POWER QUALITY

Chapter I
Introduction

1.1 Overview of Power Quality

Power Quality involves the state of voltage, frequency and waveform. A good power quality can be
termed as the steady state voltage which is available in its prescribed limits without much variation,
along with a constant frequency and pure sinusoidal waveform. In general terms power quality can be
termed as the voltage quality.

Power Quality = Voltage Quality

Today power utilities along with electric consumers are very much concerned about the quality of
power delivered and the quality of power used. An enhanced or superior power quality ensures
reliable operation of consumer equipment’s, this also improves the life of consumer equipment’s. The
electric power is generated at the generating station viz the Hydro Electric Power plant, Thermal
power plant, Nuclear Power plant, by the way of Renewable modes like the Wind and Solar etc. This
power generated at the generating station is then Transmitted through a wired network and finally
given to the consumers at the distribution end. This flow involves complex networks, weather
conditions and continuous Load variations along with use of Power electronics devices hence the
Power quality is poor. Concerns related to Power quality increases as it directly governs the working
of the device to its rated output along with the life of device. A good power quality ensures optimum
use of the device and increased efficiency. There are various terms related to power quality which we
will be studying in detail.

1.2 Power Quality Evaluation Procedure

 Fig 1.2.1: Power Quality Evaluation Procedure

− Once a problem occurs in the system there lies a general guideline which is to be followed for
the evaluation procedure. The Power quality evaluation procedure involves initially the
identification of problem category. (Identification for Voltage Unbalance, Flicker, Harmonic
distortion, Voltage Sag or Swell)
− Problem characterization depending upon its causes, impacts on equipment’s, characteristics
etc.
− Identification of possible range of solutions like Utility transmission system, Utility
distribution system, End User Customer Interface, Equipment design and specifications.
− Evaluating solutions on the basis of modeling and analysis, available possible technical
alternatives. Analysis in various Electrical softwares etc.
− Finalizing the best possible solution as the optimum solution depending upon the results and
analysis and considering the economic aspects.

1.2.1 Symptoms of Poor Power quality

• Flickering of lights
• Computers shutting down
• Overheating of wires, motors and transformers
• Process control devices acting unpredictably
• Overloaded generators

1.3 Terms and Definitions

1.3.1 Power Quality- Power Quality is actually termed as the quality of Voltage. A good power quality
is the one which has its voltage levels in defined limits along with a pure sinusoidal waveform
and constant frequency.
A superior power quality is the concern and necessity of the day as it directly has an impact on
the economic aspect as well as the reliable operation of consumer equipment’s.

Fig 1.3.1 (a) 3-Phase representation of poor PQ Fig1.3.1 (b) 3 Phase representation of good PQ

1.4 Power Quality related Terms and Definitions

1. Voltage Sag
 2. Voltage Swell
3. Under Voltage
4. Over Voltage
5. Transients (Oscillatory and Impulsive)
6. Interruption
7. Voltage Imbalance
8. Waveform Distortion
9. Harmonics
10. Inter Harmonics
11. Triplen Harmonics
12. DC Offset
13. Notching
14. Noise
15. Voltage Fluctuation

1.4.1 Voltage Sag (Dips) –It is a short term voltage variation defined as a decrease to between 0.1 and
0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min. The
voltage sags have adverse effects on the power system and the operating equipment’s. The IEC
definition for this phenomenon is ‘dip’. Sag is a preferred term in US power quality community.
Voltage Sags are generally caused due to faults namely short circuit faults in the power
system, the general concept after occurrence of Short circuit faults is that the current tends to
raise highly leading to substantial decrease in voltage which is one of the main causes of Voltage
sag. Most of the faults which occur in the system are Un-Symmetrical faults and further Single L-
G faults are the most dominant.
The other possible reasons for the Voltage sags include starting of Induction Motors,
these motors are majorly used in industries and its starting takes 5-7 times the rated current
majorly due to the initial reactance and to overcome inertia generally the term can also be
preferred as in rush current. Heavy increase in current leads to substantial voltage drop.
Load switching is also a primary reason for voltage sags in the system.

