ground
into the shape of an awl.[8] The hole is kept open by inserting a
foreign body of small size, such as a thin stalk of grass, or the like. It
is then enlarged by adding another stalk at regular intervals; and
after a time, a strip of palm-leaf rolled up into a spiral is substituted.
This, being elastic, presses against the sides of the opening, and so,
in due course renders it large enough to receive the first solid plug.
Among the Wamwera the diameter of this varies from the thickness
of a finger to the size of a florin; the older Makonde women,
however, are said to have them twice as large. Naturally I am all
impatience to see these people, whose country, moreover, is as yet a
complete terra incognita, as far as science is concerned.
Not content with the
itona, the old women
sometimes wear a pin
or peg in the lower lip,
called nigulila. It is
long and slender,
ending in a round
knob, and is intended
to divert the eye from
the withered skin and
A MWERA WOMAN faded charms of the
wearer.[9] Discs or plugs
inserted in the lobe of
the ear are also very general. Furthermore, the YOUNG MAN OF THE
countenance of these fair ones are covered MWERA TRIBE
with extraordinary scars which, at a distance,
suggest that they must have passed their
youth at a German university. On a close inspection it will be found
that these are not scars, left by straight cuts, but consist of a
multitude of small keloids arranged in various patterns. The patterns
are made by parallel rows of small cuts (usually vertical), which have
been prevented from healing by repeatedly opening them during the
process of cicatrization. Thus in the course of weeks and months they
take the form of conspicuous swellings which, in their totality, give a
distinctive character to the whole physiognomy.
Even this is not enough to satisfy the
craving of the Wamwera women for
adornment. If the cloth draping chest and
back slips aside for a moment, either through
an incautious movement on the part of the
wearer or through the inseparable baby being
shifted from its usual place on its mother’s
back to her hip—the astonished eye discovers
that the surfaces thus revealed are adorned
with markings similar to those on the face.
Even the hips and upper part of the thighs are
said to be covered with them. The
ethnographer, reflecting on these and other
queer manifestations of human vanity, may be
tempted, perhaps, to indulge in a comfortable
sense of superiority. But, after all, the fashion
of wearing earrings is not quite extinct in
Europe; and the advantages of the corset,
considered as an aid to beauty, might be quite
as much open to discussion as the African
MWERA WOMAN ornaments we have just been describing. I am
WITH PIN IN LOWER alluding, of course, to those women who think
LIP that tight lacing improves the figure.
Otherwise I am inclined to agree with Max
Buchner of Munich, who thinks that some form of this article would
be of great service to the women of all the less-clothed races among
whom appliances for supporting the bust are unknown.
Up to the present, I have been able to see but little of the real life of
the inland tribes, yet that little has been very interesting. On the
march to Masasi I noticed that wherever the natives had taken an
active part in the rebellion, the roads were in perfect order, while in
the territory of the friendly tribes they were nearly impassable with
high grass, and sometimes bushes. These allies of ours are now,
secure in the consciousness of their past services, saying to
themselves that they may take things easy for a time, as the “Mdachi”
will surely consider their loyalty and make no very severe demands
on them. Captain Ewerbeck, however, has been laying down the law
with great precision and energy to the Akidas and Jumbes, the
district chiefs and village headmen, who are responsible for order
within their own districts.
One can enjoy magnificent spectacles by night in Africa. Sitting in
front of my tent on the way here, or now, when I step out in front of
the Baraza—the rest-house in which I have taken up my abode—I
see, wherever I turn my eyes, the red glow of flames on the horizon.
This is the burning of the grass—a custom practised by the Africans
for thousands of years. It may be remembered that when Hanno, on
his voyage from Carthage, sailed down the West coast of Africa,
nothing produced such a deep and lasting impression of terror on
himself and his crew as the streams of fire seen to flow down from
the coast-ranges at night. In my opinion, which, of course, I do not
consider decisive, these streams of fire were certainly not, as has so
often been maintained, connected with any volcanic phenomena, but
resulted from the processes still put into operation by the inhabitants
of the Dark Continent every night during the dry season.
ROAD THROUGH THE BUSH IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF
CHINGULUNGULU
Much has been written in our Colonial publications with regard to

