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Steam Plant
Operation
Steam Plant
Operation
Everett B. Woodruff
Herbert B. Lammers
Thomas F. Lammers
Tenth Edition
New York Chicago San Francisco

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cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
To my wife Marianne, who has always given me her love and support,
and
in memory of my Dad, who started this book,
which has helped so many over the years.
TFL
About the Authors
Everett B. Woodruff was a Project Engineer at
A. M. Kinney, Inc., a leading architectural, engineering,
and design process firm. He was involved in the design
of industrial and utility power plants, and provided
consultation in steam plant operation and mainte
nance, in plant performance test requirements, and in
the development of overall power plant specifications.
Herbert B. Lammers was a consultant for various
industries that were dependent on steam power plants
for their reliable source of power. He provided exper
tise in the efficient combustion of various fuels and in
the economic operation and maintenance of boilers
and various power plant systems.
Thomas F. Lammers was a Senior Project Manager
with Babcock & Wilcox Co., one of the world's leading
designers and suppliers of steam-generating systems and
related power plant equipment. During his 36 years with
the company, Mr. Lammers had various management
responsibilities in the areas of engineering, marketing,
and project management. He is the author of the Fifth
through Tenth Editions of Steam Plant Operation.
Contents
Preface XVll
1 Steam and Its Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction .......................................... 1
1.2 The Use of Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 The Steam-Plant Cycle ................................. 21
1.4 The Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5 Utility Boilers for Electric Power ........................ . 26
1.5.1 Coal-Fired Boilers ............................ . 34
1.5.2 Oil- and Gas-Fired Boilers ..................... . 39
1.5.3 Steam Considerations ......................... . 39
1.5.4 Boiler Feedwater ............................. . 40
1.6 Industrial and Small Power Plants ...................... . 40
1.6.1 Fluidized Bed Boilers ......................... . 43
1.6.2 Combined Cycle and Cogeneration Systems 45
1.7 Solar Power ......................................... . 48
1.8 Wind Power 50
1.9 Power Plant Costs .................................... . 53
1.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Questions and Problems ..................................... . 55
2 Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.1 The Boiler ...........................................
. 57
2.2 Fundamentals of Steam Generation ..................... . 59
2.2.1 Boiling ......................................
. 59
2.2.2 Circulation .................................. . 60
2.2.3 Steam-Water Separation ....................... . 61
2.3 Fire-Tube Boilers .....................................
. 62
2.4 Water-Tube Boilers ...................................
. 67
2.4.1 High-Temperature Water Boilers ................ . 73
2.4.2 Comparison of Fire- and Water-Tube Boilers 74
2.5 Steam-Water Separation ............................... . 75
2.6 Principles of Heat Transfer ............................. . 78
2.7 Superheaters .........................................
. 79
2.8 Superheat Steam Temperature Control .................. . 82
2.8.1 Attemperation ............................... . 82
2.8.2 Flue Gas Bypass .............................. . 83
2.8.3 Flue Gas Recirculation ........................ . 84
2.9 Heat-Recovery Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.10 Furnace Design Considerations ......................... 91
2.11 Furnace Construction .................................. 91
IX
X Contents
2.12 Industrial and Utility Boilers ........................... . 99

2.13 Considerations for Coal Firing ......................... . 114
2.13.1 Spreader Stokers ............................. . 115
2.13.2 Pulverized-Coal Firing ........................ . 115
2.13.3 Stoker versus Pulverized-Coal Firing ............ . 116
2.14 Pressurized versus Balanced-Draft Boiler Designs ........ . 116
2.15 Fluidized Bed Boilers ................................. . 117
2.15.1 The Process .................................. . 118
2.15.2 Comparison with Pulverized-Coal and
Stoker Firing ................................. . 118
2.15.3 Advantages of Fluidized Bed Combustion ....... . 119
2.15.4 Descriptions of Fluidized Bed Boilers ........... . 120
2.15.5 Emissions Control with Fluidized Bed Boilers 131
2.15.6 Bed Material ................................. . 132
2.15.7 Heat Transfer ................................ . 132
2.16 Boiler Applications for Biomass Fuels ................... . 133
2.17 Modern Coal-Fired Plants-Summary ................... . 134
2.18 Process Steam and Its Application ...................... . 135
2.19 Combined Cycle and Cogeneration Systems ............. . 136
2.20 Nuclear Steam Generation ............................. . 142
Questions and Problems 150
3 Design and Construction of Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

3.1 Materials Used in Boiler Construction .................... 153
3.2 Stresses in Tubes and Drums ............................ 156
3.3 Drum Construction .................................... 161
3.4 Welded Construction .................................. 162
3.5 Structural Support Components ......................... 166
3.6 Manholes, Handholes, and Fittings ...................... 168
3.7 Boiler Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.8 Heating Surface and Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.9 Boiler Capacity Calculation ............................. 172
Questions and Problems ...................................... 178
4 Combustion of Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

4.1 The Combustion Process ............................... 181
4.2 The Theory of Combustion ............................. 185
4.3 The Air Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.4 Coal ................................................. 202
4.5 Fuel Oil .............................................. 215
4.6 Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.6.1 Gas Hydrates ................................. 223
4.6.2 Natural Gas Extraction by Hydraulic
Fracturing (Fracking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.7 By-Product Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.8 Control of the Combustion Process ...................... 227
Contents XI
5 Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment . . . 235

5.1 Boiler Settings ........................................ 235
5.2 Hand Firing .......................................... 238
5.3 Stokers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5.3.1 Underfeed Stokers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.3.2 Overfeed Stokers 241
5.4 Pulverized Coal ....................................... 258
5.4.1 Contact Mills ................................. 262
5.4.2 Ball Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
5.4.3 Impact Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
5.4.4 Mill Feeders .................................. 271
5.4.5 Gravimetric Feeders 272
5.4.6 Burners ...................................... 274
5.4.7 Lighters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.4.8 Flame Safety System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.4.9 Operation .................................... 281
5.5 Fuel Oil .............................................. 286
5.5.1 Steam- or Air-Atomizing Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.5.2 Pressure-Type Burners ......................... 291
5.5.3 Oil Burning Characteristics ..................... 292
5.6 Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
5.7 Oil- and Gas-Firing Safety Precautions ................... 300
5.8 Automatic Operation of Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5.9 Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5.10 Mechanical Draft: Fans 307
5.11 Steam and Air Jets .................................... . 314
5.12 Flues and Ducts ...................................... . 315
5.13 Ash Handling Systems ................................ . 315
Questions and Problems ..................................... . 319
6 Boiler Accessories .......................................... . 323

6.1 Water Columns ...................................... . 323
6.2 Pressure Measurement ................................ . 330
6.3 Temperature Measurement ............................ . 332
6.4 Feedwater Control System ............................. . 332
6.5 Safety Valves ......................................... . 340
6.6 Blowdown Equipment ................................ . 349
6.7 Nonreturn Valves ..................................... . 353
6.8 Steam Piping ........................................ . 354
6.9 Sootblowers ......................................... . 355
6.10 Valves .............................................. . 361
6.11 Instruments and Power Plant Automation ............... . 365
Questions and Problems 375
7 Operation and Maintenance of Boilers ........................ . 377

7.1 Boiler Startup ........................................ . 377
7.2 Normal Operation .................................... . 380
XII Contents
70201 Combustion Control 000000000000000000000000000 381

70202 Ash Handling 000000000000000000000000000000000 381
70203 Water Supply 000000000000000000000000000000000 382
702.4 Boiler Efficiency 0000000000000000000000000000000 392
70205 Insulation and Lagging 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 395
703 Operating Characteristics of Fluidized Bed Boilers 000000000 396
70301 Circulating Fluid Bed (CFB) Boilers 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 396
70302 Bubbling Fluid Bed (BFB) Boilers 0000000000000000 397
7.4 Abnormal Operation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 398
7.5 Idle Boilers 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 401
706 Maintenance 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 • • • • • • • • 403
7.7 Boiler Internal Inspection 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 410
708 Evaluating the Condition of a Boiler 000000000000000000000 412
709 Making Repairs 000000000000000000000000000000000000000 413
7010 Inspection and Maintenance Requirements of Heat
Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs) 000000000000000000000 416
Questions and Problems 00000000000000000000000000000000000000 417
8 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
801 Pumps 00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 422
8.2 Injectors 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 422
803 Duplex Pumps 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 423
804 Power Pumps 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
• • 424
805 Vacuum Pumps 000000000000000000000000000000000000000 427
806 Rotary Pumps 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 428
807 Centrifugal Pumps 000000000000000000000000000000000000 431
808 Facts about Fluids and Pumping 000000000000000000 00000 • 442
809 Factors Affecting Pump Operation 00000000000000000000000 444
8010 Considerations for Pump Selection 00 00000000000 0000.0 o o o 446
8011 Pump Installation and Operation 000000000000000000000000 446
8012 Pump Testing and Calculations 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 448
8013 Pump Maintenance 000000000000000000000000000000000000 452
Questions and Problems 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 456
9 Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

901 Steam Turbines 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 459
901.1 Turbine Types and Applications 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 464
901.2 Turbine Stage Design 00000000000000000000000000 471
901.3 Major Components of a Turbine 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 472
902 Turbine Design and Construction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 477
90201 Thrust Bearing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 486
90202 Packing 00000000000000000000000000000000000000 487
90203 Governors 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 488
902.4 Lubrication 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 492
90205 Turbine Control 0000000000000000000000000000000 493
90206 Erection of the Steam Turbine 0000000000000000000 496
Contents XIII
9.2.7 Relief Valves for Turbines ...................... . 497

9.2.8 Turbine Piping ............................... . 497
9.3 Electric Generators ................................... . 498
9.4 Condensers .......................................... . 501
9.4.1 Surface Condensers ........................... . 502
9.4.2 Air-Cooled Condensers ........................ . 505
9.4.3 Condenser Materials and Construction 506
9.5 Cooling Towers ...................................... . 507
9.5.1 Types of Cooling Towers ...................... . 509
9.5.2 Design Considerations ........................ . 515
9.5.3 Materials of Construction ...................... . 516
9.6 Condenser Auxiliaries ................................. 517
10 Operating and Maintaining Steam Turbines, Condensers,

Cooling Towers, and Auxiliaries .............................. 523
10.1 Turbines ............................................. . 523
10.1.1 Turbine Operation ............................ . 528
10.1.2 Turbine Maintenance .......................... . 531
10.1.3 Turbine Performance 535
10.2 ...........................................
Condensers 536
10.2.1 Surface Condenser Operation ................... 537
10.2.2
Surface Condenser Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
10.2.3
Air-Cooled Steam Condenser Operation .......... 540
10.3 Cooling Towers ....................................... 541
10.3.1 Operation of Cooling Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
10.3.2 Maintenance of Cooling Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
10.4 Auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
10.4.1 Traveling Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
10.4.2 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
10.4.3 Steam-Jet Ejectors and Vacuum Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . 547
10.4.4 Vacuum Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
11 Auxiliary Steam Plant Equipment .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551

