Class 12th

Chemistry
Short Notes
For neet | BOARDS

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↳

affecting
Mole Fraction 1×1 Factors VP
Solutions solute Solvent in water
:

g. sugar
-

-_ -1 e.

(B) (A) T T ✗ substance n substance

Nature of
liquid 1
__

1) XP ✗
Less amount Move amount solute solvent ntotal
Force of attraction
11%11/11 =
Volume of solute ✗ 100 30%11/11 Solution
2) Temperature XP ✗
Temp
somutebsouszow
.

Volume of solution ↳ 30Mt solute present solute (B) solvent / Al

in 100Mt solution .
NB na
-

Note :
XP does not
depend on -

- *
" NB " " NA

liquid
= =

Amount of
2)
t.to/W=Weightofso1utex1oo--l3O/.W/w -1)
☐
.

NA + NB MA + NB

somesolute
Se Weight ↳ - I

of solution solute is Volume of vessel

30
gm ✗ A -1×13=1
-2)

present in solution -3) Surface

loogm .
area .

3) 1- W/ ✗ =

Weight of solute ✗ 100 30% W/ 11 Vapour pressure of the solution :

PB =
0
volume of solution ↳ solute
30
gm present of solution nonvolatile solute and volatile solvent
case -1 :
HP
containing
in 100Mt solution .

P•A PA P•A= V. Pof Pa V. Pof solution

pure solvent
> -

Molarity
-

:
Y

per litre of solution

No of moles
.

present .
Routt 's Law : V. Pof
any volatile component is
directly proportional to
*
M= n solute M= N solute ✗ 1000 mole fraction in solution .

0 -

p•a
PA
PAXXA P•A= Pof
Volume of 50M in litre .
Volume of solution in Mt .

-
v.
-
pure solvent
- =
= -

*
PA -_p•AXA xa= Mole Fraction of solvent in solution .

Molality
- - *
o g
Molal
.

Im Mole Fraction in xp
PA __
V. Pof solution
n solute
Y
semi molal vapour phase : = I

-12m
m= -

P•AxA HP of solution volatile solute and volatile solvent

PA Case -1
containing
:
of solvent in
weight kg ya
=

=P°AxatP•BKB
.

molal FT
Yom
Deci -
-

P PA
=

PB
+

NA+ RB 1 =

P= RAKA P•BXB XA -1×13=1

.pe#p;zxB-P.A
+
M= N solute ✗ 1000 p•BxB
IB

jy-YY.tt?y.gyp=p;z+(P.n--P
y,
= =

p=p
T

of solvent PT PAKA -1%3×13 P=P•A IP :3 FAI

weight ing
*
Piz
+
XB
-

* ;) XA
VAPOUO pressure : ->
At
equilibrium xa=0 xa=1
✗
B.
=L xB=0
At
equilibrium ,
1120111 H2O /
Vapour )
of Solution
Types :

Rate of evaporation __
Rate of condensation .

Y
" Ideal solution solution which follows Routt 's law at all and
Temp conc
Pressure exerted by vapours of
liquid its
-

on
.

-> remains
PA =
RAKA Force of attraction :
same
known
surface is as
Vapour pressure . solvent solute solution

PB =
P°BXB A- A = B B - =
A -

B
ALWAYS *
substances
p=Ph-xA+P°BxB AVmi✗=O AS mix > 0

Hexane and Heptane AHmi×=0 AGmix< 0

e.
g.
- -

Volatile Nonvolatile p0 =

2) Non Ideal solution -

Solution which does not Follow Routt 's law

can be converted to vapour cannot be converted into vapours
-

*
* PA =/ PAKA PB =/ P•AXB
H2O .CH } OH C2H5 OH
e.
g. e.
g.
Udea NHZCONHZ
glucose diviation
- -

he
, .
,
.
-> VD

↳ direction Force of attraction incuase

FEE
a) -

ve deviation

*
some
important terms :
-
* Pitsea
pas ( A- B) > ( A- A) and / B- B)
Numerical I
d- -

density -
PBT P•BXB A
a) 1. W/ 11 =
t.lv/WXd M=
Molarity v
Ph P•AXA+P•BXB Hmi✗< 0 AGMIXLO
b) M =
10 ✗ 1. W/ W Xd MM solute =
Molar mass solute
e. Chloroform and acetone Acid H2O
ALWAYS

g. ,
-1

msn.m-m.it
. b) + ve Deviation Force of attraction dulates
the deviation

MM solvent Molar solvent Up incuase

c) m =
1000M =
mass
> poaxa
PA B ( A- B) < ( A- A) and / B- B)
Solution
-

ALWAYS
✗ solute =
Mole Fraction Of Solute =>

wood M ✗ MM solute > p•BxB

PB B Vmi✗ > 0 AS mix > 0
-
-

Mole Fraction of solvent p E>

p.n-xn-i-p.BXBe.g.cztls-OH-CH3-qg-C.tl
✗ solvent =

d) m= ✗ solute ✗ 1000

C2H5OH -1 H2O CS2tCH3 CH 's

-4g
}
-

solvent MM solvent
, ,
x ✗
Ethand
.

Autone
 I RLVPI
colligative properties :
a) Relative
Lowering of vapour pressure
of solute b) Elevation in BP
3) Depression in
Freezing point
which depend on no .

. .

solvent
Tf >
Tf Tf
=
FP of
pure
particles and not on nature c) Depression in FP
ATF =
Tj Tf-

Tf
=
FP of solution
of particles d) Osmotic
pressure Experimentally A- Tf
.

.
✗ m
kg =
Molal depression constant or

Atf imkf coyoscopic constant

=

Boiling point .

11792
-

kf =
R MM solvent
Kf
=
RIT;)
at which VP is
Temperature equal to atmospheric pressure
AH
1000 ✗
fusion 1000 X L fusion
XP ✗ 1-
BP

41 Osmotic pressure ( T1 )
Azeotrope -

Solution which boils at constant -1

-

we cannot
separate azeotropes spontaneous movement of solvent
through semi -

permeable
conc ?
0 SMOSIS
From low conch to
Van 't hoff Factor Ii ) :
RATIO
membrane
High --

IT =
i CRT i =
Van 't Hoff Factor
Factor that takes into account number of
particles after I
MOLARITY c= conch 1
Molarity )
dissociation / association
--
-

R= Universal constant
gas
i =
No of -

particles after diss / asso

1- =

Temperature 1kt .

No of particles before diss/ ASSO

solution 11 -11,1 Isotonic
.

=
11-1=11-2
*
Hypotonic solution
solution 217121 having less OP
=

Y
i =
Abnormal
colligative property i =
Normal Molar mass

Hypertonic solution
having more OP
=

Normal
Colligative property Y Abnormal molar mass
V
solubility
substances Defined as max .
amount of solute which can be dissolved

Non -

electrolyte SAKHT Eleitoolyte in fixed amount of solvent .

Does not dissociate or associate .

Solubility of solid in
liquid
Assoiiation
v

i =3 Dissociation
Depends on two factors
e.
g.
Urea
glucose sucrose i > 1 i< 1
a) Temperature Endothermic TT
solubility t
. ,
.

A
*
*
i I + ( n 1) ✗ i
11-(2--1) ✗
= - =

of dissociation
Exothermic Tt
solubility t,

✗
Degree
=

of association b) Pressure No effect

✗
Degree
= -

Relative ( RNP )
1)
lowering of
Vapour pressure Pit > PA -

Solubility of Gas in
liquid :

of solution volatile solute

v. P
containing non -

Depends on two factors

I RHP =
PTA PA -
=

O
JCB
MF
of
solute
a) Temperature Dissolution of in
liquid is
always
gas
-

pin
exothermic .
TT
solubility I
of
lowering Vapour pressure PIA PA
= -

b) Pressure
Solubility ✗ Pressure
-

Elevation in V. P of
2)
Boiling point : P•A > PA PA
pure solvent
=

v. Px
1
PA =
V. P of solution
YHenry 's Law : Partial
pressure of
gas is
directly
BIT
Nonvolatile solute add v.pt B.PT
Tb = BP
of
solution
proportional to the mole Fraction .

To solvent
.

BP
of P
=

✗ x
Elevation in
.

Boiling point =
To =
Tb To
-

X
P =
KH X KH =

Henry 's constant

Experimentally ☐To imkb
molality
.

=
m =
,

I At const P
2 molality i =
Han 't Hoff factor
.

,
KH T =
oct ,
=

Solubility t
,

( To /
.

Kb =
R
1
Kb =
molal elevation constant or
KH ✗
000×11-41

ibulioscopic constant .
Solubility .
Y

Rate of Reaction conc

.^
[ P]
Molecularity :

Y
Rate a) Can be an
integer 11,20031 but it cannot be
negative or Fractional
Change in conc or
pressure zero 00
-_ .
.

b) Elementary
Time taken reaction
molecularity equal to its order
- Y
,
is .

[R]
'
c) complex
>
reaction
molecularity of each
-1
of mechanism is defined
step
"
separately
'
Unit -_
molt time ooatm time × time .

probabilityof species
more than 3

d) Maximum value of order is }

Note -_
Rate of Reaction can never be -

ve Reactant → product molecularity or .

together
coming
is
negligible
enter
e

Defined over
rate of Reaction an 20000018 reactions In -01 Half life
Average
:
a

tYz
Rate Law
Rate AC AC At=Ao kt
Integrated At Ao-kt
-

Rate
-
=

tyzx Ad
= =

Zeoooodeo
tyz=Az÷
=
1
:
=
-

< >
At At Rate =k Icao a

( Reactant ) / product )
.

tyz=,n÷ tyz✗A°
^

Ao =
Initial cone .
At m= -

K First order :

tyz
fixed atthe
*

Instantaneous Rate Of Reaction

At =
conc .
left aftertime 't '

a > " < "

t second order :
tyzx A A
Rate =
DER ] Rate =
DIP ] " "

Rate constant
-

K =

( Reactant ) dt ( Product ) dt :
nthoodeooeactiontyzxn.tn
Half life 11-112001-50%1 completion time ( two ;)
Nz + 3142 →
2MHz moles
No 100 moly Ao 100
=

At
-_A÷ At After half life =Ao_
=

=
0 → n
At 0
dENz] d[ Hit DINH } ] 2h
=

Rate =
-
=
-
= + At=50moly

ty As +1001 At
dt 3dt zdt tY2=A0_ * .
-_
first order reaction / na )
2K K
" At Ao ekt
At=A0é
" =

Differential Rate Law collision

theory :
At
14=1 In AI
Rate of
disappearance = -

davit =
-

d[Hal a) Fooaieactiontooccuo there must be collisions in between t At

' "

( Reactant ) dt dt
reacting molecules .

1<=2-3+03 log A- " t

DINH,] Total number of collisions At

Rate of
appearance
+ b)
per second in unit volume is
=

Half life :

( Product ) dt called collision

frequency .

Rate law .
Experimentat
-

For effective collision :

c) Small fraction of collisions are
capable to convert
tyz=
1,21=0.692 K
Independent of Ao .

Law
molecules
an + ppg →
product
a)
Reacting reactants into products called effective collisions .

pseudo first order reactions :

must a
posses
Rate ✗ [A ] -113 ] ORDER =
x+
y Energy condition : AH =

Ep Er
-

Elementary bimolecular reactions in which

minimum amount
one of the reactant is in excess These
-4378
"
Rate KEA ]
.

of AH reactions to be of 2nd order but

energy .

appear
K= Rate constant 00
Follow 1st order kinetics
orientation
b) proper 1H=Ive AHI -

ve
'
.

specific reaction date Rate -_ KIA ] →

Order =L
of collision
Endothermic Exothermic
.

Order Of Reaction catalyst substance which can

absorbed released
Energy Energy .

alter oateofixn without

order of reaction wot A
✗
Ep > ER Ep< ER
=

- =
I EXOTHERMIC

Odder of reaction wit B ENDOTHERMIC > Activated complex Activated complex having any change in
composition
y= ^
>

^^ " " f with inhibitor

- -
-
>
^
Half ^lEa)b ^

Overall Oxley without

catalyst
^

MthhyEp
^

✗+
y
>
=
.

v
Energy
-
ltalb >
with
catalyst .