the benefit or injury to be derived from this grass-burning. Some
condemn it as deleterious to the growth of trees, while others take
the part of the natives and say that only by burning off the high grass
and brushwood of the African forest at regular intervals can they
possibly get the upper hand of the vermin, which would otherwise
increase by myriads. Besides, it is said, the ashes are for the present
the only manure that can be applied on a large scale. I do not feel
justified in attempting a decision, but confine myself to admiring the
magnificent effect of the near and distant fires, reflected in the most
varied gradations of light and colour in the misty atmosphere. None
of these fires, moreover, is dangerous to the traveller; where the
flames seize a patch of completely dry grass, they rush along, it is
true, with a noise like the crackling of musketry-fire; but otherwise,
and indeed in general, the people have to keep up the conflagration
by systematic kindling of the grass in fresh places. In any case they
have the direction and extent of the fire fully under control.
This burning is, so far as I am enabled to judge, only possible
where the remarkable form of vegetation prevails which
characterizes the greater part of Africa, and covers the whole extent
of the great plain on the west and north-west of the Makonde
plateau. This is the “open bush and grass steppe” (lichte Baumgras-
steppe) as it has been very appropriately named by the geologist
Bornhardt. In fact, this form of vegetation is neither exclusively
forest nor altogether steppe; it unites the characters of the two.
Imagine a particularly neglected orchard, in some rural part of
Germany (where I am sorry to say the farmers still pay far too little
attention to this branch of cultivation), and fill up the spaces between
the scattered apple, pear or plum trees, not with our modest German
grass but with the African variety, two or three yards high and more
like canes, mix this with underwood—thorny, but not very close—and
finally bind together the tops of the trees (which are not very high—
certainly none of them over forty feet—and all varieties having a sort
of general resemblance to our maple) by means of a system of airy
lianas. Having done all this, you have, without any further strain on
the imagination, a fairly correct picture of what is here generally
called pori, though in the North the name of “myombo forest” is
more usually applied to it. During the rains, and just after them, this
pori must undeniably have its charms,—in fact, Ewerbeck and his
companion Knudsen are indefatigable in singing its praises as it
appears in that season. Now, on the other hand, in July, it is
anything but beautiful: it neither impresses us by the number and
size of its trees, nor refreshes us with any shade whatever, nor
presents the slightest variation in the eternal monotony which greets
the traveller as soon as he leaves Nyangao and crosses to the right
bank of the Lukuledi and from which he only escapes after a march
of several weeks, high up on the Upper Rovuma. “So this is the
exuberant fertility of the tropics, and this is what an evergreen
primeval forest looks like!” I thought, after enjoying this spectacle for
the space of a whole day. Just as with regard to the alleged want of
appetite experienced by Europeans in the tropics, we ought to see
that the general public is more correctly informed as to the supposed
fertility of Equatorial Africa, and so saved from forming extravagant
notions of the brilliant future in store for our colonies.
The pori becomes downright unpleasant wherever the owners of
the country have just been burning it. To right and left of the road
extends a thick layer of black or grey ashes, on which, here and there,
lies a dead tree, steadily smouldering away. Now that there is no
grass to obstruct the view, the eye ranges unhindered through what
at other times is impenetrable bush. For the sportsman this state of
things is a pleasure, as he can now see game at almost any distance;
but for the traveller, especially if encumbered with a large caravan, it
is nothing less than torture. This is not so much the case in the early
morning, when the fine particles of dust are laid by the heavy dews;
but, when the sun rises higher, marked differences of temperature
are produced within a comparatively small area. Tramping on
through the glowing heat of noon, suspecting no harm and intending
none, the traveller suddenly sees something whirling in front of his
feet—a black snake spinning round in a raging vortex, rises straight
up, dances round him in coquettish curves, and then vanishes
sideways behind the trees, with a low chuckle, as if in derision of the
stranger and his immaculately clean khaki suit. The native followers
have not suffered, being of the same colour as the insidious foe. But
what is the aspect presented by the leader of the expedition! Though
not guaranteed to wash, he presents a sufficiently close resemblance
to a blackamoor, and under the circumstances, the faithful Moritz