11.1 Condensate System .................................... 552
11.2 Feedwater Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
11.2.1 Closed Feedwater Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
11.2.2 Open Feedwater Heaters (Deaerators) . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
11.2.3 Operation and Maintenance of Feedwater Heaters 567
11.3 Condensate Polishing Systems .......................... 568
11.4 Raw Water Treatment .................................. 570
11.4.1 Ion-Exchange Water Conditioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
11.4.2 Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
11.5 Boiler Blowdown ...................................... 575
11.6 Piping System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
11.7 Steam Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
XIV Contents
1108 Pipeline Separators and Strainers 000000000000000000000000 590

1109 Lubricants and Lubricating Devices 0000000000000000000000 592
12 Environmental Control Systems ............................... 601

1201 Introduction 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 601
1202 Environmental Considerations 601
1203 Sources of Plant Emissions 000000000000000000000000 00000 • 601
12.4 Available Technologies for the Control of Emissions 00 0 000 • • 603
12.401 S02 Control 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
• • • • • • 604
12.402 NOx Control 0000000000000000000000000000000000 604
120403 Particulate Control 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 605
120404 Control of Carbon Dioxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0• 606
12.5 Regulatory Requirements 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 610
1206 Particulate and Sulfur Dioxide Removal Requirements 613
120601 Particulate Removal 000000000000000000000000000 613
120602 Sulfur Dioxide Removal 000000000000000000 00000 • 613
120603 Industrial Boilers 614
1207 Equipment for Particulate Emission Control 00000000000000 615
120701 00000000000000000000000000
Mechanical Collectors 615
1207.2
Electrostatic Precipitators 00000000000000000000000 616
120703
Bag Filterhouses 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 623
1208 Equipment for Sulfur Dioxide Scrubber Systems 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 628
120801 Wet Scrubbers 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 628
120802 Dry Scrubbers 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 632
1209 Systems for Control of Nitrogen Oxides 000000000000000000 641
Questions and Problems 000000000000000000000000000000000 0000 • 642
13 Waste-to-Energy Plants .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645

1301 Introduction000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 645
1302 Waste Disposal-A Worldwide Problem 000000000000000000 648
1303 Potential Energy from MSW 00000000000000000000000 0000 • 651
13.4 Landfills 000000000 00000000000 0000000000000000000000
• • • 651
1305 Solid Waste Composition 0000000000000000000000000000000 652
1306 Types of Energy-Recovery Technologies 0000000000000 0000 • 655
1307 Mass Burning 00000 000000000 00000000000000000 0 000
• • • • • • 657
1308 Refuse-Derived Fuel Burning 000000000000000000000000000 667
1309 Operation and Maintenance of Refuse Boilers 0000000000000 673
13010 Recycling 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 677
1301001 Advantages and Disadvantages of Recycling 677
1301002 Economics and Quality Products from Recycling 679
13011 Material Recovery Facilities 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 680
13012 Waste-to-Energy Plants and Recycling 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 686
Contents XV
A Unit Conversions 689
B Geometric Formulas 693
c Steam Tables and Charts 695
D Answers to Problems 707
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
Index 717
Preface
T
his Tenth Edition of Steam Plant Operation reviews all sources of energy and how
they contribute to the production of electricity. It points out the risks and
potential problems that each source of energy faces. But the book continues to
emphasize the importance of steam and how steam continues to play an important role
in the generation of electricity as well as in the support of many industrial processes.
The importance of steam cannot be overstated, as it is used in some manner to provide
nearly 90 percent of the electricity produced in the United States and worldwide.
All energy sources must be explored in order to produce electricity economically,
reliably, and in a manner which protects the environment. Each source has its issues
and should be understood. Given the importance of steam in a large portion of our
electric generation, this new edition continues to describe the systems and requirements
that are necessary for its production and for the protection of our environment.
The sources of energy for the production of electricity have changed dramatically
over the past 10 years from a predominant use of coal, which furnished approximately
50 percent of our nation's electricity, to a significant increase in the use of natural gas
and renewables, primarily wind power. No doubt that this has changed the energy
picture in the United States and worldwide.
Electric production in the United States through the use of natural gas has increased
from about 20 percent to close to 30 percent. The renewable energy source of wind
power has nearly quadrupled its electric production from about 1 percent to slightly
more than 4 percent, a percentage that is still relatively small. These, however, are
significant changes. The change in the use of natural gas, for example, can be immediately
associated with the increased production of low-cost natural gas resulting from the
drilling and extraction techniques associated with £racking.
Renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, are increasing their share of
electric production, but this production is intermittent and, therefore, conventional
means of electric production must be available to support the continuous need for
power. This requires coal-fired plants, natural-gas-fired combined cycle plants, and
nuclear power plants to provide the base load power requirements as well as the backup
power for renewables when their output is reduced or not operational because of lack
of wind or sun.
This book has assisted many in the understanding of the fundamentals of a power
plant since its first publication in 1935. My father, Herb Lammers, and his friend and
co-author, Everett Woodruff, authored the initial editions of Steam Plant Operation
XVI I
XVIII Preface
and presented information in an easily understood format using illustrations and

descriptions of the various systems found in a steam power plant.
This method of presentation has helped many to obtain their power plant operating
license, and has helped many in the academic area to understand the complexities of a
power plant, leading them to continue their studies in this technical field. The Tenth
Edition continues to present information in that same clear and understandable manner.
The power industry continues to go through a difficult period, and I am sincerely
grateful to the companies and organizations that have provided me with information
included in this new edition. I specifically want to thank the individuals within these
organizations who took the time to help me. Their assistance is greatly appreciated.
It is rare that a textbook can encompass ten editions over 80 years. But its longevity
has resulted from the way information has been presented and how it has helped so
many in power plant operations and in academics, where continued study is required.
A number of the individuals who have learned from this book have made significant
contributions and improvements to this critical technology of producing power which
makes our lives so much better and productive.
I thank all of those who have helped me and encouraged me to complete this
work. I am proud to continue the wonderful tradition of Steam Plant Operation with its
Tenth Edition.
Thomas F. Lammers
Steam Plant
Operation
CHAPTER 1
Steam and
Its Importance
1.1 I ntroduction
In the United States, electricity is a reliable and affordable service that we largely take
for granted. For many years this service has consistently been associated with large
power plants using coal, natural gas, and nuclear as their primary energy sources.
These sources of energy resulted in approximately 50 percent of the electricity being
supplied from coal-fired power plants and about 20 percent each from natural-gas-fired
cogeneration plants and from nuclear power plants. The remaining 10 percent was sup
plied from a variety of energy sources, primarily from hydroelectric plants (6 percent),
with the remaining 4 percent furnished by such energy sources as oil, biomass, and,
most recently, the renewable energy sources of wind and solar.
However, this situation has changed dramatically as the electric power industry
is undergoing a profound transition and industry leaders are in discussions on how
this transition should evolve. Foremost in these changes are discussions on the use
of fossil fuels, specifically coal usage, and the role that renewable energy sources like
wind and solar will play in any transition. But together with these discussions
are the changes that are occurring in the flow of electricity from the generator to the
consumer.
The industry may no longer be a one-way power flow from a large generator to
customers as it must consider multiple sources of generation, both large and small, in
multidirectional power flow. The distribution grid must integrate a diverse set of energy
resources, both large and small, from traditional large fossil-fired and nuclear power
plants, hydroelectric plants, and relatively large wind farms and solar plants to much
smaller energy sources such as rooftop solar systems.
Electricity customers need and expect reliable service and they are used to receiving
it for their desktop and mobile devices, as well as the many appliances and air
conditioners and lighting and industrial equipment that operate our homes and
businesses efficiently, all at an economical cost.
Some customers would like to use rooftop solar panels for the generation of their
own electricity. They would like this power to be reliable throughout the entire day,
even during the night or on a cloudy day when such electricity generation through solar
panels is diminished or is not even possible. Such customers also want a "two-way street"
in that when their electric needs are satisfied, any excess electricity can be sold to
the local utility. When their own electric generation is insufficient to meet their needs,
1
2 Chapter One
they would require electricity to be furnished by the local utility. Thus a new type of an
electric grid is necessary, and such a grid is evolving today.
By 2020, it is estimated that 80 percent of the industrial world's adults will have some
type of computer in their pocket in the form of a smart phone or some other device, and
they will be connected through the Internet and be able to manage and control their
many household and business systems and possibly sell any stored electricity that they
may have to the electric grid.
The way that technology has progressed in recent years, this concept is well within the
realm of possibilities. But it will require a significant investment in grid modernization by
incorporating sophisticated information, operating technology, and analytical capabilities.
The distribution of electricity will ultimately change from the traditional means of
having power production passing through transmission lines to the ultimate user.
Because of electricity being sold to the grid from such systems as solar panels when
there is an excess, the transmission lines will have to accommodate this two-way flow
of electricity. The state of Hawaii is a good example of this as many customers have
installed rooftop solar panels. This practice has attracted many because of the high cost
of electricity in the state and, maybe more important, because of the high percentage of
sunny days throughout the year. Obviously, the cost of such solar panels has to be offset
by the savings in electric cost. An economic evaluation should be made to determine
the true benefit of such a system.
Why is low-cost electricity so important? We often forget that businesses require
innovative systems and processes that require low-cost and reliable electricity in order
to remain competitive in the world marketplace. And individuals are more and more
connected to their various plug and play devices which they use for entertainment,
comfort, convenience, and safety. So, for both at businesses and at homes, systems must
be developed to manage their electrical energy.
The transmission grid connects utilities across regions to assure economy and
reliability. Because the bulk of electricity is produced from large steady-state power
plants which generate electricity in the most economical manner, utilities can draw
power from reserves in different regions to ensure that electricity is available reliably as
well as economically. This interconnection is extremely important. As an example, a
region having hydroelectric plants producing low-cost electricity during a high-water
season may provide electricity to another region. In times of low-water conditions,
electricity would flow in the opposite direction to support their needs.
There have been major changes in recent years on how electricity in the United
States is generated. Many of these same changes are also found worldwide. What was
a mainstay in electricity production for many years has changed dramatically from a
dominant use of coal to its having a significant lesser role. Its decline has been replaced
with an increased use of natural gas and renewables, primarily wind power, for our
energy sources. As we shall see later in this chapter, electricity production from coal has
declined over the past 10 years from near 50 percent of electricity production to about
39 percent, while natural gas use has increased from about 20 percent to 27 percent, and
wind power has increased its contribution from about 1 percent to 4 percent.
It is not for lack of our coal reserves that has caused this, as they are plentiful. There
are two significant factors which have led to this change.
1. Environmental mandates have resulted in the retirement of many older coal-fired

plants because of the high cost associated with meeting these new requirements.
S t e a m a n d It s I m p o r t a n c e 3
2. The availability of large quantities of low-cost natural gas because of "£racking"

drilling and extraction techniques has made natural-gas-fired cogeneration
plants more attractive for the addition of new electric power plants.
Environmental activists have also played a role as they have strongly encouraged
the use of renewable energy sources instead of coal and other fossil fuels. This subject is
discussed later in this book as all energy sources have specific issues that have to be
faced, and just because an energy source is not favored is not a reason to discontinue its
use. All factors have to be investigated.
This does not mean that coal-fired power plants are going to be extinct in the near
future. Even with more strict environmental regulations, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) expects that coal will continue to be a major source of electricity
production through the 2030s.
So where does the use of steam play a part in all of this? As this book will explain, the
use of steam in our power plants is just as important as it always has been. Steam is not
only used for power production but also it provides energy for many industrial process
applications as well as heating for various buildings and industries. We should not forget
that, for about 90 percent of our electricity production, steam is used in some manner.
The following is an impressive list of electric producing systems which use steam.
• Coal- and oil-fired power plants