Ep
a

Energy ?☐µ
STATEMENT BASED ER ET
Note catalyst
denote
RAH
:
*

- - E, ~ ☐µ
activation
-

Ep ✗
mugy
ER
a) Order is an experimental quantity . u
ER ↳
reactivityincesses
< > < ,
Rxn Rxn
Odder ofixn
v
progress ×
progress
b) maybe zedo.tl/e
coefficient ( IU )
AH=
Ep-ER Temperature
,

-
He 00 fractional A- H= / Eats -

( Ea )b
21-03
Eale=
.

µ= K -1+10 =

Half Activation forward

K ) n=
=
order energy
of
*

Unifoliate constant ( .
run
k= k, R Ae=

"" "
lEalb= Activation energy backward
1m¥ )
"

E÷
'"
.

k= Time k= latml Time lnk=lnA -

ET __
Threshold energy

a) order lnk=-E_a
Zero n=0 b) First order n=1 Avoehinus
equation : A =
Arrhenius constant
⑱ 30312T 2.
-110g A

' "

1m¥ ) Ea= Activation

-1
K= see K =
Sec energy
EAIRT
⇐ Ae nc=,oga
-

R= Universal constant
yp=µp= Rate ,
gas .

logk
-

Elementary Reactions 2A+ 3B-> Product

Elementary m= a_
( Kelvin )
1-
Temperature
=
3
Rate R [A]
=

[B] 2.30312

it completes single step

in .

Maxwell Distribution curve :

Can
" >

2) Rate law
equal to stoichiometric coefficients of reactions .

>
Increased
"

f-
Fraction T 1-+10 Fraction
Note
E÷ ( E- -3=2 )
-
:
of molecular at lnK2_ =

Ki
a) Zero order reactions be
can never
elementary •

Ea
b) For
elementary reactions .
Fractional order is not possible .
Ea
i. Energy b)
log ,K÷= 2.30312 ( F- FT ) -

COMPE
*
t
multistep the
 Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry
-

POTENTIAL (E)

·I
ELECTRODE Depends on Temp and Conc
In Rod

I
e

Potential developed between electrode e InYaq) +2c-

I
In (s) ->

(an+2
and
electrolytic solution is known
Electrochemical Conductance
Cell
Electrolysis as Electrode Potential.
one
nidation Potential
Ezn/ant2
O
-

Anode: -
ve (Onidation) Amode: +ve (Onidation) Electrode Potentiat
Eznt2/zu
0

Reduction Potential Reduction

Cathode: +ve (Reduction) Cathode: -ve (Reduction)
- -

Standard Electrode Potential (E%): Potential measured at 298K and IM lonc"

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL- Galvanic/Daniel cell)

Era".
0

inns"
0

& ANIEh CERL Chemical EnergyElectrical 0

I Energy
L

Ote: Ecathode
Ece= + Eanode Oxidation Potential
K2SOy
Ku Anode:-
KNO3
Reduction Potential
Ouidation:2n(s) InTag) + 20-

Significance ofElectrode Potential

Model: -

Electrode
x potential value
gives the
tendency of an element
Reduction:(n(aq) + 2 (u(s) S
-

->
oxidised reduced.
to
get or

Points to Remember For ->AT E 0.84" has

eg:
A
tendency to get
=

more

"Anode" to "Cathode". 2
·electron move
from B ->
BT E 0.3x
=

ouidised
Wire
:Current move From "Cathode"to "Anode". Relation between AG and Ecell
:Current due to electrons Faraday constant (96500)
S
in outer circuit is 1G =
-nFEce n: no of electrons 7:

:Currentin inner circuitis due to ions

Spontaneous Reaction AG c0 -> EcelI >O
Functions of Salt bridge Non-Spontaneous Reaction AG>o=> Ecello
*
Complete the circuit maintains
*
electrical
neutrality ofsolution #

ERST EQUATION AG nFEcel BG nF EelL

of Inert Electrolyte
reties
= -
=
-

44

Both
* ions shouldnot participate in
Reactions.
According to thermodynamics:AG DG" + RTInD =

-nFEcell=-nFEcell+RTInd

Mobility of both cons

Fell: Eel-Ing -> NERST EQUATION

-equilibrium
* should be same.

REPRESENTATION CELL:
OF

Fcell=Fiell--591 loge 4:Reaction Quotient

.

Nevst Equation at 298K:

Representation: [n(s) 1 IntIaq) (u+ (aq) / (u(s>
n: no
of e-
nee
Cathode
trode Salt-Bridge
 I
Standard
2) Electrolysis of10 -> 2F
electricity is
passed
Hydrogen Potential: Hydrogen Potential=o
Anode (Onidation):H,0
-
2 0

Anode=>
tQ(g) 2 2H+
->
0 (9)
-
+ +

POINT
ENTHe
REFERENCE
eg:2H(ag) He(g)
20 -> O
0
-

-or
+

Helatter
2c-+ zitico ->
=

SHE
Reduction):
0
=

H2(g)
->
2HTag) 20
Et2/H+
-
+ O
0
=

3) Electrolysis of aqueous Nall

RELATION BETWEEN AG and Eel and Kea
Case-I Using Inert (Pt) Electrode
&G = -
RT Inkeq -Yet 01 logke
=

prefered
Cathode: Nat Anode:-> I (12
--

-
+c-> Na(s) +e
PORTANT

->

-
*SPONTANEOUS Prefered H+ 207
H0 2+ 2H
O2
-> + +

FinO-
Kea
Cathode:He (g) Anode: ( (9)

Case-I Using Mercury Cathode

A4x0 -> Ecell0 ->
Keq
Prefer
Cathode: Nat+e-->NaCs) Anode: (1-->
I(le+e-prefer
I CONCENTRATION CELS:-
2- 2Hz0 -> Hy + 20H- 2e +2Ht
H20 ->
O2
+
+

Eell 0 = Note:
Cathode: Na(s) Anode: (2(9)
log(ca
Cathode Fill
0591
=

Ecell=0591 logt
Forms with
amalgam Hy
Anode
4) Electrolysis of He SOy
Electrolysis SOY -H2SO4
+

Non-Spontaneous H H+OH--
Case-1: Dilute Hyson He

Electrolysis is chemical
decomposition of a substance using Cathode:2H+ 21
+
-

->
He (g) Anode:H0-12 + 2e- + 2Ht

electricity Oxidation fnoc

= -> + ve

Cathode:H2(g) Anode: 02 (8)

Cathode -> ve
tion -
-

- -
- -

1)
Electrolysis. If
Molten
itonstart
↑

CORL.

E SOY -H2SO4
+
H H+OH--
moving towards (athode. Case -2:-Conc HesOn He
Anious start
moving towards Anode
Anode:2SO2-> S20
-> +
Cathode:2H H2(g)
-

20 + 2e
-
-
+

-
->

Molten = Cathode: Na+e--> NaCs) Cathode:NaCs)

NaCl (Reduction)
-

+
Anode :
-
x
-

4(g) e-
+
Mrt(te(q) Cathode:Hy(g) O
Anode: O
He288-> Perony disulphuric
NaCl(s) (l- Couidation)
acid
40 --o-o-s"-on
a + -
>
-
-

11 11 MARSHAL
O ACID
O
 3) Electrolysis of aq CusOn SECOND LAW ELECTROLYSIS
OF Want Eq. ut of (u
7
WAg& Eg. ofAg
ewies not
Case 1:
using Inertelectrode Cntson-CusOn HT Or ->
H20

Cathode:(u++ 2c -> (u(s) Anode:H20 ->2 2H+

L Wow Eq.ut of Cu
- -
+
20 + =

Cathode ->(u(s) Anode ->

02 (8)
WAg Eg. Lot of Ag
Cu Ag
Case 2: (n electrode
Using Conductance ofElectrolytic Solution

-14 Cathode:(u+2 + 20 -> (u(s) ↳ (Cations/Anions)

-

Ions
Area ofCross-Section (A)
Cu Lu
Anode:2 SOY - SOg + 2e-

distance
electrode
-

b/w 2

2H+ -
cuson H20 1O2
-

-> + 2e +

Ga (ut2 Prefer
-

20 Cell
-> ->
Electrolytic
+

Resistance (R):R I1
* SFUNIT -ohm f:Resistivity
=

A
AtCathode:In dependents Anode:In is
getting into solution
Cathode Impure Conductance
*
(G):Reciprocal ofR -> unit: ohm or mho or seimencs,

Pure Gt Conductivity (Kappa)

↑

I
=
=

& Purification of Copper

G Yow Constant
A Gx1 =
x
=

x Gx call
=
=

Constant
Anode Mud (Pt, An, Ag)
-

araday's law Molar

*
Conductivity (1m) Conductivity of1 Molar Solution

Am Kx 100 ⑧ SI Unit: Sm2 mol-

not
Passing IF, its equal to
=

n
M

equivalent at
deposited.
is
Equivalent Conductivity (AE) -> Conductivity
*
of1 gram
Firstlaw of Electrolysis R= KX1000
= SI unit: Sm2eq- Equivalent solution.
N
-0
deposited charge passed.
w nt
* is
equal to *
Relation
N= xnf Am =

between Am and RE:

-w-2D.ButIEquivalent to time (secose

Metallic Conductor
Conduct electric
* current due to the
mobility offree electrons.
1: Current E:Equivalent
weight
d
w=
·

Temperature
* & Conductance 1

*
Temperature -> Collisons -> Resistance t
 #Variation ofconductivity kwith conc
Electrolytic Conduction
decreases decrease both weak and
NaCl(s) -> Conducts Electricity? No. conductivity
=>
with in cone
of strong acid

#Variation of molar conductivity. Im ditution

(molten)
D
NaCl
Conducts Electricity? ->
Increases with -
decrease in
>concentration
Im *
NaCl (agcous) Yes ->
Increases with dilution

Their Conductance withrise in

temperature because of
dilution
higher mobility ofions at
hightemperature. Strong Electrolyte m
increases on

Dilution
-
-

-
Non-Electrolyte -> Do not conduct
electricity -> No Free Ions -AB-- -A+ -

rea, Sugar, Glucose

A Increase in Molar
Conductivity
=
is due to increase in distance b/w cation and anion
- =
=

Factors affecting Electrolytic Conduction or an

Infinite dilution
dilution
conductivity infinite
.

limiting conductivity at
.

or

·Conductivity - extent ofionization Am

"solvation"ofions, lesser "conductance" m-A (c) #

Greater is the
=

the m

constant
·

Greater viscosity of solvent, lesser is the conductance

tortion
·
is a
Yonch1,
the concentration
ofsolution, lesser is conduction
Higher
·

ductance
Temperaturein e

I
Weak
(g) Rb g) CT *
Electrolyte : Am increases dilution
+

x on

Reason:Because for weak electrolyte, on dilution number of cons increase because degree
Size 4
ofdissociation increases (Ostwald's Dilution law)
Note:For Weak
Electrolyte: We cannot find him or am experimentally
Mobility: Conductance Conductivity: Lit(y)
= >
Nat(y) >
k(g) > Rb+ (g) > (st(g)
*
#KOHLRAUSCHLAw:
Applicable For BothWeak and
strong electrolyte.
*
Aqueous Phase: Lit(ag)
↓
Nat(ag) Kt(ar) Rb+(ag) (stay) At infinite dilution: (*m)AB= (*m)A++ (1m)B-
↓

Highest charge density lowest

charge density
Hydration Energy &
Charge &
charge
#

#
Degree ofDissociation.(2)
Am
(mY AUz=(mYat3
density X
s(my
=
Size
+
Aim ar
Hydration Energy: litag) > Natlag) > Kcaq) > Rb+ (aq) > (stCaq)
Size 8
litag) > Nat. (ag) > Kcaq) > Rb+ (aq) > (stCaq)

Mobility Conductance:Lit(aq)* Nat(ag) <k(ar)<Rb+(aq) (st(ar)