and Kibwana, as soon as we have reached camp, will have no more
pressing task than to prepare the bath for their master and
thoroughly soap him down from the crown of his head to the sole of
his foot. And all this is the work of the pori whirlwind.
In these small distresses of life on the march, the imperturbable
cheerfulness of the natives is always a comfort. Among the Wamwera
on the scene of the late rising, there was little inclination for dancing
and merriment—the prevailing misery was too great; but everywhere
else, before our camp was even half arranged, the inhabitants of the
place had assembled in crowds, and the scene which ensued was
always the same in its general features, though varying in detail. The
negro has to dance. As the German, whenever anything lifts him out
of the dead level of the workaday mood, feels irresistibly impelled to
sing, so the African misses no opportunity of assembling for a
ngoma. The word ngoma, in its original signification means nothing
more than a drum; in an extended sense it denotes all festivities
carried on to the sound of the drum. These festivities have an
indisputable advantage over ours, in that the instrumental music,
dancing, and singing are all simultaneous. The band drums, but also
occasionally improvises songs, the audience standing round in a
circle form the chorus and at the same time march round the band to
the rhythm of the song. This is the usual picture, with all its
strangeness so fascinating that the oldest residents in the coast
towns do not think it beneath their dignity to honour this expression
of aboriginal life by attending from time to time, if only for a few
minutes. Other and less sophisticated whites are regular habitués at
these festivals, and never let a Saturday evening pass—this being the
day when ngomas are allowed by law—without standing for hours
among the panting and perspiring crowd. One of these dances,
executed by the women of every place I have so far visited, on every
possible occasion, is peculiarly pleasing. It is called likwata
(“clapping of hands”). A number of women and girls stand in a circle,
facing inwards. Suddenly arms rise into the air, mouths open, feet
twitch in unison, and all goes on in exact step and time; hand-
clapping, singing and dancing. With the peculiar grace which
characterizes all movements of native women, the whole circle moves
to the right, first one long step, then three much shorter. The hand-
clapping, in time and force, accurately follows the above rhythm, as
does the song, which I shall presently reproduce. Suddenly, at a
certain beat, two figures step out of the line of dancers—they trip in
the centre of the circle, moving round one another in definite figures,
the movements in which, unfortunately, are too rapid for the eye to
follow—and then return to their fixed places in the circle to make
way for two more solo artists. So the game goes on, without
interruption or diminution of intensity, hour after hour, regardless of
the babies who, tied in the inevitable cloth on their mothers’ backs,
have gone through the whole performance along with them. In this
confined, hot, and often enough dirty receptacle, they sleep, wake or
dream, while the mother wields the heavy pestle, pounding the maize
in the mortar, or grinds the meal on the stone, while she breaks the
ground for sowing, hoes up the weeds or gathers in the crops, while
she carries the heavy earthen water-jar on her head from the distant
spring, and while, as now, she sways to and fro in the dance. No
wonder if, under such circumstances, the native baby is thoroughly
familiar with the national step and rhythm even before he has left the
carrying-cloth and the maternal breast. The sight of tiny shrimps of
three and four moving with absolute certainty through the mazes of
the grown people’s dance, would almost of itself be worth the journey
to East Africa.
And now come the very profound words accompanying this dance
which seems so full of meaning and poetry. The spectator standing
by and watching the varied and graceful movements of the women—
perhaps working the cinematograph at the same time—is apt, in spite
of all previous resolutions, to pay too little heed to the words sung.
When, the dance over, he arranges the performers before the
phonograph, he is tempted to believe that his ears have deceived
him, so utterly inane are these words. I have made records of the
likwata at a number of different places, but never succeeded in
getting any other result than the following—
[10]
The reader will agree that no undue amount of intellect has been
lavished on this ditty, but this is a trait common to all native songs
here in the South. Even those acknowledged virtuosi, my
Wanyamwezi, cannot do very much better in this respect. Here we
have really every right to say, “We Wazungu are better singers after
all!”
MOUNTAINS NEAR MASASI. DRAWN BY SALIM MATOLA
CHAPTER V
LOOKING ROUND
Masasi, July 25, 1906.
I have been here at Masasi quite a week. My abode is a hut in the