• Natural-gas-fired cogeneration power plants
• Nuclear power plants
• Solar power plants
• Biomass and geothermal power plants
This book will continue to emphasize the importance of steam and how it is pro
duced from various sources of energy for the generation of electricity and for a variety
of other industrial applications. Because of the high percentage of energy that is used
for the generation of electricity, this book will continue to focus on that aspect of the use
of steam. We have become aware of a variety of terms which are used nearly every day
regarding our sources of energy and the resulting effects on our environment. Some of
the most used terms are alternative energy and renewable sources such as solar, wind,
and biomass fuels. Discussions on these topics generally are combined with the possi
ble improved effects on our environment from traditional energy sources-fossil fuels.
These effects are often in the spotlight as we hear concerns over global warming and
climate change. Although many of these references are related to our means of trans
portation and their use of oil-based products, they also are directed at the various meth
ods of producing a critical energy source-electricity, which is so vital to our everyday
way of life.
In today's modern world, all societies are involved to various degrees with techno
logical breakthroughs that are attempting to make our lives more productive and more
comfortable, both at home and at the workplace. These technologies include sophisti
cated electronic devices, the most prominent of which are computer systems, smart
phones which can perform multiple tasks including computer functions, home and
business management systems such as security, and various mobile entertainment
applications. All of these systems in our modern world depend on a reliable and rela
tively inexpensive energy source-electricity. And these relatively new systems are in
4 Chapter One
addition to those we traditionally think about-lights, motors, air conditioners, etc.

In addition we see advances in the automotive world where electric cars are being
developed in order to reduce the dependence on oil. These demands point out the fact
that inexpensive and reliable electricity is critical to the sustained economic growth and
security of the United States and of the rest of the world, and perhaps the most impor
tant fact is that electricity makes our lives better. The United States depends on reliable,
low-cost, and abundant energy. Energy drives the economy, heats and lights our homes,
pumps water, and provides transportation and security, among countless other activities.
The efficient use and production of electricity and effective and reasonable conserva
tion measures are paramount to ensuring low-cost energy as well as protecting our
environment.
As an example, the United States uses about 35 percent more energy today than it
did in 1975. There are more than 50 million additional homes and more than 100 million
additional vehicles, and the gross national product (GNP) is over 10 times higher
according to the U.S. Department of Energy. This emphasizes the need for the
United States to have a flexible and comprehensive energy plan with policies necessary
to provide long term reliable, secure, and environmentally acceptable energy supplies
at predictable and affordable costs.
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, approximately 40 percent
of the total energy used in the United States is for the generation of electricity. (As a
comparison, approximately 30 percent of U.S. energy consumption is for transportation.)
The demand for electricity has generally increased in parallel with the country's GNP
and it is expected that this path will continue in the future. Over the next 20 years,
predictions have been made which will require nearly $700 billion for new investments
to meet the increasing electricity needs of the United States alone. This will require that
all economically feasible energy technologies must be carefully evaluated. This will
demand not only new power plants of various technologies but also energy conservation
in the form of energy saving systems which will provide energy efficient products
and services.
This expansion of the electricity production must also be accomplished with an
accompanying systematic reduction of emissions throughout the world. Although
major reductions in pollutants have been accomplished over the past 50 years, further
realistic reductions must be achieved. However, the goals for these further reductions
must be both realistic and economical. Low-cost electric energy is vital for the econo
mies of the United States and the rest of the world.
With the availability of electricity providing most of the industrialized world a very
high degree of comfort, the source of this electricity and the means for its production
are often forgotten. It is the power plant that provides this critical energy source, and in
the United States nearly 90 percent of the electricity is produced from power plants that
use steam in some manner as an energy source powering the turbine generators, with
the remaining electricity produced primarily by hydroelectric power plants and
by sources such as biomass, oil, wind, solar, and geothermal as outlined in Table 1 . 1 .
I n other parts o f the world, similar proportions are common for their electricity
production. Even electricity produced from the energy sources of oil, biomass, solar,
and geothermal utilizes steam to power the turbine generators.
(Note: It should be recognized that the percentages for these energy sources vary
from year to year due to the availability and cost of each energy source and the type of
systems that are operational. Also, the majority of natural gas is used in a gas turbine
Coal 3 9 . 5%
Natural gas 2 7 .4%
Nuclear 1 9 . 0%
Hyd roe lectric 6 . 9%
Biomass ( i n c l u d i ng m u n i c i pa l solid waste) 1 . 5%
Wind 4.1%
Oil 1 . 0%
Solar 0.2 %
Geothermal 0 . 4%
Tota l 100.0%
Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA).
TABLE 1 . 1 Energy Sources for Electricity Generatio n i n

t h e U n ited States
generator with its waste heat producing steam in a secondary cycle that drives a steam
turbine generator. This technology is called a cogeneration plant or a combined cycle
system and is described later in this chapter.)
There are many factors which have led to the changes in energy sources for the
production of electricity in the United States. Certainly the declining cost and av aila bili ty
of natural gas is a major contributor. New air pollution emission regulations have made
many upgrades to coal-fired power plants too costly to implement. Many states have
implemented mandatory requirements to utilize renewable energy sources and, associated
with this, there have been financial incentives offered by both the federal and state
governments for the conversion to renewable energy. And finally, there has been a
slower growth in the demand for electricity because of improved efficiency standards
for such items as lighting, appliances, etc., as noted later. All of these factors have
contributed to how electricity is generated.
The power plant is a facility that transforms various types of energy into electricity
or heat for some useful purpose. The energy input to the power plant can vary signifi
cantly, and the plant design to accommodate this energy is drastically different for each
energy source. The forms of this input energy can be as follows:
1. The potential energy of an elevated body of water, which, when used, becomes a
hydroelectric power plant.
2. The chemical energy that is released from the hydrocarbons contained in fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass fuels which becomes a fossil-fuel
fired power plant.
3. The solar energy from the sun, which becomes a solar power plant.
4. The fission or fusion energy that separates or attracts atomic particles, which
becomes a nuclear power plant.
5. The wind energy that is generated from our natural environment and becomes a
wind farm.
6 Chapter One
With any of these input sources, the power plant's output can take various forms:
1 . The generation of heat for a process or for heating. (This would exclude wind
energy.)
2. Electricity that is subsequently converted into other forms of energy such as
lighting, motor drives, computer, safety systems, etc.
3. Energy for transportation, such as powering ships.
In these power plants, the conversion of water to steam is the predominant technol
ogy, and this book will describe this process and the various systems and equipment
that are commonly used in today's operating steam power plants.
Renewable energy is constantly in the news as many believe it is the answer to our
energy needs and will possibly eliminate "climate change," which is believed by many
to be caused solely by man. Table 1 . 1 shows that renewable energy sources produce
approximately 13 percent of the electric generation in the United States. These energy
sources result from the following: hydroelectric, biomass, wind, geothermal, and solar.
More than half of this total of 13 percent comes from hydroelectric power plants
(6.9 percent) followed by approximately 30 percent from wind (4. 1 percent). The remaining
energy from renewable energy sources, less than 20 percent, comes from biomass,
geothermal, and solar and they produce only about 2 percent of the total electricity in the
United States. Each of the renewable energy sources has an interesting background.
Large hydroelectric power plants are limited to only certain areas where the
damming of rivers, lakes, etc., is feasible. Therefore, nearly all hydroelectric dams in the
United States were built prior to 1980.
The energy from wind has increased substantially in the past 10 to 15 years. This
increase is primarily resulting from federal financial incentives and renewable standards
which have been mandated by state governments. (Refer to Sec. 1 .8 for further information
on wind power.)
Biomass energy has mainly resulted from the burning of municipal solid waste
(MSW) in waste-to-energy plants. (This topic is discussed in Chap. 13.) Biomass energy
also comes from the burning of wood wastes in lumber and paper mills for the
production of steam, which is required for their production processes, and electricity,
which is used for their in-plant needs as well as selling excess power to a local utility.
The small contributions from solar and geothermal plants have come from small
scale installations.
It is interesting to note that the United States is second only to China in the generation
of electricity from renewable sources. China leads because of its recent additions of
large hydroelectric plants. For renewable sources which excludes hydroelectric plants,
the United States produces the most electricity.
So, why isn't renewable energy more attractive than it is? A primary reason is
cost. On a cost-per-kilowatt basis, renewable energy power plants are more expensive
than coal-fired or natural-gas-fired power plants. (A waste-to-energy plant can be
excluded from this conclusion as it has a primary purpose of handling municipal solid
waste.) Federal subsidies have helped to reduce this cost for the supplier of wind and
solar plants, but it obviously adds cost to the taxpayer. In addition, many of the plant
sites are in remote areas requiring the addition of costly transmission lines. And finally,
something the pundits seldom mention, when wind and the sun are unavailable,
conventional power plants are still required to meet the power demands. Both wind
and solar have a very low availability as compared to a fossil or a nuclear plant, as is
discussed later.
A unique fact in the generation of electricity that is often forgotten is that it must be
used as it is being generated. We see an example of the impact of a sudden surge in
demand in our homes when an air conditioning unit is initiated and the lights dim
momentarily. This results because the voltage must drop temporarily to compensate for
the increase in demand.
The storage of electricity cannot be made by simply using batteries. They have
limited use in electric power systems because of their relatively small capacity and high
cost. There is also the frequency conversion problem as electricity is generated as
alternating current (ac) which is used by the electric systems, for example, motors, air
conditioning, lights, etc. A battery used for storage would produce direct current (de),
and thus a conversion back to ac would be required. This is a recognized problem and
new battery development is ongoing and this situation could be improved in the future.
Battery storage not only has its development cost issues but also it has associated costs
that must be included in the overall evaluation. Such costs would include land
procurement, permitting, transmission connections, and system control. These cost
issues as well as the technical problems have to be resolved before battery storage is a
viable solution for the storage and disposition of electricity. The issues associated with
the storage of electricity and the conversion costs of DC to AC current for the ultimate
release of electricity to the grid have to be resolved before the renewable energy sources
of wind and solar replace fossil fuels as a significant reliable source of providing
electricity. At present, however, wind and solar cannot provide the generation of
electricity reliably without interruptions, and the storage of electricity remains a problem
to be resolved. The successful design of efficient and cost effective battery storage
systems remains an unknown at this time. Also, the manufacturing of batteries has its
own environmental problems which are rarely, if ever, discussed by proponents.
Pumped storage hydroelectric power is a viable means of storing electricity, but it is an
indirect method. However, it represents the largest form of energy storage. When the
electric demand is low, which is generally at night, water from a low source, such as a lake,
is pumped into a higher reservoir. At high electric demands during the day, water is
released to the lower source through a hydroelectric turbine producing electricity. This is a
very productive way in producing electricity, but it is obviously restrictive to certain areas.
The development of new energy sources is extremely important to complement our
traditional methods of producing electricity. There are locations in the United States
and in the world where technologies such as solar, wind, and biomass may prove to
make a vital contribution to our overall source of energy. This lOth edition of Steam
Plant Operation incorporates information on these technologies, and, other than wind
energy, solar and biomass plants also use steam to convert these energy sources into
electricity. But the emphasis of this new edition will continue to be on the use of steam,
developed from various energy sources, as its use in some manner results in nearly
90 percent of the electricity produced in the United States, with a comparable percent
age in other parts of the world.
As in previous editions of this book, we will see that each power plant has many
interacting systems, and in a steam power plant these can include fuel and ash han
dling; handling of combustion air and the products of combustion; feedwater and con
densate; steam; environmental control systems; and the control systems that are
necessary for a safe, reliable, and efficiently run power plant. This edition of Steam Plant
8 Chapter One
Operation continues to blend descriptions and illustrations of both new and older
equipment, since both are in operation in today's power plant.
The demand for electricity can fluctuate significantly in the short term due to eco
nomic conditions, the weather, and the price of electricity. When looking at the demand
over a longer period, a different pattern emerges. In the 1950s, the demand for electric
ity in the United States was increasing at a significant rate, nearly 10 percent per year.
Over a 10-year period, this resulted in an electric demand which doubled, requiring the
significant addition of power plants of increasing size in a relatively short period of
time. The reason for this exceptional increase was primarily due to the addition of air
conditioning throughout the country.
For example, areas in the Southwest and Southern portions of the United States
became much more attractive for living after power plants became operational and
provided the electricity necessary to meet the demand for air conditioning. Thus, cities
like Phoenix and Atlanta increased dramatically in population after air conditioning
made living and working conditions more tolerable to offset the heat and humidity
conditions which are prevalent in those regions of the country. The rapid increase in
demand did gradually decrease to less than 3 percent per year in the 1990s, and recently
this has further declined to about 1 percent per year.
This decline in demand has resulted despite our population increasing, and it is
expected to continue the trend of only increasing by 1 percent per year for the next
20 years. The major reason for this is new energy efficiency standards for such things as
lighting, heating and cooling, and for various appliances. This reduction in demand is
not expected to change even with the expected hybrid automobiles using electric plug-ins
to regenerate their batteries. However, if electric cars become the choice of many in the
next 20 years, the electric demand for this will have to be met with many more new
power plants.
This does not mean that we can relax on our needs for power in the future. Even at
the rate of 1 percent per year of increased demand, this means that new power plants
will be required to meet more than 20 percent additional capacity necessary to satisfy the
new demand as well as the replacement of retired power plants. All energy sources will
be necessary to meet this new challenge: coal, natural gas, nuclear, and renewable energy.
By the year 2035, the U.S. Department of Energy has forecasted that the demand for
electricity will increase by nearly 40 percent. This relates to the need for over 300,000
megawatts (MW) of some type of electricity from a variety of resources including coal,
natural gas, nuclear power, wind, and other renewables. If this forecast were to be met
just from additional nuclear plants, for example, 200 to 300 new plants would be
required, approximately 10 or more each year. In order to meet this demand, it is recog
nized by industry leaders that coal, nuclear, and natural-gas-fired cogeneration plants
are the only proven technologies that could provide the large amounts of electric power
which will be required to meet the large demand for electricity in the future. At the pres
ent time, the cost of natural gas is low and available because of the use of "fracking"
drilling and extraction technologies which have released vast quantities of natural gas.
As we shall see later, the sources of energy have changed significantly because of this.
So in the United States, it is expected that the electricity demand will increase by 20
to 40 percent over the next 25 years. When compared to the increase in electric demand
expected worldwide over the same time span, this increase in the United States is less
than half of what the world will need, as it is projected that over a 90 percent increase
will be required to meet the worldwide demand. Obviously, where electricity markets
are well established and the consumption of electricity is known (e.g., appliances,
televisions, commercial buildings, etc.), the increase in demand is expected to be less,