Fig 1.4.1: Voltage Sag caused due to SLG fault

1.4.2 Voltage Swell- A swell is defined as the increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or
current at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min. Swells are also associated
with system fault conditions but they are not as frequent as Voltage sags. Swells can also be
caused by switching off a large load or energizing a large capacitor bank.
 Fig 1.4.2: Voltage Swell

Voltage swells are almost always caused by an abrupt reduction in load on a circuit with a poor
or damaged voltage regulator, although they can also be caused by a damaged or loose neutral
connection.

1.4.3 Under Voltage- An undervoltageis reduction in the acrmsvoltage to less than 90 % at the power
frequency for a period longer than 1 minute. Unlike voltage sags, under voltage last for more than
1 minute.Undervoltage are results of load switching, capacitor switching etc

1.4.4 Over Voltage- An overvoltage is rise in the ac rms voltage greater than 110 % at the power
frequency for duration longer than 1 min. Overvoltage are generally the result of large load
switching or capacitor switching. Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also lead to over
voltage.

1.4.5 Transients- The term transients are used in Power system to denote a undesirable event or
momentary changes. They can also be defined as “ that part of a change in a variable that
disappears during transition from one steady state operating condition to another”. Transient in
synonym can also be termed as ‘surge’.

Broadly transients can be classified in two categories Impulsive and Oscillatory transients.

a) Impulsive transients- An impulsive transient is a sudden, non–power frequency

change in the steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in
polarity (primarily either positive or negative).For eg, a 1.2 x 60 µs 2000 volt (V)
impulsive transient rises from zero to its peak value of 2000 V in 1.2 µs and then
decays to half its peak value in 60 µs. The most frequent reason for impulsive
transients are lightning.
Figure 1.4.5 (a) presents a typical current impulsive transient caused by lightning
stroke. Due to presence of high frequencies involved, the shape of impulsive transients
can be changed quickly by circuit components and may have significantly different
characteristics when viewed from different parts of the power system. They are
generally not conducted far from the source of where they enter the power system,
although they may, in some cases, be conducted for quite some distance along utility
lines.
Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency of power system circuits and
produce oscillatory transients.
 Fig 1.4.5 (a): Impulsive Transient due to Lightning stroke
b) Oscillatory Transients- An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non–power frequency
change in the steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both, that includes both
positive and negative polarity values.These transients are commonly the result of a
local system response to an impulsive transient. A transient with a primary frequency
component between 5 and 500 kHz with duration measured in the tens of
microseconds (or several cycles of the principal frequency) is termed a medium-
frequency transient.Regular capacitor energization results in oscillatory transient
currents in the tens of kilohertz. Cable switching results in oscillatory voltage
transients in the same frequency range. Medium-frequency transients can also be the
result of a system response to an impulsive transient.
Oscillatory transients with principal frequencies less than 300 Hz can also be found on
the distribution system. These are generally associated with ferroresonance and
transformer energization.
Transients involving series capacitors could also fall into this category. They occur
when the system responds by resonating with low frequency components in the
transformer inrush current (second and third harmonic) or when unusual conditions
result in ferroresonance.

Fig 1.4.5 (b): Oscillatory transients due to capacitor switching

1.4.6 Interruption- An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to less
than 0.1 pu for a period of time not exceeding 1 min.Interruptions can be the result of faults in
power system, equipment failure, control malfunctions. The interruptions are measured by their
span since the voltage magnitude is always less than 10 per- cent of nominal. The duration of an
interruption due to a fault on the utility system is determined by the operating time of utility
 protective devices. Instantaneous reclosing generally will limit the interruption caused by a
temporary fault to less than 30 cycles. Delayed reclosing of the protective device may cause a
momentary or temporary interruption. The duration of an interruption due to equipment
malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular.
Few interruptions may be preceded by a voltage sag when these interruptions are due to faults on
the source system. The voltage sag occurs between the time a fault initiates and the protective
device operates. Figure 1.4.6 shows such a momentary interruption during which voltage on one
phase sags to about 20 percent for about 3 cycles and then drops to zero for about 1.8 s until the
recloser closes back in.

Fig 1.4.6: Three-phase RMS voltages for a momentary interruption due to a fault and subsequent
recloser operation

Fig 1.4.6: Interruptions

1.4.7 Voltage Imbalance- Voltage Unbalance (or Imbalance) is termed by IEEE as the ratio of the
negative or zero sequence component to the positive sequence component. In short, it is a voltage
variation in a power system in which the voltage magnitudes or the phase angle differences
between them are unequal. It follows that this power quality problem affects only polyphase
systems.
 Voltages are rarely exactly balanced between phases. However, when voltage unbalance becomes
excessive, it can create problems for polyphase motors and other loads. Moreover, adjustable
speed drives (ASD) can be even more sensitive than regular motors.
Voltage unbalance is primarily due to unequal loads on distribution lines. In other words, the
negative or zero sequence voltages in a power system typically result from unbalanced loads
causing negative or zero sequence currents to flow.