purest Yao style, built by the natives under the orders of the Imperial
District Commissioner, expressly for the benefit of passing European
travellers. This hut—or, I suppose I ought to say, this house, for it is a
sizeable building of some forty feet by twenty—lies outside the boma
which shelters the local police force. It is an oval structure whose
roof is exactly like an overturned boat. The material of the walls is, as
everywhere in this country, bamboo, and wood, plastered inside and
out with dark grey clay. My palace is superior to the abodes of the
natives in the matter of windows, though they are not glazed. At
night, before I creep under my mosquito-net into the camp bed, the
openings are closed with shutters constructed of strong pieces of
bamboo. The floor, as in all native huts, is of beaten earth, which can
in general be kept quite clean, but is not calculated for the sharp
edges of European boot-heels, which soon play havoc with its
surface. The interior forms an undivided whole, only interrupted by
the two posts standing as it were in the foci of the ellipse, and
supporting the heavy thatched roof. This projects outward and
downward far beyond the wall of the house, its outer edge being
carried by a further ellipse of shorter posts, and so makes a broad
shady passage round the whole house, such as, under the name of
baraza is an essential part of every East African residence.
The natives give the name of Masasi to a whole district alike
interesting from the point of view of geography, geology, botany or
geography.
Almost immediately after passing Nyangao, as one comes from the
coast, begins the “open bush and grass steppe” already mentioned,
while at the same time the edges of the Makonde plateau on the
south and of the high ground to the north of the Lukuledi retreat
further and further. As one walks on, day after day, across a perfectly
horizontal plain covered with the same monotonous vegetation, the
journey is by no means exciting. Then, suddenly, at a turn of the
path, we see a huge cliff of glittering grey. We draw a long breath and
forget all our fatigue in presence of this new charm in the landscape.
Even the heavy-laden carriers step more lightly. Suddenly the bush,
which has become fresher and greener as we approach the rock,
ceases, and instead of the one cliff we now see a whole long range of
rocky peaks, which seem to stand as a barrier right across our path.
This, however, is not the case, for close to the foot of the first
mountain the road turns sharply to S.S.E., running parallel and close
to the range. When the range ends, the road ends too, for there,
embosomed in a circle of “hill-children,”—as the native would say in
his own language, i.e., low hills of a few thousand feet or under,—lies
the military station of Masasi.
The dome-shaped gneiss peaks of Masasi are celebrated in
geological literature: they are, in fact, unique, not in their
petrographic constituents, but in the regularity of their serried ranks.
Orographically this whole region of East Africa which I am now
traversing is characterized by insular mountains (Inselberge), as they
are called by the geologist Bornhardt. The name is very appropriate,
for, if the land were to sink some three hundred feet, or the Indian
Ocean to rise in the same degree, the valleys of the Lukuledi,
Umbekuru and Rovuma, as well as, in all probability, several rivers
in Portuguese East Africa, and also the whole vast plain west of the
Mwera and Makonde plateaus would form one great lake. Here in the
west, only these lumpy, heavy gneiss peaks would rise as tiny islands
above the waters, while towards the coast the plateaus just
mentioned would so to speak represent the continents of this piece of
the earth’s surface.
THE INSULAR MOUNTAIN OF MASASI
In general these peaks are scattered irregularly over the whole