about 1 percent per year through the year 2040. But for countries where many people
do not have access to electricity, such as areas in China and India, annual increases of 3
to 4 percent will be required to meet the demand by 2040. Thus a significant increase in
the number of power plants of all types will be required.
There is an ongoing debate on what many are claiming as "global warming" (or
often using the term "climate change"), caused primarily from emissions from power
plants and transportation that utilize fossil fuels-coal, natural gas, or oil. Whether
climate change is occurring will not be determined in this book. And if it is occurring,
whether it is man-made or a normal cyclical weather event will also not be determined.
However, it is necessary to realize the importance of any future decisions and their
impact on the economy of the United States and of the world. There must be a carefully
thought-out plan to properly balance power production with any impact on our envi
ronment. There are consequences of "going green" and all factors must be seriously
understood and properly evaluated.
It is important to realize that the climate of the earth has been continually changing.
There have been periods of increasing and decreasing temperatures. Most of the infor
mation that we see from experts predicts a continual warming trend, resulting in seri
ous consequences. Then there are other experts that suggest that earth has undergone
changes, but for the past 30 years, a cooling trend has emerged. So, the argument exists
that with the many changes in our climate, can the earth's temperature be predicted
with any degree of accuracy for the next 100 to 200 years?
What we do know is that there are many factors which influence our climate, many
that are natural and some that are man-made. There are variations in solar cycles, solar
radiation, ocean currents, depletion of rain forests, volcanic eruptions, and wild fires.
(The eruption of the volcano in Iceland in 2010 and the one in Chile in 2015 showed how
this natural occurrence can disrupt our way of life as well as affect our environment,
and in 2015 we saw the devastating wild fires that took place in California and other
states in the western part of the United States.) These all have some impact on our envi
ronment, but to predict the future temperature change would be next to impossible
with all of these varying and unpredictable factors.
The earth has seen warm periods followed by ice ages and then warmer periods
again where the glacier ice has receded. These changes have occurred for thousands of
years and none of these was caused by man-made activities, which again creates the
question of how we can be so sure of our future predictions regarding "global warming. "
The question requires a rational analysis and conclusion. There are too many "natural"
occurrences which have an impact on our environment and we should not jump to the
conclusion that man is responsible. If we do, a serious impact on our economy and way
of life may occur.
There are many proponents of climate change and they continually point to man as
the primary cause. But as noted previously, the earth has undergone many "climate
changes" and these have had nothing to do with man's activities. One such claim of
significant earth changes is the steady rising of sea levels and the continual reduction in
the ice mass of Antarctica. This theory has been disputed by NASA (National Aeronautics
and Space Administration) in a report released in 2015 as their study shows a gain in ice
mass that exceeds losses that may have occurred in other areas.
Does this study solve a potential problem? It certainly does not but it emphasizes
that conclusions should not be made without a careful analysis of all the facts, an analysis
that considers all aspects of the issue.
10 Chapter 0ne
Over 90 percent of the electricity generated in the United States is produced basi
cally from four primary sources: coal, natural gas, nuclear, and hydroelectric. The elec
tricity generated from each energy source is shown in Table 1 . 1 . (Note that these
percentages do change from year to year.)
Carbon dioxide (C02) results from the complete combustion of a fossil fuel,
whether it is coal, natural gas, oil, or a biomass fuel. C02 is not just the result of power
plant emissions as it is emitted by many natural and man-made sources including
cars, trucks, and home heating. The Earth's oceans, soil, plants, animals, wild fires,
and volcanoes are all natural sources of carbon dioxide emissions as is the breathing
of people. This gas has been considered to be the primary contributor to our atmo
sphere which many believe results in "global warming" or "climate change. " So, when
the discussion has focused on "going green" as a means to eliminate these emissions,
wind and solar power are the suggested solutions. But each of these has significant
drawbacks.
Solar power is undergoing research and development programs to establish a cost
effective means of utilizing this energy source. Thermal solar, using the sun's rays to
generate steam in a steam generator with the steam powering a turbine generator, is
discussed later in this chapter as the solar technology having promise on a large scale
for the generation of electricity. But, because of the intermittent source of its energy, the
sun, it is expected to have a very low capacity factor of approximately 20 to 30 percent,
and this would be for power plants located in the southwestern portion of the United
States. The availability of electricity from other locations would be less. The time of the
year would also have an impact on the electricity produced. Solar power may have a
small role in our overall demand for electricity because of this limitation.
The demand for electricity is not constant. It follows a cycle of peaking during the
day and then declining at night. The production of electricity must therefore meet this
variable load demand. There is a base load power demand which is a power require
ment that is basically constant. Then there is a peak power demand which occurs at
certain times of the day, such as when users turn on their air conditioners and televi
sions when they come home. Wind and solar are not suitable to either condition as their
power is intermittent, but this source of power could certainly contribute to the overall
power demand. It is expected that conventional power plants will meet the base load
and peak power demands for the foreseeable future. The most efficient units are base
loaded and produce electricity at basically a constant rate. Other less efficient systems
must meet the variable or peak load demands. Since electricity cannot be stored, it must
be produced when needed.
So the types of power plants for the production of reliable electricity can be sum
marized as follows:
Base load plants-These are large-capacity plants which operate at a constant