<
 D and F Block
D-Block Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
- Last electron enter in (n-I)d orbital
Penaltimate shell
General Electronic Configuration Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru z Rh Pd Ag Cd
(n-1) d1-10 ns0-2

La Hf Ta W Re Os Jr Pt Au Hg
Group- to Group- I

Transition Element Properties

- Incompletely filled d-orbital either in the Ground state or in oxidation • High Tensile Zn
state • Malleable, Ductile Cd Do not form
• Lusturous z Hg lattice
Mn ---- [Ar] 3d5 4s2 Mn
z filled d-orbital
Incompletely • High Thermal and electrical conductivity
Cu ---- [Ar] 3d10 4s1 • Less volatile
Cu ---- [Ar] 3d10 4s0
Cu ---- [Ar] 3d9 4s0
M..P and B.P
Incompletely filled d-orbital More no of valence electron(unpaired electron) -→More metallic bonding -→More is Mp/Bp
Note: G-6 G-12
D-Block – Group to Group Cr Max unpaired electron Zn
Min Mp/Bp
Mo i.e Highest Mp/Bp Cd
Transition Element – Group to Group W Hg
z
Group I
Zn
Cd Enthalpy of Atomization
Hg
-Energy required to break metal latticezand convert into gaseous atom
D-Block - Vanadium ( 3d series) has max Enthalpy of atomization

Period d series -→
Atomic Size
Period d series -→ Factors Affecting atomic Size –
z I) Zeff
Period d series -→ II) Screening Effect

Period d series -→ Size I/size Screening Effect

Lanthanoids Period-6
Period-7
Atomic size: d < d d
Actinoids (Lanthanoid Contraction)

3d-series Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Lanthanoids Series(f-block) Lanthanum
Actinoids zActinium Zeff > Screening Effect Zeff >Screening Effect
Element(d-block) Zeff < Screening Effect
 Ionization Energy Oxide
3d-series Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
3d Series
I.E of Zn Cd Hg is highest due to d fullyfilled orbital
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Sc2O3 TiO VO CrO MnO FeO CoO NiO CuO ZnO
TiO2O3 V2O3 Cr2O3 Mn2O3 Fe2O3 Co2O3 Cu2O
Oxidation State TiO2 V2O4
V2O5
CrO2 MnO2 Fe3O4
Mn3O4
- All d-block element show variable Oxidation State except Sc , Zn . CrO3 Mn2O7

Max O.S = +8
( Os , Ru )
3d Series
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Magnetic Property
+3 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +1 +2
+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +2 Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4
+5 +5 +5
+6 +6 +6 - Zero unpaired - Atleast one
+7 electron unpaired electron
- Repelled by - Attraction by - Very Strong attraction
magnetic field. magnetic field. by magnetic field
Halides and Oxides
Halides n= no. of unpaired
electron
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

Colour of Compound
- Imparts colour in compound due to unpaired electron
No Halide - KMnO is purple in colour
- Sc and Zn are colourless due to zero unpaired electron
MnF7 Does not exist (Steric Hindrance)

MnO3F exist Catalytic Property

- They show variable oxidation state
- Cu2X2 exist except Cu2I2
Contact Process –
Notes: Haber’s Process –
- Cu+ compound are unstable in aqueous medium and undergoes Hydrogenation -
disproportionation
2 Cu+(aq) → Cu+2 (aq) + Cu(s) Interstitial Compounds
Reason: - Small atoms like H , C , N ,B occupy interstitial sites (void).
Properties of interstitial Compound
- In aqueous medium Cu is more stable than Cu due to high H.E
- High melting point
- Very hard
- Chemically inert
- Have metallic conductivity
 Alloy formation Potassium Permanganate KMnO4
- Mixture of two or more metals Preparation :- from Pyrolusite ore (MnO )
- To form alloy, size of metal should be almost same
MnO2 + KOH + O2 → K2MnO4 (Manganate ion) Green
BRASS – Cu + Zn
BRONZE – Cu + Sn MnO4-2 → MnO4- + MnO2 + H20
Gun Metal- Cu + Sn + Zn Paramanganate ion (Purple)
GermanSilver- Cu + Zn + Ni
- Has also have commercial preparation and thru lab method

Manganate ion (MnO Paramanganate ion (MnO

Electrode Potential (Reduction Potential)
G= -nFE
E = +ve (reaction is Possible)
E= -ve (reaction is not Possible)

Cu has +ve electrode Potential.

Paramagnetic Diamagnetic
Thus Cu cannot displace H

Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7)

NOTE-
Preparation:-
Chromite ore( FeCr2O4 )+ Washing Soda ( Na2CO3) Lower Oxidation State – Basic
1) FeCr2O4 + Na2CO3 + O2 → Na2CrO4 + Fe2O3 + CO2 Intermediate Oxidation State – Amphoteric
Sodium chromate(yellow) Higher Oxidation State- Acidic
2) Na2CrO4 +[H ] → Na2Cr2O7
+

V2O3 → Basic
3) Na2Cr2O7 + KCl → K2Cr2O7 + NaCl
Potassium Dichromate(Orange) V2O5 → Amphoteric
CrO → Basic
Diagram:- Cr2O3 → Amphoteric
Chromate Dichromate CrO3 → Acidic
Mn2O7 → Acidic

CrO4-2 (yellow) Cr2O72- (Orange)

- Potassium dichromate is strong oxidising agent in acidic medium

Chromyl chloride Test

Metal chloride + conc. H2SO4 + KrCr2O7

CrO2Cl2 (Chromyl Chloride) Red vapour


Group-I5 ns2np3
N P As Sb
Non-metal metalloid
Metallic Character
N P As Sb
Metallic character increases
Atomic Radius
N < P < As < Sb < Bi
I.E
N > P > As > Sb > Bi
E.N
N > P > As > Sb > Bi
B.P
N < P < As < Sb < Bi
M.P
N < P < As > Sb > Bi
Oxidation State ns2np3
Tendency to form -3 O.S
N > P > As > Sb > Bi
Tendency to form +3 O.S
N < P < As < Sb < Bi
Tendency to form +5 O.S
N > P > As > Sb > Bi
: Nitrogen does not show allotropy
P – Block Group-I
Anamolous Behavior of Nitrogen
Bi ▪ Small size
▪ High I.E , High E.N
metal ▪ Absence of d-orbital
NCl5 does not exist
PCl5 does exist (empty d-orbital)
Bi
N2 (N N) Very high Bond Energy unreactive(inert)
Bond Enthalpy
N-N < P-P
O-O < S-S
F-F < Cl-Cl
Reactivity with Hydrides
E + H2 → EH3
Bond association Enthalpy
NH > PH > AsH > SbH > BiH
Stability
NH > PH > AsH > SbH > BiH
Reducing Character
NH < PH < AsH < SbH < BiH
Basic Nature
NH > PH > AsH > SbH > BiH
M.p
NH > SbH > AsH > PH
B.P
BiH > SbH > NH > AsH > PH
Reactivity with oxygen
E + O2 → E2O3
E + O2 → E2O5
 More the % of oxygen, the more is acidic character N2O3 (Dinitrogen oxide)
acidic character: E2O3 < E2O5
N2O3 P2O3 As2O3 Sb2O3 Bi2O3 NO2 (nitrogen dioxide)
Basic
acidic amphoteric
2NO2 → N2O4 (Dinitrogen tetroxide)
Reactivity of Halogens
E + X2 → EX3
E + X2 → EX5
N2O5 (Dinitrogen Pentoxide)
NX does not exist, nitrogen cannot form five bonds
Covalent Character: EX5 > EX3

Dinitrogen N2
Nitric Acid HNO3
Dinitrogen is produced commercially by the On a large scale it is prepared mainly by
liquefication and fractional distillation of air Ostwald’s process
: Dinitrogen is colourless, odourless ,tasteless and
non-toxic gas.
: It is inert at room temperature
Catalyst used in Haber’s Process is Fe sp2
: In the gaseous state, HNO exist as a
Ammonia NH3 planar molecule as shown above
: Conc HNO is a strong oxidising agent
Trigonal pyramidal
Brown Ring Test
This test is carried by adding dilute ferrous sulphate
: Ammonia is colourless gas with a pungent odour solution to an aqueous solution containing
: Ammonia gas is highly soluble in water Nitrate ion and then adding concentrated sulphuric
acid along the side of test tube
: Ammonia is a lewis base
NO3- + 3Fe+2 +4H+ → NO + 3Fe+3 + 2H2O
[Fe(H2O)6]2++NO→[Fe(H2O)5(NO)]2++ H2O
N 2O (Dinitrogen oxide ) brown
NO (Nitrogen monoxide) A brown ring indicates the presence of nitrate
ion in solution
 Phosphorous Phosphine PH3

Phosphorous is found in many allotropic forms, the
important ones being white, red And black
White Phosphorous
• White phosphorous is translucent white waxy
solid
• It is poisonous and insoluble in water but
soluble in CS
• White phosphorus is less stable and more
reactive 3 It is also used in smoke screens
sp (angular strain)
• Phosphine is prepared by the reaction
calcium phosphide with water or dilute
acid
• It is a colorless gas with rotten fish
smell and is highly poisonous
NOTE:
The spontaneous combustion of phosphine
is used in Holme’s Signal.

P4O10 P4O6

Red Phosphorous
• Red phosphorus is obtained by heating white
phosphorus at 573 K in an inert atmosphere
Phosphorus Trichloride PCl3
• It is odourless, non poisonous, and insoluble in
water as well as carbon disulphide It is obtained by passing dry chlorine over
• Chemically red phosphorus is much less reactive heated white phosphorus
than white phosphorus sp3

Pyramidal shape

Phosphorus Pentachloride PCl5

Black Phosphorous
• Black phosphorus has two forms -black
phosphorus and -black phosphorus.
• When red phosphorus is heated under pressure,
A series of black phosphorus is formed
It is obtained by passing dry chlorine over
heated white phosphorus
With excess of dry chlorine
 PCl5 →In gaseous and liquid H4P2O5 Pyrophosphorous acid
phases,it has trigonal
bipyramidal structure
→The three equatorial
P-Cl bonds are
equivalent while the two
Short,strong axial bonds are longer
than equatorial bonds

H4P2O7 Pyrophosphoric acid

PCl5 (s) → [PCl4]+ [PCl6]-

sp d , octahedral
sp ,tetrahedral

Oxoacids
H4P2O6 Hypophosphoric acid
H3PO4 Ortho phosphoric acid

Acidic hydrogen

H3PO3 Ortho phosphorous acid

Reducing Nature
H3PO2 Hypophorous acid
 P–Block Group-I
Group-I6 ns2 np4 (Chalcogen) M.P
O < S < Se < Po < Te
O S Se Te Po
B.P
(metal) O < S < Se < Po < Te
(Radioactive) Oxidation State ns2 np4
(metalloids)
(non-metals)
Tendency to form -2 O.S
CaSO4.2H2O (Gypsum) O > S > Se > Te > Po

CaSO4.1/2H2O (Plaster of Paris) Tendency to form +4 O.S

O < S < Se < Te < Po
MgSO4.7H2O (Epsom salt) Tendency to form +6 O.S
PbS (Galena) O > S > Se > Te > Po
ZnS (Zinc Blende) Anomalous behavior of oxygen
CuFeS2 (Copper Pyrites) Small size
High I.E , High E.N
Atomic Size
Absence of d-orbital
O < S < Se < Te < Po Hydrogen bonding
I.E Reactivity with Hydrides
Bond dissociation Enthalpy:
O > S > Se > Te > Po H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te > H2Po
E.N Thermal stability:
O > S > Se > Te > Po H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te > H2Po

Electron gain Enthalpy Acidic Character:

H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te < H2Po
S > Se > Te > Po > O Reducing Character:
H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te < H2Po
All group-I element show allotropy
Reactivity with Oxygen Ozone O3
E + O2 → EO2 →Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen
E + O2 → EO3 → Ozone layer protects the earth surface from U.V
radiation
Acidic Nature: EO2 < EO3 Properties
Reducing nature: SO > SeO > TeO → Ozone is a pale blue gas, dark blue liquid and violet-
black solid
Reactivity with Halogens
E + X2 → EX2
E + X2 → EX4
E + X2 → EX6
Stability of halides: F- > Cl- > Br- > I- Suplhur allotropic forms
: Among hexahalides, only hexafluorides
Are stable Yellow rhombic
Among tetraflourides ,SF is gas , monoclinic
SeF a liquid and TeF solid
Rhombic Sulphur ( - sulphur)
Oxygen →it is soluble in water but dissolves to some extent in
→ On a large scale it can be benzene , alcohol and ether
prepared from water or air. →it is readily soluble in CS
Electrolysis of water leads to Monoclinic sulphur ( -sulphur)
the release of hydrogen at the
cathode and oxygen at the anode. →It is soluble in CS
→ Dioxygen is a colorless and Note:
odorless gas →At 369 K both the forms are stable. This temperature
→ O2 is paramagnetic is called transition temperature
Acidic oxide If
T> →Monoclinic ( - sulphur)
→Generally non-metals are acidic
T< →Rhombic ( -sulphur)
→ Oxide of some metal in high
oxidation state have acidic character
Crown shape
Basic oxide Chair form

In general metallic oxides are basic

 SO2
Sulphur Dioxide H2SO5 Caro’s Acid
→Sulphur dioxide is formed with a little( )
Sulphur trioxide when sulphur is burnt in air or
oxygen
→Sulphur dioxide is a colorless with pungent H2S2O3 Thiosulphuric Acid
smell and highly soluble in water

Angular H2S2O4 Dithionous Acid

Oxoacids
H2SO3 Sulphurous Acid

H2S2O5 Disulphurous Acid

H2SO4 Sulphuric Acid

Sulphuric Acid H2SO4

→ Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the
H2S2O8 Peroxodisuplhuric Acid contact process
→ The sulphuric acid obtained by contact
process is % pure
→Sulphuric acid is a colorless
→ It’s strong oxidizing agent
H2S2O7 Pyrosulphuric Acid → It’s a dibasic acid
 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
Molecular addition co-ordination
or
compounds >

when two or more

simple salts are mixed and
crystallised sphere
Kz[Fe( CNIG ]
formed co-ordination
then addition compounds are .

Ionisation a
>

-161120
L S numb "
KCI -1
Mgclz KCI
Mgcli 6h20
→ -

sphere central Ligand

carnallite
metal
142504 -1 A / 2150413 -1241420 →
142504 -

A- 12150413.241120
Ionisation sphere central metal
Potash alum &

Ionisable
part accept electron
Fesog -1111111412504+61120 →
Festa / Ntlylzsoy -61120
.

Lewis acid
Moho salt Co-ordination
.

sphere
generally d- Block element .

Double salt co-ordination compounds Non -

ionisablepaot
stable in solid state but -

stable in Both solid as well as co-ordination number

Ligands Number of
dissociates in
aqueous state .

aqueous state .
lonepaio accepted
election donors
metal atom / ion
Give + retest of all ions Does not
give + vetestofitsions by
-

. .
.

Lewis Bases

KCI -

Mgclz -61120 ku[FelCN1o ]

Mhz L '
M '
L lineal C. N=2
H2O H2O

iyg 4kt _i[ FEICN )o ] "

-12 t
K+ a-
we
~
"
ML } ima L
Trigonal planar c. N=3
+ " etest '
Fe -

retest ,
+ ve test -

> CN _
retest
Mla L L
Square planar c. N=4

some impotent terms 1µL

7 r

L L
a) Homoleptic complex
-

same
type of
ligands
"
[ 0111114316 ] L

ʰ ʰ
MLG Octahedral c. N=6
b) Hetero
lytic complex Different type of
ligands spy
-

> at
"
[ Co / NH} ) , / 142012 ] L L

L
central metal
c) Homo nuclear complex -

only one

[ 011411314114201273
-1 Denticity
Number of lonepaios donated by ligand .

d) Hetero nuclear complex :

more than one central atom .
Mono dentate -

Donates ILP

Bidentate -

Donates 2 LP

1112014€ ColH2014 150412 Tridentata -

Donates -5 LP

Tetoadentate -

Donates 4 LP
e) Perfect where is stable
complex
-

complexion .

Penta dentate -

Donates b- LP

Ks[ Fe / CNI , ] → 3kt -1 [ FEICN )o ] "

Hexadendate -

Donates 6 LP

f) Imperfect complex where

complexion is not very stable Ambidentate which have 2 donor site but can
-

-
.

"
donate from 1 site at time
K2[ CDICN )i→2k+_-cd( CNI , ]
a .

ONE
_

NOI
_

NE
-

CN SCN NCS

g) Co-ordination polyhedron arrangement of ligand in

space
-

M Metal Flexidentate which

caniiaoydenticity
-
-

sulphate 5042
-

1-
Ligand
 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
Bidentate
Monodentate
ligands
Cha ethane -1,2 diamine
a) Neutral Cha -
-

I 1
diamine
H2O -

aqua PPH } -

Triphenylphosphine Ntk MHz or

ethylene
NH } ammine

C)
-

Pyridine {
-

11
co
carbonyl
- -

o oxalato
1
NO
nitrosyl N "
-

-
(204
c- o
cH2=CH2
ethylene MHz OH
Hydroxylamine I to
- -
-

Anionic Han -

Cha -
% -

-0
glycinato
"

#
-

✗ _

Halido N -

Nitido
CH} -

c. =

F- _

Fluoride NHI -

Amido 1
. dimethyl glyoximato
CH } c.
,N
" - =

a- _

Chloride NH -

imido
OH
Bi -

Bromide Nj -

Azido
- -

I _

Iodido CN -

Cyanido acetanato
CH } C CH -

G
CH }
acetyl
- -
-

Isocyanide
_ -

OH
hydroxide NC
f
-
_

o
OF -

Peroxide Noi -

Nitoito -

N
Toidentate
Oi ONE Nitoito -0
supeooxido
-
-

Diethyl toiamine

5032
'

sulphito
-

H2 !! CH2-CH2-H.H-CH2-CH2-H.tk
-

soit -

sulphate
"
Tetoadendate
coz
-

caibanato

Toiethylenetetoamine
-

SCN Thiocyanate s
_ -

NCS
Thiocyanate N CH2-NH2
- -

NHz-CHz-CHz-NH-CH2-CH2-NH.CH 's -

cationic
Pentadendate
-3

Ethylene diamine tiiacetato ( EDTA )

Not _

Nitoosonium NOE -

Nitro nium
+
NH} MHz Hydiazinium CH3C0Ñ CHLOE
- -

Hexadentate N -

Cha -

Cha -

"
diamine tetra acetato IEDTA )
Ethylene
CHINCH
-

Effective atomic number

- -

:
} COO CH> Coo

N -

Cha -

Cha -
N EAN =
Atomic number -

Oxidation -12 ✗ Co-ordination

number number
cH3C0Ñ
-

ctbcoo
 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
Chelating ligands Naming of the central atom

Metal complex iscationicooneutoal complex is anionic

Bidentate
oopolydentate ligand which can form
co chromium chromate
chelates /
ring ) Mn
Manganese Manganate
Increases
stability of
complex Fe Iron Ferrate

1 co cobalt cobaltate
Ring stability ✗

Angle strain Ni Nickel Nickelate

strain -3>4
Cu copper cupvate
Angle > 5>6
In Zinc Zincate
stability -3<41546
Pd Palladium Palladate

-1400ms scarlet red color Pt Platinum Platinate

Ni complex with
Dimethyl
Ag silver
Argentate
glyoxine Nildmglz
-

All Gold Aurat

co-ordination number No of
ligand ✗
Denticity Hg Mercury Meocuoate
-
-

Ti Titanium Titanate
Sidgwick EAN Rule :

Oxidation number of metal is written just after the

naming
-

to atomic number of next

If EAN is
equal of central atom in roman numbers .

nearest noble then that complex is stable

gas .

Werner 's
theory .

Applicable mainly for metal

carbonyls .

a)
Primary valency / PV )
-

oxidation number

IUPAC Nomenclature b)
Secondary Valency 15111 co-ordination number
-

Name of cation is written first and then anion

valence Bond theory :

a) .

vacant orbital of
b) While
writing complexion ,
name of
ligand is ligand donates lonepaioto
order central metal
written first in alphabetical
.

c) Prefixes di tri etc are used

Strong Feild
ligand :
.

cand Nate donor

Note : If names of
ligands already have woods
pairing if
required Low spin complex
-

like bi tri , ,
tetra then we use special words
Weak feild
like bis.to/'s.tetoakesaoeused . ligand
0 and
Halogenate donor
some special compounds :

No
pairing High spin complex
-

a) Tetra cobalt ( TI ) µ amido µ hydroxide

aqua
-

Hybridisation
-
- -

tetra ammine chromium linear

sp
-
-

'

(E) Sulphate sp Trigonal planar

-

sp3 Tetrahedral c. N=4

-

OH
dsp2 square planar c. N=4
-

( 1120140 Co / NH } )q ( 50412 sp3d2 octahedral c. N=6

-

Outer orbital complex

NHZ

d2sp3 -

square planai c. N=6

b) Zeisse 's salt K[ Ptcl } / M Cattle ) ] -

Inner orbital complex

Diamagnetic Colourless
-

Cl Cl
Paramagnetic
-

Coloured
IPT : CHZ
Dipole moment -

µ=V BM
c,
CHZ
A-
Unpaired electron
 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
some
important points
-

octahedral
crystal field
splitting complex
in :

Pd with c. N 4 foom
Pt
always square planar
=

,
In octahedral
complex ligands approach towards axis
-

, .

of
complex irrespective ligand . -

Axial orbitals face more

repulsion .

2-
[ Ptcly ]
Square planar field
splitting energy Axial
_

Ao =

crystal
"
19
mr/^
^
[ Pd IN Holy]
square planar
-

+0.610
Drawbacks of VBT :

ar terial Doesn't explain colour of compounds

centre _ n s

b)
ligands g.) }hy
Doesn't
distinguish b/w weak feild and E ↑
5

( in
degenerate
presence of
orbital

ligand ) r
-0.410

"

tag
strong feild
ligands .

Non -
axial
c) Does not
give quantitative interpretation of 5
degenerate orbitals

data
1in absence of
ligand )
magnetic .

Bonding in metal
carbonyls Factors
affecting CFSE :

bond formed donation Oxidation number of central atom

Metal and carbon
Sigma is
by a)
-

" "
[ Felt 2016 ] [ Fe / H2O )o ]
of
carbonyl carbon into vacant orbital of metal M .
>

Metal and carbon -11 Bond is formed side wise

by b) Geometry
-

carbon
overlapping of M and
carbonyl .
Octahedral > Tetrahedral

synergic Bonding c)
Ligand
-
:

}
field
strong ligand
CO More the → More is CFSE
acid
ligands
.

-
IT -

on
d) Transition metal series .

3d < 4d < 5d
Effect of
synergic Bonding :
-

Metal and carbon -

BO ↑ =
BE ↑ =
Blt, How to calculate CFSE 2 .

Carbon and BO ↓ BE ↓ BLT CFSE ( +0.6101 ( -0-4101

oxygen
=
+ +
np
= =
x ✗ ✗
y
-

No of elections in
-

More the -

ve
charge on metal
✗ = .

lg orbitals .

of electrons in
Y No
tag orbitals
=

More is the
synergic bonding
.

p pairing energy
=

crystal feild
theory :

number of
n
pairs
=

Interaction btw metal atom and

ligand is
purely
.

electrostatic '°
.

d ' d2 d3 D8 dad →
same for SFL and WFL
-

Anionic
ligands are considered as -

Hely point d4d5d° d' → diff for SFL and WFL

and neutral point dipoles
charges ligands as .

stereochemical series
Different d- orbitals face different and
repulsions
-

hence loose
degeneracy
'
52 0×2
-
- - -

Bi
-

I < < SCN < a- < < F- < OH < <

Loss of
degeneracy leads to
splitting of d- orbitals baao sachin class favor Oxalate Ka
-

IK se 00

of d- orbitals "
Types
- -

Noi
:
H2O < NCS < EDTA < NH } < en < < CN < CO

Non -

axial -

dxy dyz dzx Paani Nacht udta Ammonia in North Canada Columbo
Axial dxz ya di hue Mila
-
-

se
pyaar
orbitals
Degenerate Having some
energy
-

C- Donor > N Donor > 0 Do not >

Halogens
 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
Colour of compounds Hydrate isomerism

water molecules both and

v13 CFSE ✗ 1 ✗ ✗ em acting as ligand
"
water of
Roy
✗ at crystallisation .