wide area of the country. If I climb one of the smaller hills
immediately behind my house, I can overlook an almost illimitable
number of these remarkable formations to north, west and south.
They are mostly single or in small clusters, but several days’ journey
further west a large number are gathered into a close cluster in the
Majeje country. The Masasi range in our immediate neighbourhood
is the other exception. Corresponding to their irregular distribution
is a great variety in height. Many are only small hillocks, while others
rise to a sheer height of 1,600 feet and over from the plain, which
here at Masasi is fully 1,300 feet above sea-level. The highest of these
hills thus attain about the middle height among our German
mountains.
As to the origin of these strange mountain shapes, not being a
geologist, I am in no position to form an opinion. According to
Bornhardt, who in his magnificent work on the earth-sculpture and
geology of German East Africa[11] has described the geological
features of this landscape with admirable vividness, all these insular
peaks testify to a primeval and never interrupted struggle between
the constructive activity of the sea and the denuding, eroding,
digging and levelling action of flowing water and of atmospheric
influences. He sees this tract in primordial times as an immense
unbroken plain of primitive gneiss. In this, in course of time, streams
and rivers excavated their valleys, all more or less in the same
direction. At the end of this long-continued process, long hill ridges
were left standing between the different valleys. Then came another
epoch, when stratification took the place of destruction. Whereas
formerly, rain, springs, brooks and rivers carried the comminuted
and disintegrated rock down to the sea, now, the sea itself overflowed
the land, filled the valleys, and probably covered the whole former
scene of action with its sediment. This sediment, again, in the course
of further ages became hardened into rock. Once more the scene
changed; again the land was left dry; and wind, rain and running
water could once more begin their work of destruction. But this time
their activity took a different direction. They had formerly carried the
detritus north or south, but now they swept it eastward, at right
angles to their former course, and so gradually ground and filed away
the whole of the later deposit, and also eroded the long ridges which
had survived from the first period of destruction. Finally, when even
this primitive rock had been worn away down to the bottom level of
the first valleys, nothing remained of the old sheet of gneiss except in
the angles formed by the crossing of the two lines of abrasion and
erosion. The superincumbent strata being swept away, the hard
gneiss cores of these angles of ground form the very insular peaks I
have been describing. Bornhardt’s theory is a bold one and assumes
quite immeasurable periods of time, but it has been generally
accepted as the most plausible of all attempts to explain the facts. In
any case it is a brilliant proof of the capacity for inductive reasoning
possessed by German scholars.
These mighty masses of rock, springing with an unusually steep
slope, direct from the plain, dominate their surroundings wherever
one comes across them, but where they appear in such a wonderfully
regular series as they do here—Mkwera, Masasi, Mtandi, Chironji,
Kitututu, Mkomahindo, and the rest of the lesser and greater
elevations within my horizon,—they present an incomparable and
quite unforgettable spectacle. When once the projected railway
across the Umbekuru basin is completed, the tourist agencies will
have no more popular excursion than that to the Masasi Range.
From a botanical point of view, also, the visitor finds himself well
repaid for his trouble. Once in the shadow of these hills, the
desolation of the pori is forgotten as if by magic; one plantation
succeeds another, and patches of all the different varieties of millet
bow their heavy cobs and plumes in the fresh morning breeze, which
is a real refreshment after the stifling heat of the long day’s march
through the bush. Beans of all kinds, gourds and melons, rejoice the
eye with their fresh green, on either side of the path the mhogo
(manioc) spreads its branches with their pale-green leaves and pink
stalks. Wherever there is an interval between these various crops, the
bazi pea rattles in its pod. This fertility (astonishing for the southern
part of German East Africa) is only rendered possible by the
geological constitution of the soil. Wherever we have set foot on the
main road, and north and south of the same, as far as the eye can
reach, the principal constituents of the upper stratum have been
loamy sand and sandy loam. In places where the action of water has
been more marked, we find an outcrop of bare, smooth gneiss rocks;
or the ground is covered with hard quartzite, crunching under foot.
Only where these mighty gneiss ranges break the monotony does
anyone examining the country with an eye to its economic value find
full satisfaction. Gneiss weathers easily and forms excellent soil, as
the natives have long ago discovered; and, though they by no means
despise the less fertile tracts, yet the most favoured sites for
settlements have always been those in the immediate vicinity of the
gneiss islands. Masasi, with its enormous extent, taking many hours
to traverse, is the typical example of such economic insight.
Since this would naturally attract people from all directions, it is
not to be wondered at if a question as to the tribal affinities of the
Masasi people should land one in a very chaos of tribes. Makua,
Wayao, Wangindo, a few Makonde, and, in addition a large
percentage of Coast men:—such are the voluntary immigrants to this
little centre of social evolution. To these we must add a
miscellaneous collection of people belonging to various tribes of the
far interior, who are here included under the comprehensive
designation of Wanyasa. These Wanyasa are the living testimony to
an experiment devised in the spirit of the highest philanthropy,
which, unfortunately, has not met with the success hoped for and
expected by its promoters. This very region was some decades ago