capacity throughout the entire day and are the most efficient. They are typically
coal and nuclear power plants.
Intermediate load plants-These plants are generally combined cycle natural-gas
fired plants which can meet an increase in electric demand efficiently.
Peak load plants-These plants are generally single cycle (no combined cycle) or
oil-fired plants which can increase or decrease their output quickly. However,
their efficiency is lower than base load or intermediate load plants and thus more
expensive to operate on a cost per kilowatt-hour basis.
Each of these plants is very important in meeting the electric demand at all times
and assuring that electricity is produced reliably.
So, where does wind and solar power fit into these types of plants? Because the
power from these sources is not reliably produced, they generally do not fit into these
categories. The power produced from wind and solar is considered to be intermittent,
that is, when the wind blows and the sun shines, and therefore electricity from these
sources cannot be produced at all times when it is needed. In order to balance the electric
grid to assure that power needs are met 24 hours each day throughout the year, without
any impact from the weather or sudden demands from air conditioners, TVs, lights,
appliances, etc., being turned on, the operators of the electric grid take the power pro
duced from a wind or solar source and they must adjust the power from the peak load
plants and possibly the intermediate load plants. And when the wind and sun are not
available, conventional power plants must be in operation to meet the electric demand.
Wind power is also suggested as an energy source to combat the "global warming"
fear. There is no doubt that this has a place in the energy picture. But it also has its
limitations. There are two major issues: (1) electric demand is constant, but wind power
is intermittent and (2) electric demand is local, but major wind power sources are
remote.
All other sources of electricity, excluding solar, can run full time meeting the electric
demand, but wind power cannot. Wind farms, where significant amounts of electricity
can be economically produced, must be located at sites where wind is sustainable. In
the United States, the best sites are remote, located in the Great Plains and in Texas. The
intermittent power production and the remoteness of potential sites create two major
cost obstacles: (1) conventional power plants, using fossil fuels, are still required to
meet the electric demand when wind power is unavailable or reduced, and (2) new and
extensive transmission lines will be required from the remote wind farm sites to the
areas of demand.
Wind farms are operational today, but generally these have been located near cen
ters of demand. It is anticipated that any significant wind development will require that
the wind farms be located in remote locations and therefore extensive transmission
lines will have to be constructed. Transmission lines of 1000 miles are a possibility and
this cost is estimated to double the overall wind power cost.
The electrical power grid is the system that connects the producers of electricity to
their customers. This is done by means of transmission and distribution lines and these
interconnected lines move electricity throughout the country. High-voltage transmis
sion lines are used for this purpose as they can efficiently carry large quantities of elec
tricity for extended distances.
It is interesting to note that, in the early 1900s in the United States, nearly all utilities
used low-voltage, direct current connections from local power plants which served
local communities. It was soon realized that alternating current was a preferable system
as electricity could be transmitted over significantly longer distances than a direct cur
rent system. This allowed the operation of larger power plants that did not require
being located near the ultimate users. Interconnected transmission lines were eventu
ally made between utilities which assured improved reliable service for customers
throughout the country.
Transmission lines are seen throughout the country and it is often assumed that
electric power is transmitted over a long distance. But typically, electricity is produced
within 100 miles of where it is needed. Thus the existing grid is primarily local. Not
12 Chapter One
only are the transmission lines expensive but also the "right of way" for these lines are
often difficult to obtain.
Because of the intermittent nature of wind, wind farms are estimated to have a
capacity factor of 30 to 40 percent, as compared to 90 percent for a fossil-fired or nuclear
power plant. Thus a 70 percent backup power plant, coal- or natural-gas-fired, would
be necessary to meet the power demand. Due to the low availability of wind farms and
the need for backup power, and because of the need for adding extensive transmission
lines, it is estimated by some that electricity from a wind farm could cost two to four
times more than electricity from a conventional power plant.Careful studies must be
made to evaluate these additional costs against the potential environmental impact of
conventional plants. It is well to remember, as noted earlier, that because of the expected
low availability of wind or solar power plants, conventional fossil-fired power plants
will still be required to meet the electric demand.
Each alternative energy source has its difficulties to overcome. The impact on the
environment is a very important factor in the final choice of the energy used to produce
the needed electricity. But so is the economical choice of the energy source as the econ
omy requires low-cost electricity in order to be competitive in the world marketplace.
Thus a proper blend of conventional power plants and of the most economical and
practical plants using alternative energy sources must be made. This will be a signifi
cant challenge.
There are several other factors that must be carefully considered. In Chap. 2, it is
noted that new utility boiler designs are becoming operational. These coal-fired boilers
operate at supercritical pressures (3600 psig) with high steam temperatures (1110°F), a
combination which results in a significant plant efficiency improvement of approximately
15 percent. This results in lower fuel costs and lower emissions as compared with older
coal-fired boiler designs. These plants are large, generally producing about 1000 MW.
So why is this important when comparing it to wind power? There are a number of
facts that must be considered, none of which are discussed by the proponents of wind
power technology.
1 . To produce a power plant nameplate of 1000 MW, a wind farm will require
approximately 400 to 500 wind turbines and the large area necessary to
accommodate them at a location.
2. With a capacity factor of 30 to 40 percent as compared to a coal-fired plant's
capacity factor of 90 percent, the coal-fired plant would provide about three
times the amount of electricity in a year as compared to a wind farm of a
comparable size. As noted, backup conventional power of 60 to 70 percent
would be necessary to provide reliable power because of the low capacity factor
of wind power.
3. The lifespan of a typical coal-fired plant is 50 years or more based on actual
operational records. The relatively new wind farms, having no historical
records, have a projected life of 25 years or less. If this estimate proves accurate,
replacement power will be necessary twice as frequently as a conventional
plant.
Wind power costs have benefitted from federal tax benefits. Evaluations are being
made on the true costs of wind power when these subsidies expire. Costs are also being
included for additional transmission costs: costs associated with keeping fossil-fired
plants on standby (lower efficiency /higher fuel costs at part loads) because of the low
availability of wind power; and additional replacement costs because of the expected
lower lifespan. These additional costs have been estimated to result in generating elec
tricity from wind costing three times more than electricity produced from natural gas.
Although wind and solar energy may make energy contributions in certain areas, it
is expected that they will provide only a small percentage of the total electric require
ments in the United States.
It also should be recognized that the only immediately available large-scale energy
source for electric energy, which does not have emissions associated with "global warming,"
is nuclear energy. But because of the earthquake and tsunami that occurred in Japan in
2011 and severely damaged a nuclear power plant, the addition of many nuclear power
plants has been suspended or delayed. But, as noted in Chap. 2, the importance of
nuclear power is never more evident than in Japan where the restart of their nuclear
plants has been initiated.
The capture and storage of carbon emissions from fossil-fired power plants (if
legislated) would have a significant impact on our energy costs and thus our total
economy. In addition, as estimated by major energy associations, by the year 2025, elec
tricity costs will increase over 40 percent if such legislation is passed. It is also estimated
that even with the addition of jobs associated with renewable energy, such as wind and
solar, such legislation will also result in job losses which could exceed over 3 million. If
these estimates are in the realm of possibility, the costs and job losses are significant and
reflect the necessity to carefully evaluate our country's energy policies and plans for the
future.
As noted earlier, approximately 90 percent of the electricity generated in the
United States comes from using coal, natural gas, or nuclear fuel as the energy source.
There are those who want to believe that most, if not all, of the electricity should come
from renewable energy sources, primarily wind and solar.
There are sites where wind and solar power are suitable, and these should be
pursued. But we are talking vast amounts of power generation that must be available
to meet the demand. Wind and solar, as we have seen, are not available constantly, and
therefore traditional power plants must maintain permanently on-line backup genera
tion. A fact, not often considered, is that energy demand is often at its highest during
extreme cold weather in the winter and during high temperatures in the summer. Both
of these weather occurrences are accompanied by high-pressure systems where the
wind velocity is minimum, definitely affecting any wind power generation. And in the
winter when the nights are longer, solar power availability is affected significantly.
Another factor that must be considered is the location of wind farms and solar
power plants. We have seen areas of the country which have protested the siting of
wind farms because of the obstruction of the natural view of the area. Solar power
plants require extensive land areas for their solar panels. Thus, siting for both wind and
solar energy may become a major issue as well.
These issues point out the fact that any human activity, including the production of
electricity, will have some impact on the environment. A careful analysis of the poten
tial environmental impact and the costs of electricity must be made and compared to
the gains produced by any project. Thus there is no energy source that does not have
some impact on our way of life. Each energy source will play a part to assure that the
country will have electricity that is affordable, always available when we need it, and
produced in an environmentally acceptable manner.
14 Chapter 0ne
In the assessment of our electric power needs, it is important to recognize that not
only is meeting the demand for electricity vitally important, but also, so is the meeting
of this demand in an environmentally acceptable manner equally important. We
constantly see that coal-fired plants take the brunt of the criticism as being the primary
culprit that is affecting our environment. Wind and solar power as noted in this book
are suggested as possible solutions. And now that natural gas has been found in great
quantities and at a low cost, it is replacing much of the power that previously was
produced from coal-fired plants.
So how does the use of natural gas compare to the use of coal and what is natural
gas's impact on our environment? It will take some careful independent studies to
properly evaluate this comparison as it is often stated that natural gas, together with
wind and solar power, is the answer as a replacement for coal in the production of
electricity.
But not all experts agree with such a conclusion, as all methods of power produc
tion have certain risks, including the use of natural gas. Many decisions are made on
emotions which do not consider all the facts.
It is seldom mentioned that, as natural gas is extracted, there is an associated leak
age of natural gas which consists of nearly 85 percent methane (CH4 ) (refer to Chap. 4),
a gas that is recognized to have a greater impact on our environment than does carbon
dioxide (C02) in regards to global warming. Not all experts agree with this, but such
differences indicate why studies must continue to evaluate all possible energy sources
and their environmental impact.
For example, when compared to a coal-fired plant and for the identical plant
output, the burning of natural gas results in less carbon dioxide (C02) than when burn
ing coal, thus making natural gas as the obvious choice of fuels with this comparison.
But since the combustion of natural gas also results in a release of carbon dioxide and
because there is a leakage of natural gas during its extraction, thus releasing methane,
the end result questions whether natural gas would make a significant impact on global
warming, if such gases are a major contributor.
Obviously, when one compares a natural-gas-fired plant to an older, less efficient
coal-fired plant, the selection of natural gas seems to be the favorite using such a
comparison. However, when compared to a modern coal-fired plant designed for a
supercritical pressure and high steam temperature which result in a higher plant
efficiency, the natural gas advantage in this area declines. This again emphasizes why
careful economic studies must be conducted.
As this book attempts to point out, the choices for our energy sources for the
production of electricity are not always obvious. There are risks associated with every
alternative that we have for our source of energy. Some of these are identified as follows:
1 . Coal-fired plants: The burning of coal results in the need to control the products
of combustion in an environmentally acceptable and economic manner. These
would include things such as the control of ash, particulates, acid gases,
nitrogen oxides (NOJ, carbon dioxide (CO), etc.
2. Natural-gas-fired plant: In addition to minimizing the leak of natural gas during
its extraction to control methane, the combustion of natural gas results in the
need to control nitrogen oxides (NOJ, and carbon dioxide (CO), etc. Also, new
natural gas pipelines are required and many of these are receiving objections
from local communities where pipelines are planned through their area.
3 . Nuclear power plants: There is a need to properly store and possibly recycle
spent fuel assemblies and to overcome the fears resulting from the devastating
earthquake and tsunami that severely damaged the nuclear plant in Japan in
2011 . (As noted previously, Japan is aggressively pursuing restarting their
nuclear plants that were shut down in 2011 .)
4. Wind power: A major problem with wind power is its low availability requiring
conventional power plants to meet the electric demand, since wind power is
intermittent. It also requires a large land mass with consistent winds for a wind
farm of a significant size. Federal subsidies may also have to be continued to
make power from wind more competitive. Wind farms, requiring many wind
turbines, are also considered unfavorable in many areas as they impact the
aesthetics of the area. And not to be forgotten are the potential significant
additional costs for new transmission lines since many favorable wind power
sites are remotely located. Wind turbines (because of the rotating wind blades)
can also be a threat to wildlife, for example, birds, and noise is also a major
complaint from nearby neighborhoods.
5. Solar power: Solar power is also intermittent and requires conventional power
plants to meet the electric demand. They also require large land areas and their
economic sites are limited to those areas which have significant sunshine.
6. Hydroelectric plants: In the United States, new large hydroelectric plants are not
expected because of their limitation to certain available sites.
These are just some of the factors that have to be carefully evaluated to assure that
electricity is produced economically while meeting carefully thought out environmental
standards.
Electricity is a major player in our society as it has significantly improved the qual
ity of life for all of those who use it. For the foreseeable future, coal will continue to be
a significant energy source for the production of electricity throughout most of the
world. Currently coal produces approximately 39 percent of the electricity generated in
the United States and about 40 percent of that produced in the rest of the world. Even
with mandatory capture and storage of C02, electricity from coal is still expected to be
less expensive than other energy sources such as nuclear, natural gas, wind, or solar.
Coal has also cleaned up its act over the past 50 years, even though its use has increased
by nearly 200 percent. Emissions from coal have been reduced over 90 percent in that
same time frame based on regulated emissions. These reductions have been achieved
with advanced environmental control systems for the control of S02, particulates and
NOx, all as described in Chap. 12, and by plants switching to low sulfur coals.
In the United States, over 90 percent of the coal is used for the production of electricity.
The number of coal-fired plants that generate this power is approximately 1300 at about
560 locations across the country. For the production of 39 percent of the electricity, these
plants consume approximately one billion tons of coal per year. Although the share of
electricity produced from coal has decreased from the very dominant 50 percent that
was prevalent for years to 39 percent, coal-fired plants still remain a very important
part of the total energy picture in the United States, as well as worldwide. It is projected
that coal-fired power plants will continue to produce the largest share of electricity in
the United States through the 2030s, with natural-gas-fired cogeneration plants taking
the lead after that period of time. There will be many factors involved to assure the
reality of this projection.
16 Chapter 0ne
Yet we continuously are witness to political and media reports that focus on fossil
fired plants being easily replaced by renewable energy sources. As a means to empha
size their positions, illustrations of fossil plants accompany their written statements by
showing " emissions" being released to the atmosphere from these plants. These pictures
can and do stir up emotions for the reader as they are implying that such "emissions"
contribute to "climate change" or often called "global warming," and that renewable
energy sources, such as wind and solar, can easily solve the problem.
In reality, these pictures are showing water vapor being released primarily from
two sources:
1. Water vapor being released to the stack from the process of reducing sulfur
dioxide (S02) emissions as part of the wet desulfurization system.
2. Water vapor being released from cooling towers which are used to cool the
circulating water from a condenser.
Obviously, water vapor is not a contributor to "global warming," but, to an indi