Fig 1.4.7 Voltage Unbalance

1.4.8 Waveform Distortion- Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal
sine wave of power frequency principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation.
Waveform distortions are common power problems that cause equipment to malfunction and
sources of power to overload. It is an unexpected change in the waveforms of current and voltage
as they pass through a device.

There are five types of Waveform distortions namely:

-DC offset
-Harmonics
-Inter harmonics
-Notching
-Noise

DC Offset- The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset.

This may be primarily due to conversion process in the nature of supply. The phenomenon of DC
offset has adverse effects on Transformers which can lead to its overheating It also has an adverse
effect on the Illumination system.

Harmonics- Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer
multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (termed the
fundamental frequency usually 50 or 60 Hz). Harmonics primarily originate due to the non- linear
characteristics where the voltage and current waveform do not follow each other. Harmonics
originate due to electronic devices, PC’s, UPS, Variable frequency drives, Renewable sources of
generation etc. Harmonic mitigation is yet another concept which employs the implementation
and placement of Harmonic filters at regular location to reduce the Harmonic content in the
system.IEEE Standard 519-1992 provides guidelines for harmonic current and voltage
distortionlevels on distribution and transmission circuits.
 Fig 1.4.8 DC Offset and Harmonic distortion

Interharmonics- Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples
of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are called
interharmonics. The main sources of interharmonic waveform distortion are static frequency
converters, cycloconverters, induction furnaces, and arcing devices. Power line carrier signals can
also be considered as interharmonics.

Notching- Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power
electronic devices when current is commutated from one phase to another. Since notching occurs
continuously, it can be characterized through the harmonic spectrum of the affected voltage.

Noise- Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower than
200 kHz superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase conductors, or found
on neutral conductors or signal lines.Noise in power systems can be caused byloads with solid-
state rectifiers, power electronic devices, arcing equipment,control circuits and switching power
supplies.

1.4.9 Triplen Harmonics- Triplen harmonics are the odd multiples of the third harmonic (h = 3, 9, 15,
21, . . .). They deserve special consideration because the system response is often considerably
different for triplens than for the rest of the harmonics.Triplens become an important issue
for grounded-wye systems with current flowing on the neutral. Two typical problems are
overloading the neutral and telephone interference. One also hears occasionally of devices that
misoperate because the line-to-neutral voltage is badly distorted by the triplen harmonic voltage
drop in the neutral conductor.
For the system with perfectly balanced single-phase loads, an assumption is made that
fundamental and third harmonic components are present. Summing the currents at node N, the
fundamental current components in the neutral are found to be zero, but the third harmonic
components are three times the phase currents because they naturally coincide in phase and time.
Transformer winding connections have a significant impact on the flow of triplen harmonic
currents from single-phase nonlinear loads.

1.4.10 Voltage Fluctuation- Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a
series of random voltage changes, the magnitude of which does not normally exceed the voltage
ranges specified by ANSI. Loads that can exhibit continuous, rapid variations in the load cur- rent
 magnitude can cause voltage variations that are often referred to as flicker. The term flicker is
derived from the impact of the voltage fluctuation on lamps such that they are perceived by the
human eye to flicker. To be technically correct, voltage fluctuation is an electromagnetic
phenomenon while flicker is an undesirable result of voltage fluctuation in loads.

Fig 1.4.10 Voltage Fluctuations

1.5 Power Frequency variations- Power frequency variations are defined as the deviation of the
power system fundamental frequency from it specified nominal value (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz). The
power system frequency is directly related to the rotational speed of the generators supplying the
system. There are slight varia- tions in frequency as the dynamic balance between load and
generation changes. The size of the frequency shift and its duration depend on the load
characteristics and the response of the generation control system to load changes. Frequency
variations that go outside of accepted limits for normal steady-state operation of the power system
can be caused by faults on the bulk power transmission system, a large block of load being dis-
connected, or a large source of generation going off-line.
On modern interconnected power systems, significant frequency variations are rare. Frequency
variations of consequence are much more likely to occur for loads that are supplied by a generator
isolated from the utility system. In such cases, governor response to abrupt load changes may not
be adequate to regulate within the narrow bandwidth required by frequency-sensitive equipment.