the scene of an extremely active slave-traffic; the trade, kept up by
the Zanzibar and Coast Arabs, preferred the route through this
easily-traversed and at that time thickly-populated country. The
situation of Kilwa Kivinje on a bay so shallow that Arab slave-dhows,
but not the patrolling gun-boats of rigidly moral Powers, can anchor
there, is to this day a speaking testimony to that dark period in the
not excessively sunny history of Africa.
In order to get at the root of the evil, English philanthropists have
for many years been in the habit of causing the unhappy victims
driven down this road in the slave-stick, to be ransomed by the
missionaries and settled on their stations as free men. The principal
settlement of this kind is that among the gneiss peaks of Masasi. The
Christian world cherished the hope that these liberated slaves might
be trained into grateful fellow-believers and capable men. But when
one hears the opinion of experienced residents in the country, it is
not possible without a strong dose of preconceived opinion to see in
these liberated converts anything better than their compatriots. The
fact remains and cannot by any process of reasoning be explained
away, that Christianity does not suit the native; far less, in any case
than Islam, which unhesitatingly allows him all his cherished
freedom.
Personally, however, I must say I have not so far noticed any
discreditable points in the character of the Masasi people; all who
have come in contact with me have treated me in the same friendly
fashion as the rest of those I have come across in this country. Such
contact has by no means been wanting in spite of the shortness of my
stay here, since I have thrown myself into my work with all the
energy of which I am capable, and am convinced that I have already
seen with my own eyes and heard with my own ears a large and
important part of the people’s life.
The very beginning of my studies was remarkably promising. The
Mission station of Masasi lies a short hour’s walk north north-
eastward from us, immediately under the precipitous side of Mtandi
Mountain. This Mtandi is the most imposing peak of the whole
range; it rises in an almost vertical cliff directly behind the straw huts
of the Mission, ending, at a height of nearly 3,100 feet in a flat dome.
District Commissioner Ewerbeck and I had already, when riding past
it on the day of our arrival, determined to visit this mountain; and we
carried out our project a day or two later. The trip was not without a
certain fascination. At 4.30 a.m. in a pitch-dark tropical night, we
were ready to march, the party consisting of two Europeans and half-
a-dozen carriers and boys, with Ewerbeck’s Muscat donkey and my
old mule. As quickly as the darkness allowed, the procession passed
along the barabara, turning off to the left as we approached Mtandi.
The animals with their attendants were left behind at the foot of the
mountain, while the rest of us, making a circuit of the Mission
grounds, began our climbing practice.
I had equipped myself for my African expedition with the laced
boots supplied by Tippelskirch expressly for the tropics. When I
showed these to “old Africans” at Lindi, they simply laughed at me
and asked what I expected to do in this country with one wretched
row of nails on the edge of the sole. They advised me to send the
things at once to Brother William at the Benedictine Mission, who
earns the gratitude of all Europeans by executing repairs on shoes
and boots. Brother William, in fact, very kindly armed my boots with
a double row of heavy Alpine hobnails, and I wore a pair the first day
out from Lindi, but never again on the march. They weighed down
my feet like lead, and it soon appeared that the heavy nails were
absolutely unnecessary on the fine sand of the barabara. After that
first day, I wore my light laced shoes from Leipzig, which make
walking a pleasure. Here, on the other hand, on the sharp ridges of
Mtandi, the despised mountain boots rendered me excellent service.
I prefer to omit the description of my feelings during this ascent. It
grew lighter, and we went steadily upwards, but this climbing, in
single file, from rock to rock and from tree to tree was, at any rate for
us two well-nourished and comfortable Europeans, by no means a
pleasure. In fact, we relinquished the ambition of reaching the
highest peak and contented ourselves with a somewhat lower
projection. This was sensible of us, for there was no question of the
magnificent view we had expected; the heights and the distant
landscape were alike veiled in thick mist, so that even the longest
exposure produced no effect to speak of on my photographic plates.

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Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater

Technologies Through the Centuries

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First published 2014

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 9781780404844 (Paperback)

List of reviewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•⁄ xix

4.1.1 Historical perspectiveâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…55

6.2.1 Minoan creteâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…101

7.4.8 Water supplyâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . å°“. . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…160

9.3 Hydrologyâ•⁄. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…193

11.4.3 Public latrinesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…241

13.5 Wastewater Treatment and Reuseâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…282

15.3 Drainage of Representative Areasâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…317

20.2.2 The second master plan tenderâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…404

22.8 Referencesâ•⁄ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .â•…435

Dr. Renato Drusiani, FederUtility, Rome, Italy, acqua@federutility.it

‘O μoια γα´ρ ως επí τo πoλύ τα μέλλoντα τoις γεγoνó σι.

Much has been written in our Colonial publications with regard to

Masasi, July 25, 1906.

I have been here at Masasi quite a week. My abode is a hut in the

In general these peaks are scattered irregularly over the whole

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