vidual not familiar with the processes in a power plant, the picture implies that the
emissions are probably particulates, acid gases, and other combustion products which
are pollutants.
So the energy sources are definitely slanted to the writer 's way of thinking. One can
say that proponents of fossil fuel energy sources could and should present their posi
tions of these inaccurate statements, and they probably do at times. However, the
majority of individuals do not take the time to properly investigate the facts.
No energy source is without its risks and potential problems and this book will
present many of the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Although energy from coal averages about 40 percent of the electricity produced
worldwide, many countries rely heavily on coal to provide the majority of their electric
generation. In accordance with the World Coal Association, here are a few examples of
countries where coal plays a vital role in the generation of electricity.
South Africa-93%
Australia-78%
Israel-58%
Poland-87%
China-79%
India-68%
Cost and availability of an energy source will continue to be a determining factor

for the choice of an energy source throughout the world. New advanced coal-fired
power plants are being installed worldwide where such improvements lead to higher
efficiencies and less emissions for a specific electric output.
1.2 The Use of Steam

Steam is a critical resource in today's industrial world. It is essential for the production
of paper and other wood products, for the preparation and serving of foods, for the
cooling and heating of large buildings, for driving equipment such as pumps and
compressors, and for powering ships. However, its most important priority remains as
the primary source of power for the production of electricity.
Steam is extremely valuable because it can be produced anywhere in the world by
using the heat that comes from the fuels that are available in the area. Steam also has
unique properties that are extremely important in producing energy. Steam is basically
recycled, from steam to water and then back to steam again, all in a manner that is non
toxic in nature.
The steam plants of today are a combination of complex engineered systems that
work to produce steam in the most efficient manner that is economically feasible.
Whether the end product of this steam is electricity, heat, or a steam process required to
develop a needed product such as paper, the goal is to have that product produced at
the lowest cost possible. The heat required to produce the steam is a significant operating
cost that affects the ultimate cost of the end product.
In every situation, however, the steam power plant must first obtain heat. This heat
must come from an energy source, and this varies significantly, often based on the
plant's location in the world. These sources of heat could be:
1. A fossil fuel-coal, oil, natural gas, or a biomass fuel

2. A nuclear fuel such as uranium
3. Other forms of energy, which can include waste heat from exhaust gases of gas
turbines; bark, wood, bagasse, vine clippings, and other similar waste fuels;
by-product fuels such as carbon monoxide (CO), blast furnace gas (BFG), or
methane (CH4); municipal solid waste (MSW); sewage sludge; geothermal
energy; and solar energy
Each of these fuels contains potential energy in the form of a heating value, and this
is measured in the amount of British thermal units (Btus) per each pound or cubic feet
of the fuel (i.e., Btu/lb or Btu/ft3 ) depending on whether the fuel is a solid or a gas.
(Note: A British thermal unit is about equal to the quantity of heat required to raise 1 lb
of water 1 °F.)
This energy must be released, and with fossil fuels, this is done through a carefully
controlled combustion process. In a nuclear power plant that uses uranium, the heat
energy is released by a process called fission. In both cases the heat is released and then
transferred to water. This can be done in various ways, such as through tubes that have
the water flowing on the inside. As the water is heated, it eventually changes its form
by turning into steam. As heat is continually added, the steam reaches the desired tem
perature and pressure for the particular application.
The system in which the steam is generated is called a boiler, or often commonly
called a steam generator. Boilers can vary significantly in size and design. A relatively
small one supplies heat in the form of steam to a building, and other industrial-sized
boilers provide steam for a process. Very large systems produce enough steam at the
proper pressure and temperature which results in the generation of 1300 MW of elec
tricity in an electric utility power plant. Such a large power plant would provide the
electric needs for over 1 million people.
Small boilers that produce steam for heating or for a process are critical in their
importance in producing a reliable steam flow, even though it may be saturated steam
at a pressure of 200 psig and a steam flow of 5000 lb /h. This then can be compared with
the large utility boiler that produces 10 million pounds of superheated steam per hour
18 Chapter 0ne
at pressures and temperatures exceeding 3800 psig and 1100°F. To the operator of either
size plant, reliable, safe, and efficient operation is of the utmost importance. The capac
ity, pressure, and temperature ranges of boilers and their uniqueness of design reflect
their applications and the fuel that provides their source of energy.
Not only must the modern boiler produce steam in an efficient manner to produce
power (heat, process, or electricity) with the lowest operational cost that is practical, but
also it must perform in an environmentally acceptable way. Environmental protection is
a major consideration in all modern steam generating systems, where low-cost steam
and electricity must be produced with a minimum impact on the environment. Air pol
lution control that limits the emissions of sulfur dioxide (S02) and other acid gases, par
ticulates, and nitrogen oxides (NO) is a very important issue for all combustion processes.
The systems that are required to meet the environmental emissions requirements
are quite complex, and many of these systems are described in Chap. 12. There is no
question that protecting the environment is very important and that it is a very emo
tional issue. Many media reports and many environmental groups have presented
information from which one could conclude that there is a crisis in the United States
regarding air quality and that additional coal burning cannot be tolerated. The evidence
definitively contradicts this misleading information.
In accordance with data from the EPA, the emissions of most pollutants peaked
around 1970. Since this peak, the regulated emissions from coal-based electricity gen
eration in the United States have decreased by nearly 40 percent. This improvement has
come about even though the population increased by nearly 50 percent, the GNP nearly
doubled, and the use of fossil fuels increased dramatically. In particular, coal use by
power producers nearly quadrupled from 320 million tons in 1970 to nearly 1 billion
tons in 2013, yet the air became dramatically cleaner.
According to the National Energy Technology Laboratory, power plants which are
in operation today emit 80 to 90 percent less pollutants of S02, NO,, particulates, and
mercury than the plants which were operational in the 1970s. Recent data from the EPA
shows a significant decline in S02 emissions. Between 1980 and 2008, there has been an
80 percent decrease in S02 emissions. This is a national average and air quality does
vary from one area to another, but the trend for emissions is definitely downward.
The older coal-fired boilers often have been mislabeled as gross polluters, but
because of the requirements imposed by the Clean Air Act, emissions from many of
these plants are lower than those mandated by law.
When power plant emissions have been evaluated for particulate matter and S02
since 1970, the statistics are quite impressive. Particulate emissions have been reduced
nearly 94 percent, and S02 reductions are about 80 percent. The dramatic reduction in
particulates results primarily from replacing older electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)
with fabric filters or high-efficiency ESPs. The use of flue gas desulfurization (FGD)
systems has resulted in the reduction of S02 emissions. Along with these reductions,
NOx emissions have been reduced by over 70 percent.
Yet, despite these significant improvements in air quality, additional restrictions
may be imposed. These may include restrictions on small particulate matter, mercury,
and C02, and systems are being developed to meet these potential new regulations.
Low NOx burners, combustion technology, and supplemental systems have been
developed for systems fired by coal, oil, or natural gas. These systems have met all the
requirements that have been imposed by the U.S. Clean Air Act, and as a result, NOx
levels have been reduced significantly from uncontrolled levels.
In order to comply with the environmental regulations o f the United States, the elec
tric utility industry has made, and will continue to make, significant expenditures for
emission control technologies. These technologies include systems for the control of par
ticulates, sulfur dioxide (SOz), nitrogen oxide (NO), and mercury, all of which are dis
cussed in Chap. 12. The resulting air quality improvements have come about with a
significant price tag. Since the mid-1970s, the total capital cost for new and retrofitted
emission control systems is approximately $140 billion, and these costs do not include
the operating costs for these controls. Of these expenditures, it is interesting to note that
of this $140 billion, over $100 billion has been invested just since the year 2000. The sys
tems required to meet these new environmental regulations include FGD systems, fabric
filters, high-efficiency ESPs, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems for the reduction
of NOx and other environmental systems which are all focused on the improvement of
human health. These costs are significant and they ultimately affect the cost of electricity.
It is estimated that the impact of these additions will cause the cost of electricity to
increase 1 0 to 20 percent in many areas of the United States by the year 2030, with some
areas expecting a near 30 percent increase. Many of these additional systems are
thought to be required to offset our fears of global warming. Yet, by complying with
these new environmental rules and with the associated costs, the impact on global
warming and the potential for the seas to rise causing massive flooding in coastal
regions appears to be negligible in accordance with many estimates, including the
EPA's. But the impact of these additions could be significant as there will result higher
electricity costs for consumers, a potential reduction in the reliability of our electricity
and a definite impact on our economic system as costs for goods and services will
increase which will reduce the economic competitiveness of the United States, and the
potential for the loss of many jobs.
The above discussion on the costs of additional emission control systems does not
even include the control of carbon dioxide (C02), a gas resulting from the combustion
of a fossil fuel, which many believe is the primary cause of climate change, and such
change is primarily due to man, and not a natural event. As is noted in the following
discussion, the control of C02 is not only very expensive but also the technologies for its
capture and sequestration have not proven to be effective nor economically sound
investments.
Consequently, the effect on our climate by C02 and its possible control must be care
fully evaluated before decisions are made which would affect our economic way of life.
All scientists do not agree on the global warming issue and the impact that C02 has
on it. Many believe that there are many factors which affect the earth's climate and
temperature, not just C02 • They believe that even if the amount of C02 increased by a
factor of three over current levels, this would not have a major impact on either the
earth's climate or its temperature. They consider that solar activity along with varying
cycles of the oceans and atmosphere may have a greater impact than would a C02
increase. And then there are the natural things that occur, such events as solar cycles,
volcano eruptions, massive wild fires, cosmic rays, the improper use of forests and
land, etc. We often forget that C02 is plant food and many forests in the world have
been destroyed. The impact of destroying rain forests and the possible reforestation
have to be part of the equation so that a complete study is made of this situation, a
study where all world leaders have to be involved.
In the production of energy in the world for all purposes, it is estimated that 80 percent
of this energy comes from fossil fuels and this percentage has remained fairly constant
20 Chapter One
for the past 40 years. Yet the population in the world has increased about 75 percent, and
the world energy necessary to support this growth has doubled. But although more
energy is being used, its production and use is far more efficient than it was. An interest
ing fact is that in the developed world, the life expectancy of an individual has doubled
since the beginning of the concentrated use of fossil fuels. This is not to say that we not
continue to strive for further improvement in our lives, but everything is not as bleak as
many would want us to believe. Our expected life has been extended significantly, as
well the health that has improved along with this extended life.
Wind and solar energy have a place in this energy picture; however, as noted in this
book, they have their limitations, just as all energy sources do. Nuclear power, for
example, does not produce emissions that many are so concerned about, but there are
issues with this technology that must be properly handled.
No energy source is without its problems and its risks, as are outlined in this book.
It cannot be emphasized enough that all energy sources, fossil, nuclear, renewable and
hydroelectric, must be utilized to produce reliable and cost effective electricity while
meeting realistic requirements that result in having a minimum impact upon our
environment.
However, the debate on whether more strict emission standards must be met by
power plants is being contested. In 2015, the highest court in the United States, the
Supreme Court, ruled against the EPA and its attempt to limit power plant emissions of
mercury and other air pollutants. The issue has not been whether such pollutants are
possible health risks, but the Court said that other factors that are not clearly identified
in the EPA mandate must be considered as well. These included the amount and con
centration of such emissions which would affect individuals as well as the high cost
which would be imposed on coal miners (loss of jobs), and increased electricity costs for
businesses and consumers, all having an impact on our economy. It has been estimated
that to control mercury and other additional pollutants, the installation and operating
costs would be approximately $10 billion each year. Of course, the argument for more
stringent controls is the improvement of health benefits, a specific which is hard to
define, only estimated. This subject is another example where a careful evaluation, not
one based on emotion, has to be made on perceived benefits versus additional costs that
would impact the economy. There is no doubt that this debate will continue.
Carbon dioxide (C02 ) is the emission that we see most often as it relates to green
house gases and the impact on global warming, which many believe is due to man
made activities. The focus of control of these emissions has been on the electric utility
industry as it has been estimated by the U.S. EPA that approximately one-third of all
greenhouse gas emissions result from the combustion products associated with gener
ating electricity. It has been noted that transportation is a significant contributor as well,
adding nearly 30 percent to the total. The following are statistics prepared by the EPA
for all sources of C02 emissions:
Electric 32%
Transportation 28%
Industry 20%
Agriculture 10%
Residential and Commercial 10%
Total 100%
Since C02 emissions from the generation of electricity vary based on the carbon
content of the energy source, the burning of coal has produced about 70 percent of
these emissions since it has been the predominant fuel used in the past. Natural gas
firing has produced about 25 percent of these emissions with the remaining associ
ated with the combustion of petroleum fuels. It has been estimated that because of
the operation of newly designed, higher efficiency coal-fired plants and the added
use of natural gas primarily in combined cycle cogeneration plants, gas emissions
resulting from the production of electricity has decreased nearly 20 percent over the
past 10 to 15 years. Once again it should be emphasized that nuclear power plants
produce no gas emissions as they provide approximately 20 percent of the electricity
in the United States.
We are well aware of the many uses of electricity that make our lives more efficient,
more productive and more comfortable. But it is interesting to know who the ultimate
users of this electricity are. According to the Energy Information Administration (EIA),
the following approximations are the users of electricity.
Residential 38%
Commercial 36%
Industrial 25%
Transportation 1%
Total 100%
Nearly 75 percent of the residential use of electricity is associated with such