[ Ct / H2O / 6) Cbs [ Co / 1120150702 H2O -

" "
[ Ni / H2O / 6) [ Ni( H2O )4len ) ] ( ag ) -121120
+
enlaq )
=

isomerism
Green Pale Blue Linkage
bidentate
[ Nikko)4len1 ] "( Arises when there
ligands
"

aqltenlaq ) [Niltkolzlenlz ] -121120 are am

lag )
=
.

[ Cold / 50111033
" -

Blue / Purple [ Co / CI / g- 11102 ]

" "
[Niltkolzlenlz ] [ Wilentz ] ( Ag ) -121120
lag ) +
enlaq )
=

Ionisation isomerism :
Violet

Trans effect : Arises when counter ions are different .

CN > CO > NO > Et > PR } > H > Ph > Noa > I > SCN > [ 0111201402 ] I [ Co / H2O / gclIT.CI

Bo CI
Py NH } OH H2O
> > > > >

co-ordination isomerism :

chelating ligands are more stable than non

chelating Arises when both cation and anion are
complex
-

ligands complex .

In this
ligands or central atom is
exchanged .

More the 0N of central atom more is the

[ COIN Halo ] [ Colello ]
stability .

[ COINH } ) , ] [ Co / Ct )sNH } ]
crystal field tetrahedral
splitting in
complex
stereoisomerism
ligands approach from btw the axis
-

axial orbitals face

Non
mooeoepulsion
-
-

Because of different
G. I occurs
angle
.
-

axial 0 I-
-

NO POS 00 No COs
Non -
.

At -_

crystal field
splitting energy tz M= metal atom
Terminology
-

,my µg, "9]Ét€ᵈt€€

, µ!ᵈ(ʰ
^

ABCDEF -

Mono dentate
"" "ᵗ
AA
symmetrical ligand
Bidentate
-

cent" - 0 °

a,
unsymmetrical Bidentate ligand
_

-
0.6 At

( inpaegenceof r r
General Formulae Geometrical isomers
l

Axial Mabcdef 15
b-
degenerate orbitals
Mazbcde 09
( in absence of
ligand )
Mazbzcd 06
Note At
g- AO AO At
: -_ >

Mazbzcz 05

No tetrahedral complex
pairing in
Mazbcd
-

04
Both for SFL and WFL
Mazbzc 03
Isomerism
Mazbz 02

structural stereo Maybe 02

Hydrate Geometrical
Maqbz 02

Linkage Optical
Magb Nil
Ionisation

Coordination Mao Nil

 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
c. N=4 Tetrahedral

NOGI

fumed
OI
only in MABCD

c. N=4
Square planar cis [ Pt 1141131202]
cisplatin
-

NO OI
→ Anti -

cancer .

GI Present
[ Rhlpphslzcl ]
Wilkinson
catalyst
-

MAG NOGI

MA3B NOGI
→
Hydrogenation of alkene .

and dissociation constant

MAzBz 2. GI stability :

Dissociation constant 1
MA2BC ZGI =

MABCD 3 GI
p
'
constant
MIAA / 2 NOGI
13=14×152×143 stability
value of
Higher the p= More stable is
complex .

MIABIZ 2 GI

optical isomerism

Mono dentate
case I
ligand
-
-

monodentate
✗ = Total diff .

ligand
x ≥ }
always optically active

Except Maybe

Maybe X=2 Inactive

Mast X=2 Inactive

Mazbzcz I =3 active

Maybe ✗ =3 Inactive

Mazbzc ✗ =3 active

case 2 : Bidentate

Total ≥ 2-
optically active
rings
[ MIAA )zB2]
except trans -

MIAA ) } -

Active

M / ABI }
-

Active
"
[Colen ) } ] -

Active
"
[
Cilglylz ] Active
-

cis -
[ M / AAIzB2 ] -

Active

cis -

T.CO/AA1zBz] -

Active

Trans -

[ MIAA )zB2 ] -

Inactive

Trans -

[ Colczocelzck] -

Inactive
 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes -

Halo. Alkane preparation 2) From Alcohols

W ->
cabocation
-

Halide a) lucas Test

Alkyl From
Hydrocarbons Reagent
-

R-X CHz
-
Ch
1)
CHCHz Bu
Reagent: HCI
anby. Incly
- - +

R-CH
CHy HBrH* R-cH-cIt,R-CH-CH3
= +

InCle
Br
HCL
Halo-Avene R-OH R-C1 Turbidity
M
formation
Carbocation
X 1R-OH
X CL
->
Rearrangement Possible Rate of: -3'R-OH YIR-OH
Ru
Perovide
Halide
Aryl R CH
[Hz HB2
R-cH- CH2
=
- +

AM
Bu Note: used to
distinguish 1,2,3'
provide
CH2 CH-2H-X
=

Allylic Haloalkane -> Kharasch

effect effect
-
--
alcohols

3" alcohol
-> Free Radical mechanism lurbidity within seconds
z' alcohol lurbidity within minutes
CH2 CH -X Vinylic Haloallanc Brown
vapour disaffer
=

I
Ba I alcohol lurbidity within Hours
-

CHy-YBenzylic Haloalkane R-CH=

CH2 +
Bry RCH -
CH2
Be b) Run with H-X
B2B
R C=
CH +
Br2 t

M-c
-

I
Point Mass H20
Boiling & & I R-OH + HCh R x
- +

Br
R-Br H20
Branching Brown Colour T HB2
R-OH
+

-
Test
ofUnsaturation R-0H I HI R I- +

H20
C-X Bond
Halogenation sunlight
he
Darzen's Process Bestmethod to
CHz-CH +
(12 CHz-CH-C *
prepare
alkyl halide By product
·: an

Thionyl chloude
Strength: ( FY c-C1
-
(-Brx
x ( I-

ALKANE Free Radical substitution

CHE ↑
gases; they
CHE CASES gg; otheratti
Length: (-F<C-C (- Br < ( I
SO2
-

H HC14
SOy4
or x
i +
+

Bry Fz
>
Fx (ly >
Rate
of Run:-
D

Configuration
Product
Moment: 2-(Xc-F)(-Br > By gases
Dipole c I 2 - -
- -

distance
dominate
Retentionof
*

M
 -

DARZEN
HBF
-
--
-

CH3
CH3
SOCla Swartz
* Run PK-NCF-1
0H Ch
S024
H+ HCl4
+
H
Pyridine AgF or COFz
sa" I R-CL R F -
Balte Ru
D 2

·
D or
SbE3
R-
Be R- F
Inversion
x
ofconfiguration R-1 R F -
Nucleophilic Substitution Run

- Solvent
2
Reaction withPX3 Preparation of Haloavenes Nut R-L Nu-R +

RedP+ Cla PCI, Nucleophilic Leaving Stable

=

08
R X
R-OH 1) Electrophilia substitution Run Group
-

-
Brz PBrs
--
=
RedP + =
-

-
AlCl3 -Ch
I PI3
stability:1 xBr ClyF-
Red P x

C
+
=

+ Cl- CL Chloro

leaving group tendency: I -xBrxcxF-

Lewis
· Acid Benzine
Reaction withPXs PCI, PB25PI5
Cake
Cutting Run 2) From Anilines (Diazotisation) Nucleophile Nut

Benzene Diazonium chlorde

R -0-H
NH2 NaNO2 + HCI -
R x HCL
POCK -
N Strength ofNucleophile
+

-I
- +
-
Cl Cl
P or OR Ph-N
HNOz Nitrous
charge nucleophilic
ANILINE
= i) -ye are
Cl Ch
Ch
+

Galler a
-

stronger than neutral nucleophiles

-Ch
PH-NaCL- HCL 0 +
N2
OH-> H20
talide
Enchange
1
+
Br HeS
SH->
Cuz Buz - Be
0 Ne
⑧HB
HCL
+
Ro-x ROH
+N
x
Finkelstein Run: CuCN CN
o
-
c+ x2
Right)
HCN
-> solvent
Nal, Actone
ii) Along period (left to

R (1 R I
-
+ NaCL1
Polar Protic Solvation &
Sandmeyer's
-

Run
↑

NaI, Acetone
R- Br R-I NaBr
+
Yo ~ a It release
Nucleophic
PH-NyC1-Calnc Be
·
-
+ Na
Gutterman CHyx nitty x OH 3 F-
small
size
Strength
high density
↳
CulHB o-Br +
Ny Ru
- ~
Polaraprotic
releats 4t
does not
&
Charge density
*-

small
Y OH x
NH2 x CH
size
↳
High density
 iii) Along a
group NOTE: Rate R TR-2 ]' [Nut "Order:2
=
*Rx" with AgCH
Covalentcompound
Rate depends on strength and conc SN2
Ag-C N:
=
Ht Small size *

high density
↳

release
- Polar protic Solvation F-<(<Br<I- of Nut

preferredin
Polar Apotic, AgCN CH-Na
aprotic FxCxBr>I- solvent
Polar Charge CHz-C1
4
+

it
Isocyanide
does not lease
density
Rate
of SN>3
stetric
crowding >

Ru" with NANO2 KNO2

ix) Nucleophilic 0 -M 0
& I x =

Steric hindrance
* Run with
ag. KOH NaOH
CH-Cl +
NaNOz CHg-ONO
NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION Nitrite
ag. NaOH
Cl-
CH-C1 SN2
HO-CHz +
Y
INVERSION with
1) SN RDS
2 Step Ru" (Weak Nucleophile) H WALDEN
- Run
AgNO2
+ H
L L-
a) R R KOH
- +

slowest ag
Ch
-

D HO x x
AgNOz CH -NOy
+

R+Nut - Na
R
CHz-x
+

b)
+
SN2
RATEOFSN':-372"
CH3 Cr
Note: RDS is carbocation formation itwoalkane
Rate &
*
stability carbocation
Rearrangementpossible
* * Run with H: (Neutral)
*Rate KTR-1]'
=
order=1 SNA Weak Nucleophile HALOARENES OR ARYL HALIDES
CH3
-
Rate of wh" is independent of Nut
42
CH3
I
CH3
solvent x --
Polar
protic preferred. CH
-
3
cr-c+ City
or Nu
-
* +

x
SN

bis bitz
CH3 Do not
give Nucleophilic substitution
SNC One Carbocation condition
2) step process (strong ~u" in normal
O

H
I
Nucleophile) Sodum

Mr.....CCL Phenoxide
Nu-+
CH-ch * Run with NaCN KCN Ionic (SN2) Dow's Process -

o Nat
Ch atm
I i) NaOH, 623K,300
H 11
NaCL
(H-2L +
NaCN
CA-CN +
A
Transition state

N 2 H
Cyanide OH
I
Ht
t Cl- <
H
Phenol
 increases, then
IfEny BENZENE
ofRen
NITRO CHLORO Rate XXXY IMP
* ORTHO
* *

reactivity increases
Cl
CL 0H F
I
CL
I
Be
I I
EWG
1L NO2
OH
:i:
OH +
Y
NO2
" X
Y
>

I -
- R

i) NaOH, 443K

ii) Ht
- Aromatic substitution
Electrophilic
hor Na Resouence
* does not work
oH
- Noz -> Intermediate
Carbonation
at meta
position; at4
Et
Reactivity
-
:ci:
out
I
i) NaOH, 368K PARANITRO CHLORO BENZENE Nucleophilic Aromatic substitution
- NO2
*