Fig 1.5 Power frequency variations

1.6 Power Quality Standards-

As per IEC 61000 Series PQ is “The ability of a device, equipment or system to function
satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable electromagnetic
disturbances to anything in that environment”.
 As per IEEE 1159:2009 and IEEE 1100:2005 PQ is the concept of powering and grounding electronic
equipment in a manner that is suitable to the operation of that equipment and compatible with the
supply system and other connected equipment.

Fig 1.6: Representation of Power Quality Parameters

Table 1.6.1 IEEE Std 519-1992 Harmonic Voltage Limits

Voltage Distortion Limits

Bus Voltage at PCC Individual Total Voltage

Voltage Distortion
Distortion (%) THD (%)
69 kV and below 3.0 5.0
69.001 kV through 161kV 1.5 2.5
161.001 kV and above 1.0 1.5

The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) of India has prescribed Central Grid Code4 which
specifies the steady state voltage variation limits, maximum permissible values of voltage
unbalance and harmonic standards as given below
 Table 1.6.2 Voltage Variation Limits and Harmonic
Standards as in Central Grid Code.
System Voltage Voltage Total Individual
Voltage Variation (%) Unbalance Harmonic Harmonics of
(Nominal) – (%) Distortion anyparticular
kV rms (%) frequency(%)
765 + / - 3% 1.5 1.5 1.0
400 + / - 3% 1.5 2.0 1.5
220 + / - 5% 2.0 2.5 2.0
132 and below +/- 3.0 3.0 2.0
10%

Table 1.6.3 – Power quality standards by topic

Topics Relevant standards
Grounding IEEE Std 446 IEEE Std 141 IEEE Std IEEE Std ANSI/NPFA
142 1100 70
Powering ANSI CS4.1 IEEE Std 141 IEEE Std IEEE Std IEEE Std
446 1100 1250
Surge protection IEEE C62 IEEE Std 141 IEEE Std NFPA 78 UL 1449
series 142
Harmonics IEEE C 57.110 IEEE Std 519 IEEE P519A IEEE Std IEEE Std
929 1001
Disturbances ANSI C 62.41 IEEE Std 1100 IEEE Std IEEE Std
1159 1250
Life/fire safety FIPS PUB94 ANSI/NPFA NFPA 75 UL 1478 UL 1950
70
Mitigation IEEE Std 446 IEEE Std 1035 IEEE Std IEEE Std NEMA-UPS
Equipment 1100 1250
Telecommunications FIPS PUB94 IEEE Std 487 IEEE Std
equipment 1100
Noise control FIPS PUB94 IEEE Std 518 IEEE Std
1050
Utility interface IEEE Std 446 IEEE IEEE Std IEEE Std
Std929 1001 1035
Monitoring IEEE Std 1100 IEEE Std 1159

Load immunity IEEE Std 141 IEEE Std 446 IEEE Std IEEE Std IEEE P1346
1100 1159
System reliability IEEE Std 493

Table 1.6.4 IEEE Std 519-1992 Harmonic Current Limits

Current Distortion Limits for General Distribution
Systems (120 V Through 69000 V)
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL
Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
 ISC/IL <11 11≤h<17 17≤h<23 23≤h<35 35≤h TDD
<20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above.
Current distrortions that result in a dc offset, e.g. half-wave converters, are not allowed.
* All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual I SC/IL
Where
ISC = maximum short-circuit current at PCC.
IL = maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC.
TDD = Total demand distortion (RSS), harmonic current distortion in % of maximum demand load
current (15 or 30 mindemand).
PCC = Point of common coupling.

1.6.1 Power Quality Issues due to Improper grounding

Some power quality issues related to improper grounding include:
1) Presence of harmonics
2) Overheating
3) Equipment mal operation
4) Failure of equipments
5) Effect on distribution system

1.6.2 Area of Vulnerability

Equipment within an end-user facility may have different sensitivity to voltage sags. Equipment
sensitivity to voltage sags is very dependent on the specific load type, control settings, and
applications. Consequently, it is often difficult to recognize which characteristics of a given voltage
sag are most likely to cause equipment to mis-operate. The most commonly used characteristics are
the duration and magnitude of the sag. Other less commonly used characteristics include phase shift
and unbalance, missing voltage, three phase voltage unbalance during the sag event, and the point-in-
the-wave at which the sag initiates and terminates.