conveniences as lighting, air conditioning, refrigeration, space heating, and electronics.
The commercial and industrial areas have similar needs as well the critical important
operation of a variety of machines requiring many motors.
Electricity is a vital necessity in our everyday life. The need to minimize emissions
in a cost effective manner is only part of what must be accomplished. Sound decisions
have to be made so that any emissions are controlled in a reasonable and economic
manner, not based on emotions. All sources of energy must be used, while minimizing
the risks from each, to assure that our economic base is not jeopardized in the produc
tion of reliable, cost effective, electricity. Every part of the world has a different situation,
and therefore, there is no common solution for all. Fossil fuels will continue to be used,
as well as nuclear power plants, where fuel availability and cost are determining factors.
Renewable energy sources, like wind and solar, will also contribute where climate con
ditions and economics dictate.
1.3 The Steam-Plant Cycle

The simplest steam cycle of practical value is called the Rankine cycle, which originated
around the performance of the steam engine. The steam cycle is important because it
connects processes that allow heat to be converted to work on a continuous basis. This
simple cycle was based on dry saturated steam being supplied by a boiler to a power
unit such as a turbine that drives an electric generator. (Note: Refer to Chap . 3. Dry satu
rated steam is at the temperature that corresponds to the boiler pressure, is not super
heated, and does not contain moisture.) The steam from the turbine exhausts to a
condenser, from which the condensed steam, now feedwater, is pumped back into the
22 Chapter One
Boiler
FIGURE 1 . 1 Schematic d iagra m for a Rankine cycle.
boiler. It is also called a condensing cycle, and a simple schematic of the system is shown
in Fig. 1 . 1 .
This schematic also shows heat (Qin) being supplied to the boiler and a generator
connected to the turbine for the production of electricity. Heat (Qout) is removed by the
condenser as the exhaust steam is condensed to feedwater, and the pump supplies
energy (W ) to the feedwater in the form of a pressure increase to allow it to flow
p
through the boiler.
A higher plant efficiency is obtained if the steam is initially superheated, and this
means that less steam and less fuel are required for a specific output. (Superheated
steam has a temperature that is above that of dry saturated steam at the same pressure
and thus contains more heat content, called enthalpy, Btu/lb.) If the steam is reheated
and passed through a second turbine, cycle efficiency also improves, and moisture in
the steam is reduced as it passes through the turbine. This moisture reduction mini
mizes erosion on the turbine blades.
When saturated steam is used in a turbine, the work required to rotate the turbine
results in the steam losing energy, and a portion of the steam condenses as the steam
pressure drops. The amount of work that can be done by the turbine is limited by the
amount of moisture that it can accept without excessive turbine blade erosion because
of the high speed of the turbine (3600 rpm) . This steam moisture content generally is
between 10 and 15 percent. Therefore, the moisture content of the steam is a limiting
factor in turbine design.
With the addition of superheat, the turbine transforms this additional energy into
work without forming moisture, and this energy is basically all recoverable in the tur
bine. A reheater often is used in a large utility plant because it adds additional steam
energy to the low-pressure portion of the turbine, thereby increasing the overall plant
efficiency. (Note: The properties of steam are discussed in Chap. 3.)
By the addition of regenerative feedwater heating, the original Rankine cycle was
improved significantly. This is done by extracting steam from various stages of the tur
bine to heat the feedwater as it is pumped from the condenser back to the boiler to
complete the cycle. It is this cycle concept that is used in modern power plants, and the
equipment and systems for it will be described in this book.
1.4 The Power Plant

The steam generator or boiler is the major part of the many systems that comprise a
steam power plant. A typical pulverized-coal-fired utility power plant is shown sche
matically in Fig. 1 .2. The major systems of this power plant can be identified as
1. Coal receipt and preparation

2. Coal combustion and steam generation
3. Environmental protection
4. Turbine generator and electricity production
5. Condenser and feedwater system
6. Heat rejection, including the cooling tower
In this example, the fuel-handling system stores the coal supply, prepares the fuel
for combustion by means of pulverization, and then transports the pulverized coal to
the boiler. A forced-draft (FD) fan supplies the combustion air to the burners, and this
air is preheated in an air heater, which improves the cycle efficiency. The heated air is
also used to dry the pulverized coal. A primary air fan is used to supply heated air to
the pulverizer for coal-drying purposes and is the source of the primary air to the burn
ers as the fuel-air mixture flows from the pulverizers to the burners. The fuel-air mix
ture is then burned in the furnace portion of the boiler.
The boiler recovers the heat from combustion and generates steam at the required
pressure and temperature. The combustion gases are generally called flue gas, and these
leave the boiler, economizer, and finally the air heater and then pass through environ
mental control equipment. In the example shown, the flue gas passes through a particu
late collector, either an electrostatic precipitator or a bag filterhouse, to a 502 scrubbing
Steam
Electricity
Substation
transformer
Fuel Primary Forced