-NO2 Intermediate

ii) Ht CL
CoH CoH
Nat
Reactivity
2
N Carbanion

z Na
Or-
T

A -
substitution
- Electrophilic Aromatic
#

:
·H Noz nor w
o dividing
doe
I X
Y
a
Y
-

NO2 N02
-
I warm
02"- -NO2 -E
stabalises
et
H20 -,
+

Carbanion
2

How META NITRO CHLORO BENZ ENE

or tho E
Noz
*

minor
pawa

Picric
CL NO major
OH-
Acid Run i) Deactivating group
Halogens: -

(i) of directing
-NO2
Aromatic substitution
*

Nucleophilic
Intermediate
* is carbanion

RDS
* is carbanion formation
Rate
x of
ex EWG stabolises Carbanion

EDG
 Cl Ch
Ch
I
i) Anhyd. Fells
-er iv) Friedel-CraftReaction
A
+
Ca

cet Cl
2-Dichlorobenzene
(Minor)
Ch Ch Ch

Anhyd. Ally
1,4-Dichlorobenzene - CHs
+
CtyC
<Major) I
I

Chloro-2-methylbenzene
Cry (Hy
I

(Minor)
-
Chloro-2-methylbenzene
in Nitration CL
Ch (major)
I
Ch

HN03 -NO2 A
Ch Ch Ch
conc.
H2SO4 O
Il 0
Anhyd. Allls I1
402
I
ch
NOD H) -c
+ -

CH3 +
I-chloro-e-nitrobenzene

-
(Minor) 1-chloro-4-nitrobenzene
cry
(major)
2. Chloroacetophenone of t
(Minor) 4. Chloroacetophenone
(major)

ii) sulphonation
Ch
Ch Ch

conc. H2SO4
- SOH
I
A

-03 Sagit
2- chlorobenzenesulfonic acid
4-Chlorobenzenesulfonic
(Minor) acid

(inajou]
 Alcohol, Phenol , Ether
OH
Alcohols 1H20
+
⑧
CH3
H I
2
no 30 I R-CH =
CH2 R CH
CH3
- -

of
CH,
CHy-CHz-OH
- y---
CH
-
dis
ALKENE
1o alcohol H+ H20
R-CH -

CH
2: alcohol So alcohol
Carbocation
*
OH -
vinylic alcohol x
Electrophilic Addition
CHI = CH A
-

Rate of a stability of
x
alcohol
CH2CH-cHy-oH allylic
=

- Run Carbocation
Benzylic alcohol
CHOH ~ Mercuration)
2) OMDM
(Ony Mercuration De

CH2-OH CH2-OH ) HgCOAC2

OH
tRO
dre-or R

cte
R-CH
CH2
2) CH
- -
=

OH
NaBHn
CH2
=

ethylene glycol dia-or Source ofOH: -

H20
glycerol Source of H:
-NaBHy

PreparationofAlcohols NOTE:
addition
From Alkenes
Addition ofWater
x
Ants
)
Markovnikoy'srule
a) Acidcatalysed hydration > No
rearrangement
Reagent: bil. H2SO4 or HT H20 or Hot > No carbocation

Cyclic
x intermediate
 - ~

ALCOHOL
4 OH- -

St,

E
S-
 El

- -

944
CARBOCATION Y
->
5a4 More x H

By product
 A

ALID
X
Y

ALDEHYDE
**
 Aldehyde Ketones main
n34 Snca
R - C = N --

[H]
nu
at
-

R-G- DEUDE
DE HYDROGENATION =

&
EDUCTION
H2
Carbonyl compounds Dehydration
* of Alcohols Reaction
->

Stephen's
-
· -

(u/A Such
Aldehyde
R-g-R
Ketones alcohol
00 CHy
-
H R R H
-

N
C=
R-G-H Cty-CHG-OH q
-
- -

08
ALDEHYDE HCL
(ul300
(n/300
preparation cr-Its DIBA)

CHPR-CHy
Go alcohol -
H

Aluminium
Di-isobutyl ride
KETONE
Onidation
ofAlcoholsstrong
Ai
SOA ae R- -OR'Y R- -4
c-of(ul300
OA R-COOH

R-CHz
-
OH s alcohol CH -C
Alkene este 8
Reduction

dis
Elimination H -

dis
-
R!
04
+

i alcohol
Mild DIBAL - H
R-CHO HGH
-
R
OA R C N =

WOA
-

Mild
Cyanides
strong or

R CH R
R- Ozonolysis CH3
-
-

i) 03 D
x
OA
da at ETARD
REACTION
H
0
-
= +

CH
*
ETONE
3
00 ii) In (H20
2" alcohol c CH= -

CH3 Reductive (13 ->

cromyl chloride
/ CHy (rOaCle
CHO

Eiseulomonun
R
I strong CH3 CS2
R - C - OH No Run ALDEHYDE CH3 S c S
=
=

OR Mild OA -
i) 03 2 INTERMEDIATE
R ↓
↑OULENE

H-9-cts
c0
=
+ Non Solvent
ii) Hy0 Polar BENZALDEHYDE
G
3' alcohol ACLD KEE
-
Ouidative cry --

↓
Side chain Reaction Cl
Ho--CH3
strong oxidising agent -
ACID
=
is
c/n8
12
e
CH-
I
-
NaOH " -

420

1) KMnOy /Ht 3) (rOz +HSOy Jones

Reagent ag
2 times
2) R2Cr2O7 /Ht 4)
HNO3 Kucherov's Run
SNZ
0H

Hg2+/H
I
Tautomes TOULEME
13
OHS H I
R c
CH2
- =

Weak
Onidising agent R c CH
-
=
-

110
ALKYNE
dilHgsop/bil H2SO4 enol R
- -
CH3

(u/D or
Cul30 or (n573K Nucleophilic Addition Run
Keto

is cla/GY cE"
2) PCC 3]PDC 4) Collin's Reagent
ADDITION
WALER-
OF
Benzoic Acid
Rosenmund's stimes
5) Savett's
Reagent Reaction Acid Halide

ADENIE I
l ↓
AldehydeBason
H2
6) MnOz R
4-
x
R-4
in onWi
-

Acid 46/BaSO4 -- ve catalyst I -

u
1

+2/Pd u
halide

Rosenmund's catalyst Alcohol I

R
&
-

CH-OH
A22L
 10 na H +
+
Alls
-
-

Gatterman Koch Reaction h Run with HCN/NaCN (Cyanohydrin formation) Run with
Nitrogen containing compounds
WUu]+H-
(Hydroxylamine
beak
HCN H+ (N-
C0 + HCL
Aid +

Nut ~2 Y WI I NHa-OH
1)
- "Benzaldehyde
-
HIN
NaCN X CH3

n
Salt
NaCN Nat + (N- CH3
& I
CHANOHYIN
2) Anhy. ALL1, 0
c = I N - or -=
* ~o
-

- /
or
DAAKU
Lisid R St
6
H(N
C
It
Cit
/ -H
-c
-

H H
0 Rate v,
=

onime GI
=

12 t possible
i CN- He -N
Grignard
CN

Cyanide
H
with
H
~1420

R'MgX R St AS- NaCN * -oi+ oH 2) Hydrazine Na-Nite

R EN 0 Ketone c 0
=

C
_ ↑

M-?
c C wate V2 CH3 "
CH
- = =

/ CN
④
H ↳'IN20
⑰ N/\cN
⑭ C O # N -
NHy c N =

H NHy
H H

Hydrazone
Ketone From
acyl chloride · Run with Natsi (Sodium Bisulphite)
x NH2-NH-Ph
R. Red R, -c R
4+SozNa
-

4 R--on
- + -

R
= St S-
NaNSO, NatsOz -

! c 0
=

3) Phenyl
ACID HALIDE Ketone
H Juz
& Na
-so, Na
Nut
Hydrazine CH3
MuG
Friedal craftAcylation
Bucky
, NH-ph c N NH- Ph
=

I N - -

Cr E
c
Cuz- Note:It is for all aldehydes
a test and H
4 Phenyl Hydrazone
-- methyl ketones. 14
R - - H

y-cs *2 CH3--B
-

&
- -

less sterie 4) Semi Carbazide

AlC13 -
- -

"
,
alcohol
Lewis Acid ACETOPHENONE Formaldehyde
->

NH-
Other
Aldehyde->2" alcohol N NH2
with
Grignark
-

Run
-

ketone allohol --
/
+ 2 -
H CHE
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
43
-

7
- I CHyMgBr Nte
= -
N - NH -

Cry-C-CHICH
I ce(32)
Nucleophilic Addition Reaction CHz
4-
-

H
n+ /He di 3"alcohol Semi Carbozone
R
+ S * Nu KETON
↳
-
-
Nu
H
5) Cr2
4
inanin-xenon
m-
-
+

/Yo-
6
N
5

Run with Alcohol c 0=

S- 2
4

/
H
3

... t R OR
NO2 CH3

Rin ROR
R R-o-H
St R' Y
c0 y
St - 0 -
H NH N
-
No
Nu
- -
=

2
H
=

R, -c -
Rz +

2-4-Dinitrophenyl

Testsee
ALCOHOL
/ po-it
n OH
NO2

↓
=-

H OR
Re
0-
Aldehyde nucleophile
H
Hydrazine (2,4-DNP) yellow
S-
R
R-0H
semi acetal
OR
Acetal
the Breddy's Reagent Orange
R-,- R - 0 -H R-
-
OR
Red
Rate ofRun the
charge on Carbon x C
RO-Ht
steric hindrance
e H ALCOHOL
YOR
R Ketone R

Hemiketal Ketal
Rate Runx
of a
 Reduction Reactions
LiALHy or NaBHy
Tollen's Test(Silver Mirror Test) Benedict's Solution Test
ialcohol
R-CHy-OH sodium Citrate
R- H
Reagent:AgNOz +NHyOH Ammonical Silver Test Reagent: cusoy(ag.) +

H2/Ni, Pb, Pt
- -

or COUNa

Mild oxidising agent. ↳ Ammonical Silver COONa

H0
Nitrate
Aldehyde
wAgwOs+wUnR-di-on oxidising
Mild COONa
(uO
For agent.: w
R - c - R
i l

R CH -
R 2" alcohol P-N Aga Ag" Silver Mirror
R-dY-H
- + +

d di
11

WA + (uo RCOOH +
(20 Red PPt
Ketone
Run X
Ag Lo
M-p-R
No
R-R
+ +

KAN
NaBHy cannotreduc: -

is Carbonylic acid ii) ester ii)Anhydride Aliphatic aldehyde Aliphatic aldehyde

Aromatic 19
Aromatic 19

AndEYE)
CLEMMENSON REDUCTION
-> AKA
E ketone Yetone
n (Hg)
H R-CH3 Solution Ouidation ofketones (k2Cr, 07 Ht)
Fehling test #
P
R
S
- -

Conc. HCL

Acidic Alkanes
Fehling A Echling B strong oxidising agents (KMnOy (Ht)
In (Hq)
R, Pa R, -CH Re Reagent: Cuso, (aa) Roschellis Salt
-
- - -
Flow
Conc. HCL TAUTUMER ouidative
Alkanes COONG Ketone stable Answer
Mildoxidising

Wolf KISHNER REDUCTION

agent: Cuo
Es H
H OH

OH
enoL ozonoloysis

POPPOE's Rule:never
apply
COOK
NHa-NH2
R-
- R-CHy Accid
CH-9-CH-C
KOH alkanes
+
HO-CH2

Basic Ho-city R -n + (no RCOOH +

Cu20 Red
ppt
-p Acid kMnOn/Ht
11

alkanes R Cuo
R, Pe R,-CH2-Re
R-4
X
CHz-4-OH Ho-Y-s
- +
-
-

I/

Aliphatic aldehyde Aldol Condensation

TEST Reagent:Basic condition

Ouidation Reactions
-

- Aromatic 19
ketones
Dilute NaOH or
-
Aldehyde and
dil KOH
easily oxidised Mild Yetone having
2
Hydrogen
R-4
-
H
L
ALDEHYDE
oxidising agent. eg. C-1P-H -
en Yo
->
-
-
&