Fig: 1.6.2 Area of Vulnerability

 Generally, equipment sensitivity to voltage sags can be divided into three categories: 1)Equipment
sensitive to only the magnitude of voltage sag. This group includes devices such as under voltage
relays, process controls, motor drive controls, and many types of automated machines Devices in this
group are sensitive to the minimum (or maximum) voltage magnitude experienced during a sag (or
swell). The duration of the disturbance is usually of secondary importance for these devices. 2)
Equipment sensitive to both the magnitude and duration of a voltage sag. This group includes
virtually all equipment that uses electronic power supplies. Such equipment mis-operates or fails
when the power supply output voltage drops below specified values. Thus, the important
characteristic for this type of equipment is the duration that the rms voltage is below a specified
threshold at which the equipment trips. 3) Equipment sensitive to characteristics other than magnitude
and duration. Some devices are affected by other sag characteristics such as the phase unbalance
during the sag event, the point-in-the wave at which the sag is initiated, or any transient oscillations
occurring during the disturbance. These characteristics are more subtle than magnitude and duration,
and their impacts are much more difficult to generalize

1.6.3 Causes of Voltage Flicker

Some of the causes of voltage flicker are:
- Variation in voltage amplitude
- Loose connections
- Starting and stoppage of large motors, arc furnaces, mill drives, frequency
converters
- Cyclo-converters
- Capacitor switching
- Transformer on-load tap changers( OLTC)

1.7 CBEMA and ITI curves

CBEMA and ITI Curves

CBEMA curve is few of the most frequently used to display data to represent the quality of power. A
portion of the curve adapted from IEEE Standard 4469 that we typically use in our analysis of power
quality monitoring.

In CBEMA Curve, the axes represent magnitude and duration of the event. Points below the envelope are
assumed to cause the load to drop out due to lack of energy. Points above the envelope are assumed to
cause other malfunctions such as, overvoltage trip, insulation failure and over excitation.

The upper curve is actually defined down to 0.001 cycle where it has a value of about 375% voltage. We
typically employ the curve only from 0.1 cycle and higher due to limitations in power quality monitoring
instruments and differences in opinion over defining the magnitude values in the subcycle time frame.
 Fig 1.7.1: CBEMA Curve

Computer equipment sensitivity to sags and swells can be analyzed in curves of acceptable sag/swell
amplitude versus event duration. This curve was originally developed by CBEMA (Computer Business
Equipment Manufacturers Association) to describe the tolerance of mainframe computer equipment to the
magnitude and duration of voltage variations on the power system.

While many modern computers have greater tolerance than this, the curve has become a standard design
target for sensitive equipment to be applied on the power system and a common format for reporting
power quality data variation.

Fig 1.7.2: CBEMA Curve

The horizontal axis shows the duration of the sag or swell, and the vertical axis shows the percent change
in line voltage.

In addition, the IEEE has addressed sag susceptibility and the economics of sag-induced events in IEEE
Std. 1346–1998. The initial CBEMA curve was developed by the Computers Business Equipment
Manufacturers Association (CBEMA) and adopted by IEEE Standard 446. CBEMA has been renamed as
the Information Technology Industry (ITI) Council, and a new curve as shown in Figure 1.7.3 has been
developed to replace the original CBEMA curve.

The modified curve has been developed that specifically applies to common 120-V computer equipment.
The concept is similar to the CBEMA curve. Although developed for 120-V computer equipment, the
curve has been applied to general power quality evaluation like its predecessor curve.

Fig 1.7.3: ITI Curve

Outside the bounded tolerance region, in the no-damage region, the applied voltages are very low, and
sensitive computer equipment will not function properly; however, no damage occurs to the equipment.

In the prohibited region, sensitive computer equipment will be damaged due to the occurrence of severe
voltage swells.
Both the CBEMA and ITI curves were actually developed for use in the 60-Hz 120-V distribution voltage
system. The guidelines expect users in 50-Hz 240-V distribution systems to exercise their own judgment
when applying the CBEMA and ITI curves.

Although there is no legal requirement to confirm to these curves, most original equipment manufacturers
build equipment that meet or exceed the limits set forth by these curves.

1.8 Computer tools used for Power Quality analysis

Computer analysis tools come with a wide range of opportunities for the power system Engineers.
Today many software tools are available for analysis and implementation some of which can nbe
named as MATLAB, ETAP (Electrical transient Analyzer program), PSCAD, EMTP, Mi- Power.
These some tools are specialized in specific domain. Consider in case of commissioning of a wind
farm on site a Power system engineer will have to monitor the wind speed on the site for 2- 5 years
along with the wind profile. Along with this he will have to design the Generators, Transformers,
protective devices as per the rating. He will also have to perform various set of studies which include
1) Load Flow analysis
2) Short Circuit analysis
3) Transient Analysis
4) Harmonic analysis
5) Capacitor design and placement
6) Optimal load flow analysis
7) Cable sizing etc

Human calculation consumes a lot of time and there lies a probability of errors. So software tools as
mentioned above can be relied upon, these can operate and simulate results for various conditions and are
user friendly. Also some software tools come with in built models of manufactures which saves
considerable time of the Simulator. Some software tools are also available with modern techniques of real
time analysis.

1.9 Economic Impact of voltage sags

The costs associated with power outages at commercial facilities like banks, data centers, and customer
service centers can be tremendous, ranging from thousands to millions of dollars for a single interruption.
The costs to manufacturing facilities can be just as high, if not higher. And manufacturing facilities can be
sensitive to a wider range of power quality disturbances than just outages that The costs associated with
power outages at commercial facilities like banks, data centers, and customer service centers can be
tremendous, ranging from thousands to millions of dollars for a single interruption. The costs to
manufacturing facilities can be just as high, if not higher. And manufacturing facilities can be sensitive to
a wider range of power quality disturbances than just outages that are counted in traditional reliability
statistics. Voltage dips that last less than 100 milliseconds can have the same effect on an industrial
process as an outage that lasts several minutes.

The economic evaluation procedure. The various technologies for improving power quality must be
evaluated in terms of cost and the expected performance improvements they can provide. The improved
performance is translated into economic benefits, based on the expected costs associated with the power
quality variations. With the costs of the different technologies and the expected benefits, you can compare
the different technologies to determine which one will yield the best return on investment, which is
defined by the lowest total costs, including the costs of the power quality problems plus the costs of the
investment required to improve the quality of power.

1.10 Difference between Harmonics and Transients

Harmonics and transients both create distortion in sinusoidal wave. They both are responsible for
deviation of sine wave from its actual form but the basic difference between them is that, harmonics tends
to stay more in our system as compared to transients. Normally voltage transients stay for 50 micro
seconds and current transient for 20 micro seconds. Harmonics are created by non linear load where as
transients are due to any kind of disturbance in our system. Each time you turn on/off a load in your
home. You induce a transient in the system.

1.11 Grounding practice as per IEEE

— IEEE Std 81-19833 and IEEE Std 81.2-1991 provide procedures for measuring the earth
resistivity, the resistance of the installed grounding system, the surface gradients, and the
continuity of the grid conductors.

— IEEE Std 142-1991, also known as the IEEE Green Book, covers some of the practical
aspects of grounding, such as equipment grounding, cable routing to avoid induced ground
currents, cable sheath grounding, static and lightning protection, indoor installations, etc.

— IEEE Std 367-1996 provides a detailed explanation of the asymmetrical current

phenomenon and of the fault current division, which to a large degree parallels that given
herein. Of course, the reader should be aware that the ground potential rise calculated for the
purpose of telecommunication protection and relaying applications is based on a somewhat
different set of assumptions concerning the maximum grid current, in comparison with those
used for the purposes of this guide.
 — IEEE Std 665-1995 provides a detailed explanation of generating station grounding
practices.

— IEEE Std 837-1989 provides tests and criteria to select connections to be used in the
grounding system

Fig 1.9: Overview of ETAP software

ETAP software showing various simulation studies like Load Flow analysis, Short circuit analysis,
Harmonic analysis, Transient analysis, Capacitor design and placement, Traction system etc

1.12 Sources of Transient overvoltages:

1) Surge due to equipment
2) Lightning
3) Momentary surges
4) Capacitor switching
5) Load switching