32H
0x4
AldoL
R,
- -

*z Difficultto very strong Self

KETOME
-
onidised
onidising agent
s
of a-c-ms* It en
-

o O
 CANNI ZARO
For Trick
-
- 02H OxH

-H 3
-Baraform "Farm
dil. Nate

Regio
is
Crxs+
KY
H 4
g-
-

A
HALOFORM ALID
- -
- - van
~
32H

asin--t
& &
on
-Enz
CH3

e-etes
c0

4
H
c-
=

o
cus
+ -

- in
- -

/
H

B-hydroxy aldehyde Acid Haloform + CHIs 3x4

X San
X
A
yellow pat
Iodoform
CH3 -(H
4
=
CH -

crotonaldehyde ·
RDS is carbanion formation -in a Its-on+fa
·

stability ofcarbanion "2"x3" -

EASIEST
-
- Reagent:con. Basesition ·Rate offormation ofHaloform
Cannizaro Reaction conc NaOH or conc KOH
CHFz CHC
=
=
(HBr, CHI3
=
CROSS CANNIZARO

having y H-ge
and ketones
Aldehyde zero
-hydrogen
Disproportionation Run (Redon Run) BAEYER VILLIGER OXIBATION
I

wasH-c-4+ch More
-

stulic stic
R-
4-0
- 0- H A

Aldehyde I Retone
Ester
Acid ocidation R,
-- R R,-4-o-Re Less steric->ACID
Aldehyde ( Ketone Alcohol Reduction perony carbonylic
acid More Sherrie-> ALCOHOL
> M204
>3"2" Ph> 1°> City
Trick conc Priority: H >

CH-OH

T-4 a
H-C-OH
2
k-g-4 **
+

Naomi Acid Alcohol

Onidation I
position introduce
5002 p
-
-

CONC

FIs-on
⑱
I-4 con 00 Mole
+

eg.
-, ar---H
Naon
stee ↓come. Noor
02H

Haloform test
Ian the
-

Reagent:Xe+NaOH
or NaOH or KOX or CaUCL,

which this test:

compounds give
Methyl
I
ketones 2) Lalcohol - Only one i alcohol

Methyl aldehyde- CH3-cha Chy-Cr-y

~
 Aldehyde Ketones main
n34 Snca
R - C = N --

[H]
nu
at
-

R-G- DEUDE
DE HYDROGENATION =

&
EDUCTION
H2
Carbonyl compounds Dehydration
* of Alcohols Reaction
->

Stephen's
-
· -

(u/A Such
Aldehyde
R-g-R
Ketones alcohol
00 CHy
-
H R R H
-

N
C=
R-G-H Cty-CHG-OH q
-
- -

08
ALDEHYDE HCL
(ul300
(n/300
preparation cr-Its DIBA)

CHPR-CHy
Go alcohol -
H

Aluminium
Di-isobutyl ride
KETONE
Onidation
ofAlcoholsstrong
Ai
SOA ae R- -OR'Y R- -4
c-of(ul300
OA R-COOH

R-CHz
-
OH s alcohol CH -C
Alkene este 8
Reduction

dis
Elimination H -

dis
-
R!
04
+

i alcohol
Mild DIBAL - H
R-CHO HGH
-
R
OA R C N =

WOA
-

Mild
Cyanides
strong or

R CH R
R- Ozonolysis CH3
-
-

i) 03 D
x
OA
da at ETARD
REACTION
H
0
-
= +

CH
*
ETONE
3
00 ii) In (H20
2" alcohol c CH= -

CH3 Reductive (13 ->

cromyl chloride
/ CHy (rOaCle
CHO

Eiseulomonun
R
I strong CH3 CS2
R - C - OH No Run ALDEHYDE CH3 S c S
=
=

OR Mild OA -
i) 03 2 INTERMEDIATE
R ↓
↑OULENE

H-9-cts
c0
=
+ Non Solvent
ii) Hy0 Polar BENZALDEHYDE
G
3' alcohol ACLD KEE
-
Ouidative cry --

↓
Side chain Reaction Cl
Ho--CH3
strong oxidising agent -
ACID
=
is
c/n8
12
e
CH-
I
-
NaOH " -

420

1) KMnOy /Ht 3) (rOz +HSOy Jones

Reagent ag
2 times
2) R2Cr2O7 /Ht 4)
HNO3 Kucherov's Run
SNZ
0H

Hg2+/H
I
Tautomes TOULEME
13
OHS H I
R c
CH2
- =

Weak
Onidising agent R c CH
-
=
-

110
ALKYNE
dilHgsop/bil H2SO4 enol R
- -
CH3

(u/D or
Cul30 or (n573K Nucleophilic Addition Run
Keto

is cla/GY cE"
2) PCC 3]PDC 4) Collin's Reagent
ADDITION
WALER-
OF
Benzoic Acid
Rosenmund's stimes
5) Savett's
Reagent Reaction Acid Halide

ADENIE I
l ↓
AldehydeBason
H2
6) MnOz R
4-
x
R-4
in onWi
-

Acid 46/BaSO4 -- ve catalyst I -

u
1

+2/Pd u
halide

Rosenmund's catalyst Alcohol I

R
&
-

CH-OH
A22L
 10 na H +
+
Alls
-
-

Gatterman Koch Reaction h Run with HCN/NaCN (Cyanohydrin formation) Run with
Nitrogen containing compounds
WUu]+H-
(Hydroxylamine
beak
HCN H+ (N-
C0 + HCL
Aid +

Nut ~2 Y WI I NHa-OH
1)
- "Benzaldehyde
-
HIN
NaCN X CH3

n
Salt
NaCN Nat + (N- CH3
& I
CHANOHYIN
2) Anhy. ALL1, 0
c = I N - or -=
* ~o
-

- /
or
DAAKU
Lisid R St
6
H(N
C
It
Cit
/ -H
-c
-

H H
0 Rate v,
=

onime GI
=

12 t possible
i CN- He -N
Grignard
CN

Cyanide
H
with
H
~1420

R'MgX R St AS- NaCN * -oi+ oH 2) Hydrazine Na-Nite

R EN 0 Ketone c 0
=

C
_ ↑

M-?
c C wate V2 CH3 "
CH
- = =

/ CN
④
H ↳'IN20
⑰ N/\cN
⑭ C O # N -
NHy c N =

H NHy
H H

Hydrazone
Ketone From
acyl chloride · Run with Natsi (Sodium Bisulphite)
x NH2-NH-Ph
R. Red R, -c R
4+SozNa
-

4 R--on
- + -

R
= St S-
NaNSO, NatsOz -

! c 0
=

3) Phenyl
ACID HALIDE Ketone
H Juz
& Na
-so, Na
Nut
Hydrazine CH3
MuG
Friedal craftAcylation
Bucky
, NH-ph c N NH- Ph
=

I N - -

Cr E
c
Cuz- Note:It is for all aldehydes
a test and H
4 Phenyl Hydrazone
-- methyl ketones. 14
R - - H

y-cs *2 CH3--B
-

&
- -

less sterie 4) Semi Carbazide

AlC13 -
- -

"
,
alcohol
Lewis Acid ACETOPHENONE Formaldehyde
->

NH-
Other
Aldehyde->2" alcohol N NH2
with
Grignark
-

Run
-

ketone allohol --
/
+ 2 -
H CHE
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
43
-

7
- I CHyMgBr Nte
= -
N - NH -

Cry-C-CHICH
I ce(32)
Nucleophilic Addition Reaction CHz
4-
-

H
n+ /He di 3"alcohol Semi Carbozone
R
+ S * Nu KETON
↳
-
-
Nu
H
5) Cr2
4
inanin-xenon
m-
-
+

/Yo-
6
N
5

Run with Alcohol c 0=

S- 2
4

/
H
3

... t R OR
NO2 CH3

Rin ROR
R R-o-H
St R' Y
c0 y
St - 0 -
H NH N
-
No
Nu
- -
=

2
H
=

R, -c -
Rz +

2-4-Dinitrophenyl

Testsee
ALCOHOL
/ po-it
n OH
NO2

↓
=-

H OR
Re
0-
Aldehyde nucleophile
H
Hydrazine (2,4-DNP) yellow
S-
R
R-0H
semi acetal
OR
Acetal
the Breddy's Reagent Orange
R-,- R - 0 -H R-
-
OR
Red
Rate ofRun the
charge on Carbon x C
RO-Ht
steric hindrance
e H ALCOHOL
YOR
R Ketone R

Hemiketal Ketal
Rate Runx
of a
 Reduction Reactions
LiALHy or NaBHy
Tollen's Test(Silver Mirror Test) Benedict's Solution Test
ialcohol
R-CHy-OH sodium Citrate
R- H
Reagent:AgNOz +NHyOH Ammonical Silver Test Reagent: cusoy(ag.) +

H2/Ni, Pb, Pt
- -

or COUNa

Mild oxidising agent. ↳ Ammonical Silver COONa

H0
Nitrate
Aldehyde
wAgwOs+wUnR-di-on oxidising
Mild COONa
(uO
For agent.: w
R - c - R
i l

R CH -
R 2" alcohol P-N Aga Ag" Silver Mirror
R-dY-H
- + +

d di
11

WA + (uo RCOOH +
(20 Red PPt
Ketone
Run X
Ag Lo
M-p-R
No
R-R
+ +

KAN
NaBHy cannotreduc: -

is Carbonylic acid ii) ester ii)Anhydride Aliphatic aldehyde Aliphatic aldehyde

Aromatic 19
Aromatic 19

AndEYE)
CLEMMENSON REDUCTION
-> AKA
E ketone Yetone
n (Hg)
H R-CH3 Solution Ouidation ofketones (k2Cr, 07 Ht)
Fehling test #
P
R
S
- -

Conc. HCL

Acidic Alkanes
Fehling A Echling B strong oxidising agents (KMnOy (Ht)
In (Hq)
R, Pa R, -CH Re Reagent: Cuso, (aa) Roschellis Salt
-
- - -
Flow
Conc. HCL TAUTUMER ouidative
Alkanes COONG Ketone stable Answer
Mildoxidising

Wolf KISHNER REDUCTION

agent: Cuo
Es H
H OH

OH
enoL ozonoloysis

POPPOE's Rule:never
apply
COOK
NHa-NH2
R-
- R-CHy Accid
CH-9-CH-C
KOH alkanes
+
HO-CH2

Basic Ho-city R -n + (no RCOOH +

Cu20 Red
ppt
-p Acid kMnOn/Ht
11

alkanes R Cuo
R, Pe R,-CH2-Re
R-4
X
CHz-4-OH Ho-Y-s
- +
-
-

I/

Aliphatic aldehyde Aldol Condensation

TEST Reagent:Basic condition

Ouidation Reactions
-

- Aromatic 19
ketones
Dilute NaOH or
-
Aldehyde and
dil KOH
easily oxidised Mild Yetone having
2
Hydrogen
R-4
-
H
L
ALDEHYDE
oxidising agent. eg. C-1P-H -
en Yo
->
-
-
&

32H
0x4
AldoL
R,
- -

*z Difficultto very strong Self

KETOME
-
onidised
onidising agent
s
of a-c-ms* It en
-

o O
 CANNI ZARO
For Trick
-
- 02H OxH

-H 3
-Baraform "Farm
dil. Nate

Regio
is
Crxs+
KY
H 4
g-
-

A
HALOFORM ALID
- -
- - van
~
32H

asin--t
& &
on
-Enz
CH3

e-etes
c0

4
H
c-
=

o
cus
+ -

- in
- -

/
H

B-hydroxy aldehyde Acid Haloform + CHIs 3x4

X San
X
A
yellow pat
Iodoform
CH3 -(H
4
=
CH -

crotonaldehyde ·
RDS is carbanion formation -in a Its-on+fa
·

stability ofcarbanion "2"x3" -

EASIEST
-
- Reagent:con. Basesition ·Rate offormation ofHaloform
Cannizaro Reaction conc NaOH or conc KOH
CHFz CHC
=
=
(HBr, CHI3
=
CROSS CANNIZARO

having y H-ge
and ketones
Aldehyde zero
-hydrogen
Disproportionation Run (Redon Run) BAEYER VILLIGER OXIBATION
I

wasH-c-4+ch More
-

stulic stic
R-
4-0
- 0- H A

Aldehyde I Retone
Ester
Acid ocidation R,
-- R R,-4-o-Re Less steric->ACID
Aldehyde ( Ketone Alcohol Reduction perony carbonylic
acid More Sherrie-> ALCOHOL
> M204
>3"2" Ph> 1°> City
Trick conc Priority: H >

CH-OH

T-4 a
H-C-OH
2
k-g-4 **
+

Naomi Acid Alcohol

Onidation I
position introduce
5002 p
-
-

CONC

FIs-on
⑱
I-4 con 00 Mole
+

eg.
-, ar---H
Naon
stee ↓come. Noor
02H

Haloform test
Ian the
-

Reagent:Xe+NaOH
or NaOH or KOX or CaUCL,

which this test:

compounds give
Methyl
I
ketones 2) Lalcohol - Only one i alcohol

Methyl aldehyde- CH3-cha Chy-Cr-y

 Carboxylic Acid
/H20
+

"Amide
Preparation b) ofAcid halide x
-Nie
R-40H
R-4
-
-

H +, Ha0
onidation Run KOH (Base)
1) By R x R
-
0H x- Acid Base
- +
SOA - -

kMnO4 H

R-CHz 0F

R-G-
-
H

, alcohol KOH (aq) R- NHK

okt
4-
R-4
-

2. Amide *
OxidationofKetones
c) ofAnhydride
R-G-NH-R B-G-OH
kMnOy/HT O 0
Acid Base Run KOH (Base)
CHz-CHz- C
- C1-CH CH3
C
= -

↓H **
C- 4-OH
ketone stable Ouidative Oxidative
CHy-4-0-4-crs R-4-niRK
KOH
Ozonolysis 3. Amide
CHOL Ozonolysis

R-Cre
kt *co of

R-G-
0
CH-4-0H e
CH--
+ =

4 No Acid

Side Chain Oxidation <-

Hydrogen d) of esters KOH

COOH
CH3 I
I
kMn8y, Ht HT, He0
OR R C - 0H
4-
t
R-4-0
R- -

3H
!
2x4
COOH KOH
He CH3 kMnOy, Ht
R okt
1) From
grignard Reagent-
B
- -

02H 12 H 200H
A
-+ 2 - CO2 Ht
amides
10
R- H
2) of RMgX 4
2 o

-
-
-

8.
2)By hydrolysis
1 Amida
R-4 Ntedic
-

a) of Cyanide
Partial Hydrolysis
-P-NH2
R C=
N R Amide -NH-R 2"Amide CH
-0-CH3
-

Complete R-4 Acidic

hydrolysis OH -
30 Amide
- 4- R-4
-

R - 2
or adic R
No

Hydrogen
 Chemical Properties *
Dehydration ofCarbonylic Acids -
Decarbonylation Sodalime

1) Acidic Nature cone.

H2Soy or
HgPOy
-

NaOH/CaO
cone.

Alas
CH4
of

R Ht
cone. Heso
- Crg-4-or
R-4
R
4
-o 0
step down Run
4 Face 4 R-G-OH
- - -
+
=

Anhydwide
very stable & HELL VOLHARD ZELINSKY RXN
As 2 EnlG
R-
Equivalent
-OH Ho-4-R Run
RS HV2
EDG 2
i) Red P+ Xe
oH
CHI-CH
Cz-cy--or -
-

) NO
Na
x
Esterification
R-4-N R-G-oNat IH
+ Esterification
HO-R R R' H0
R-4-OH -
- +
+

ni He of Aromatic substitution:
R-G-0NaT NME
+

Hydrolysis Electrophilic -

Acid Alcohol C stee COOH

COOH
* -
P
meta ↑
R-g-oNat
NaH
He
+

R t
Rate ofesterification&
-

EDG +

ENG
-E

with PX, PX5, Rate ofhydrolysis ofester EWG

+CHg
sole
Run a

PC15 EDG Cl
e
R OH

-
-

NOe*
PCI A
withNHS
-

R
-
H
R-p-C+HCL+POLSRun C4,
-4
- -

Ch
Cl
--
P oH +
H-NH2 R- NH2
Heating effect
↳
R
4
- -
-

Cl CL
Acid Base Amide intermediate
CL
acids
socle ↳: AlH4 Alcohol
a) B-keto Carbanion
R x
sO+HCl R-CH-OH
- +

R R
-
OH
-

OH x

-
-
-

B
Thionyl
R-G--G-OH
chloride
cot
By products
a?-+
are
NaBHy
gases No Run

:. Forward

Direction
Alcohol
He Ni
R-CH-OH

B-position Ketone (Carbanion)

 COOH
A 4
acid CO2 CH-COOH
Heating effect. H Dicarbonylic
+

b) n1
CH2
=

(CH2 (n n
0,1,2,3,4,5
= COOH

it
COOH C OH CHa-C
r20
-
-

e(z) a
↳
n=
A D

ONSG AP or

↳- i
-

succinic acid
cool
0
n= COOH n3 =
Succinic
Onalic acid Anhydride
[CN2 13

queen--
⑧
COOH
glutamic acid COOH
his
COOH COOH
n1 n 4
=
=

Malonic acid
CH2 (He)+
COOH Adipic acid
cool

COOH
glutamate -
n 5
=

Glutamic
COOH
(2)5 Anhydride
e(r2)a CH2-COOH
n =

succinic acid COOH n4

=
1
Che
Pamelic acid -
H20 O
=

COOH
CHa
CO2
-

CH2-COOH

8
n0
=
COOH D
C0
He0 5 CHe
CO2 +
+
n =
COUH
Che A
O
CH2
=

COOH -
20

CH2 202
-

COOH
CHa
 Amines
R-c**N
now,
LiALH4 0

Preparation O I
en.
R-CH-NH2 11
C KOH
C

- -
Nixt
I &NH
Ammolysis ofAlkyl Halide (R-X) 3) Reduction ofIsocyanides
OH-
1) 2 -

+ S.S R -X Reagent: 1) He/Ni, Pt, Pd - !

R-X H-NH2
+

R-NH2 R -
NH
2) LiALHy Phthalimide + S s
1 Amine ↓ eg. H2 8)
.
R -
X
2Amine
CH-CHz-NEC .
Crz-c-Be
↑

R -NH-2 + X-R
CH-CH2-NH CH2
=

di 1 SN2

R-X

an
8 +
S- CH3-412-NH2
R X
-R1)
-

RyN* x- Reduction ofAmide. R -NH2 KOH e

Quaternary Ammonium ↓ LACHy

Amine
Salt a R-CH
-N2
Run
+
3Amine 0

-
"-okt
LIACA
CH-NH2
G-Ng
-

Reductions Reaction -- okt

↓
Reduction of Nitro group
1) (-NO2)
x GABRIEL SYNTHESIS:
PHTHALIMIDE Salt

Reagent: 1) Sn+ HCL

COOH H-NHE -4 NH -H

Hoffmann Bromamide Degradation:

-

Fe
2) +
HCL NHS

He/Ni (excess) -
3) te
Sn
COOH H-NHy
- Buz
R-NH2
(H-CHy -NO2 CH-CH-NHe a Ne
4-
en. -

HCL KOH
-
NH3 A Step down Reaction

2) Reduction ofCyanides Reagent: KOH R-X

NE BE CHG-CH-Ne
CH-CH-4
-

19
Reagent:1) Hy Ni, Pt, Pd 1. Amines Aliphatic
-
2) LiAIHY Aromatic "Amine Nahi Banegi I H
-NH Bre
Cls--wi
-->-p-Ne
-

3) Na(Hg) /R-OH 4 24 KOH

Phthalimide
C13
dis
 He NH2 He
1) Basic Nature I Case 1:
Aliphatic 1"Amine
-

- N0y
i
↑

HC
NaNOz +

Base e donor
"NO2 V M
R-

NH2 or
R-Netc- RT (Rearrangement
ifpossible)
Carbocation
b>
-

a)
-
I 102 -
I
HNO2 Diazonium
H20
R-xis R-ni-R
R-nitz
salt
ad
I
R ↳ Ortho substituted anilines
*
are weakest R-OH
alcohol
1 Amine 2"Amine 3Amine bases

Basic
*
Strength
&
e-availability Aromatic 10Amine
Ph
2) Acylation + HCL

Rea-R
NaNOz H20 OH
Rise R-nit + I
Ph Pl
-N2
+
c-
-

+I
a
C--ch +MC
-NH2
HNO2
OR

R-NA-g-cty
I
R
-NH2 Diazonium
+

Benzene

+I Chloride

+C-4-cis Case
R-NH-N
Basic Nature: 2's 1" (in gas phase) 2 "Amine
3'x 2:
Aliphatic
R -N NO
Note:In aqueous phase R -N-H + HO -N 0 = -

·
Solvation R CH, 2x 1x3>NHs =

3) Carbyl Amine Test:

I ↳
R
I R 2" 3x1 Nits Nitrosamine
yellow oily
=CH CH,
·+

CHClz +
kOH
Steueric R R-NC
·

Reso
-

NH2
Aromatic 2"Amine
te CHz- itResoX
CHClz + kOH
- - Pb NC
Ph-NH2
-

-
-

TN
I No
H HO-N 0
socyanides
-
-N - +

cU2
=
-

smelling
↓
- I
Foul
-elimmation
,
Nie
I z NHy
I
o yellow oily
↳ ReactionwithNitrous Acid (HNO2)
Case 3:Aliphatic 30 Amine
I
:
&

R
M
NO2 Reagent: -

1) HNO2
HNO2 N
-

+ M

R
1
R - NO
2) NaNOy +HCL NaCl + HNOz R -
-
I - -
-
I

a) d) - NO
↳ ↳ a
axc xb
Metrophile
 im et
en

0 Nitration
11
Aromatic 3"Amine R -N-R+ Cl-S-PH No Run
R NHy N2
I
+
NH2
R-N-R a
NH2

R-i-R
I I I
COMC. HNO3
-
-NO2 / /
I I
+ Not 3 Amine Conc
I

H2SO42
I -
2
2
electrophilic ho Mog 47%
6) Electrophilic
Aromaticsubstitution
Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution 2% 51%
0H

I I
BVz sulphonation
HINSBERG ~, HSO iM
5) TEST
CS2
Non-Polar Solvent
Mono substituted NH2
I
I

Zone.
453k -
473k
I Hesay
Bre H20 Polar
-> used to
distinguish 1, 2 and 3 solvent Be
2
It
A

amines
** +R:
Base its sogt
Br
2 -
Bu
-

N4a) OH
Sulfanilic
Hinsberg Test: Benzene Sulphony( acid
Chloride Zwitter ion I
white
ppt
⑧
bu (Bipolarion) SO
- -
c
Ne Ne Ne
↓
it
I I
Bu does not Friedal
Brz CS
+

-
Bu Note:
give Craft
All
P-S-
Base Reaction
- Acidic, ag. KOH
-

kt
02

Brz He0
- Ph

R-NH H ↓ M-NH-S-PH-x
Base
+

Bu
-

↓ Reaction
Amine N-alkyl Benzene soluble Coupling
Trisubstitution
Sulphamide
0 Mono substitution o
nir--Hs PIN-H-Y- oH Orange
-H-c-c pit-l-cts
0

- - Ph 11 KOH
I henol Ph-N=N-YOH
ag Bre ~
R-N S Ph > Insoluble -I
I ozobenzene
P-hydrony
R-N - H
- -
~
-
↳

a
O
a Bu
He/H20 - nter
N,N-dialkyl PINCH -

2.Amine Benzene Sulphoamide ↑Ne Aniline

x
x
- Ph n N- NHz
-
- =

CHICOUNT
p-amino ozobenzene
Bu
yellow
 Netcl- i
NHy I CuCL+rich
I
NaNOw +HCL

of
Cur +

HBs Bu

HNO2
Cucx
*Cx CN
HI I
(u + HCl
HBF4 Cu + HB2

Be
F I Ch
Is I

11
Nach- Ol
P
I !
-OH

i
H20 /

04- 4
in
H3PO2
NaNO2
↳
Nor
,NOz
 Class 12th
Chemistry
Short Notes
For neet | BOARDS

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