air fan draft fan
High pressure
heaters
Coal Coal
pulverization supply
FIGURE 1 . 2 Schematic of a typical pu lve rized-coa l-fi red uti l ity power p l a nt. Reheate r, ash and reage nt
hand l i ng , and s l u dge d isposa l a re not shown . ( The Babcock & Wilcox Company. )
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the people up to the very Sepulchre, and so we were able to pass
by.
We arrived at the eastern doors of the Sepulchre. The Prince
came after us, and placed himself at the right side, near the partition
of the great altar, opposite the eastern doors, where there was a
special elevated place for the Prince. He ordered the abbot of St.
Sabbas and his monks and orthodox priests to stand around the
Sepulchre, but me, humble servant, he ordered to stand high above
the doors of the Sepulchre, opposite the great altar, so that I could
look into the doors of the Sepulchre: there are three of these doors
and they are locked and sealed with the royal seal. The Latin priests
stood at the great altar. At about the eighth hour of the day the
orthodox priests above the Sepulchre, and many monks and hermits
who had come, began to sing their vesper service, and the Latins at
the great altar chanted in their own way. I stood all the time they
were singing and watched diligently the doors of the Sepulchre.
When they began to read the prayers of the Holy Saturday, the
bishop walked down with his deacon from the altar and went to the
doors of the Sepulchre and looked through the chinks, but as he did
not see any light, he returned to the altar. When they had read the
sixth prayer, the bishop went again with his deacon to the door of the
Sepulchre, but he did not see anything within. Then all the people
sang in tears: “Kyrie, eleison!”
When it was the ninth hour of the day, and they had begun to sing,
“To the Lord we sing,” a small cloud suddenly came from the east
and stopping over the uncovered middle of the church, came down
in a rain over the Holy Sepulchre and gave us who were standing
around the tomb a good drenching. And then suddenly the holy light
glimmered in the Sepulchre, and then a mighty, bright brilliancy burst
forth from it. Then the bishop came with four deacons and opened
the doors of the Sepulchre and, taking a candle from the Prince,
went inside the tomb and lighted it. After coming out again, he
handed the candle to the Prince. The Prince remained standing in
his place, and held the candle with great joy. From that candle we
lighted all our candles, and from ours all the other candles were
lighted.
This holy light is not like any earthly fire, but quite different: it burns
with a bright flame like cinnabar. And all the people stood with their
burning candles and wept for great joy all the time they saw the
divine light. He who has not seen the great joy of that day cannot
believe one who is telling about it, although good and faithful men
believe it all and with pleasure listen to the account of this divine light
and of the holy places, for the faithful believe the great and small
things alike, but to an evil man truth is crooked. But to me, humble
servant, God, and the Holy Sepulchre, and my whole suite, Russian
men from Nóvgorod and Kíev, are my witnesses: Syedesláv
Ivánkovich, Gorodisláv Mikhálkovich, the two Kashkíchs and many
others know me and my narration.
But let us return to our story. When the light shone up in the
Sepulchre, the singing stopped, and all cried aloud: “Kyrie, eleison!”
Then they all went out of the church in great joy and with burning
candles, watching them carefully against gusts of wind, and going
home they all lighted the candles in their churches with that holy
light, and finished the singing in their own churches. But in the large
church of the Sepulchre the priests end the singing without the
people. We went with the abbot and the monks to our monastery,
carrying the burning candles, and after finishing our vesper singing,
we went to our cells praising the Lord who had shown us His
grace....
After three days I went to the keeper of the keys of the Holy
Sepulchre and said to him: “I should like to take away my lamp!” He
received me with much kindness, took me alone into the Sepulchre,
and walking in, I found my lamp still burning with the holy light. I
bowed before the Holy Sepulchre and kissed the glorious place
where once lay the illustrious body of our Lord Jesus Christ. Then I
measured the length, the width and the height of the Sepulchre, for
one is not allowed to measure it in presence of others. After having
honoured the Lord’s Sepulchre as much as I could, I gave the
keeper a little something and a blessing. He, seeing my love for the
Holy Sepulchre and kindness to himself, removed a little the boards
at the head of the Sepulchre and broke off a small piece of rock from
it which he gave to me after I had solemnly sworn to him that I would
not tell anyone in Jerusalem about it. I bowed to the Sepulchre and
to the keeper, took my lamp which was still burning, and went away
with great joy, having been enriched by the grace of God, carrying in
my hand a gift from the holy place and a token from the Holy
Sepulchre. And thus rejoicing at the treasures which I had acquired, I
went back to my cell.
EPILOGUE
I made my pilgrimage in the reign of Grand Prince Svyatopólk

Izyaslávich, the grandson of Yarosláv Vladímirovich of Kíev. God is
my witness, and the Holy Sepulchre, that in all those holy places I
did not forget the Russian princes and their wives and children, nor
the bishops, abbots, boyárs, nor my spiritual children, nor all the
Christians, but that I remembered them everywhere. And I also thank
God that He has enabled me, humble servant, to inscribe the names
of the Russian princes in the monastery of St. Sabbas, where they
are mentioned even now in their services....
May the benediction of the Lord, of the Holy Sepulchre and of all
the holy places be on all who read this message with faith and love!
For they will receive their reward from God equally with those who
have made pilgrimages to the holy places. Blessed are those who
have not seen and yet believe! Abraham came into the promised
land through faith, for indeed faith is equal to good deeds. For the
Lord’s sake, brothers and fathers, do not accuse my simplicity and
rudeness, and do not make light of this writing; not on my account,
but on account of the holy places, honour it in love, that you may
receive your reward from the Lord our God, and our Saviour Jesus
Christ, and may the God of peace be with all of you unto eternity.
Amen!
Cyril, Bishop of Túrov. (XII. century.)
Little is known of the life of this remarkable preacher. He
was born at Túrov, Government of Minsk, about the year
1130, where his parents were wealthy people. Having
become a monk, he distinguished himself by his austere
asceticism and great piety. At the request of the Prince of
Túrov he was made bishop. Eight or nine of his sermons and
some prayers have come down to us in manuscript. His
eloquence stands alone in the whole ancient period of
Russian literature. Though other preachers followed
Byzantine models in their sermons, yet none carried the
flowery Greek symbolism so far, or wrote in so fluent a
language.
FROM A SERMON ON THE FIRST SUNDAY AFTER EASTER
The Church needs a great teacher and a wise orator to properly

celebrate the holiday, but we are poor in words and dim in mind, not
having the fire of the Holy Ghost,—the enjoyment of words useful to
the soul; yet for the love of my brethren who are with me, we shall
say something about the renewal of the Lord’s resurrection. In the
past week of the Easter there was joy in heaven, and terror in the
nethermost regions, a renewal of life and liberation of the world, a
destruction of hell and victory over death, a resurrection of the dead,
and annihilation of the enticing power of the devil; a salvation of the
human race by the resurrection of Christ; an impoverishment of the
Old Testament and enslavement of the Sabbath; an enrichment of
the Church of Christ, and enthronement of the Sunday.
Last week there was a change of all things, for the earth was
opened up by heaven, having been purified from its satanic
impurities, and the angels with their wives humbly served at the
resurrection. All creation was renewed, for no longer are the air, the
sun, the fire, the springs, the trees, thought to be gods; no longer
does hell receive its due of infants sacrificed by their fathers, nor
death its honours, for idolatry has come to an end, and the satanic
power has been vanquished by the mystery of the cross. The Old
Testament has become impoverished by the rejection of the blood of
calves and sacrifices of goats, for Christ has given Himself to the
Lord as a sacrifice for all. And with this, Sunday ceased to be a
holiday, but the Sunday was sanctified on account of the
resurrection, and Sunday is now supreme, for Christ arose from the
dead on that day....
To-day the heavens have been cleared from the dark clouds that
enshrouded them as with a heavy veil, and they proclaim the glory of
God with a clear atmosphere....
To-day the sun rises and beams on high, and rejoicing warms the
earth, for there has arisen for us from the grave the real sun, Christ,
and He saves all who believe in Him. To-day the moon descends
from its high place, and gives honour to the greater lights. The Old
Testament, as had been prophesied, has stopped with its Sabbath,
and with its prophets gives honour to the Testament of Christ with its
Sunday. To-day the winter of sin has stopped in repentance, and the
ice of unbelief is melted by wisdom. To-day spring appears spruce,
and enlivens all earthly existence; the stormy winds blow gently and
generate fruits, and the earth, giving nurture to the seed, brings forth
green grass. For spring is the beautiful faith in Christ which, through
baptism, produces a regeneration of man, and the stormy winds are
the evil, sinful thoughts that, being changed to virtue through
repentance, generate soul-saving fruits; but the earth of our being,
having received the Word of God like a seed, and, passing through
an ecstatic labour, through the fear of Him, brings forth a spirit of
salvation.
To-day the new-born lambs and calves frisk and leap about joyfully
and returning to their mothers gambol about, so that the shepherds,
playing on their reeds, praise Christ in joy. The lambs, I say, are the
gentle people from among the pagans, and the calves—the idolaters
of the unbelieving countries who, having accepted the Law through
Christ’s incarnation and the teachings of the apostles and miracles,
and having returned to the holy Church, suck the milk of its
teachings; and the teachers of Christ’s flock, praying for all, praise
Christ, the Lord, who had collected all the wolves and sheep into one
herd.
To-day the trees send forth buds and the fragrant flowers bloom,
and behold, the gardens already emit a sweet odour, and the
workers labouring in hope acclaim Christ the giver of fruits. We were
before like the trees of the forest that bear no fruit, but to-day the
faith of Christ has been grafted on our unbelief, and those who
already held to the roots of Jesse have burgeoned with the flowers of
virtue and expect through Christ a regeneration in heaven, and the
saints who labour for the Church expect a reward from Christ. To-day
the ploughman of the Word leads the oxen of the Word to the
spiritual yoke, sinks the plough of baptism into the furrows of thought
and deepening them to furrows of repentance plants in them the
spiritual seed and rejoices in the hope of future returns. To-day
everything old has taken an end, and all is new for the sake of the
resurrection. To-day the apostolic rivers are full, and the pagan fish
let out their broods, and the fishermen, having examined the depth of
the divine incarnation, drag in full nets into the Church.... To-day the
industrious bees of the monastic order show their wisdom and set all
to wonder, for living in the wilderness and providing for themselves,
they astonish both angels and men, just as the bee flies upon the
flowers and forms combs of honey in order to furnish sweetness to
man and what is needed in the church....
To-day there is a feast of regeneration for the people who are
made new by the resurrection of Christ, and all new things are
brought to God: from heathens, faith; from good Christians, offerings;
from the clergy, holy sacrifices; from the civil authorities, God-
pleasing charity; from the noble, care for the Church; from the
righteous, humility; from the sinners, true repentance; from the
unhallowed, a turning to God; from the hating, spiritual love.
Néstor’s Chronicle. (XII. century.)
Néstor was born about 1056, and at the age of seventeen
entered the monastery of the Grottoes at Kíev. In 1091 he
was commissioned to find in the Grottoes the mortal relics of
Theodosius, the founder of the monastery. Having performed
this task he wrote a life of the founder. He died about 1146. To
this Néstor has been ascribed the authorship of the chronicle
which in one of the manuscripts of the fourteenth century
bears the title: The stories of bygone years, whence the
Russian land began, who first reigned at Kíev, and how the
Russian land was formed. It has, however, been proved that
only a small part of the chronicle belongs to him, and that the
last editor of the whole was the abbot Sylvester, the
continuator of Néstor’s Chronicle for the twelfth century.
The chronicle contains the reports of important facts in the
life of the princes, arranged in chronological order. The
author, or authors, being of the clerical profession, the
influence of Christianity shows itself throughout in the use of a
biblical diction. This is especially the case where Byzantine
chronographers, whose influence on all the early Russian
chronicles is unmistakable, and church and monastery notes
are the source of the historical narrative. But popular stories,
legends and accounts of eye-witnesses also play an
important part in the composition of the work, and in these the
diction is more dramatic and natural. The chronicle covers the
period from 862 to 1110, and is exceedingly valuable as the
chief source for the history of Russia for the time described. It
has not come down to us in the original, but has reached us in
copies of the fourteenth century, of which the Laurentian
manuscript, copied by the monk Laurentius for Dimítri
Konstantínovich, Prince of Súzdal, is the most important.
THE BAPTISM OF VLADÍMIR AND OF ALL RUSSIA

In the year 6495 (987), Vladímir called together his boyárs and city
elders, and said to them: “There have come to me Bulgarians who
said: ‘Accept our religion!’ Then came the Germans, and they
praised their religion; after them came the Jews.[16] But after them
came the Greeks, who spoke slightingly of all the other religions, but
praised their own. They spoke much about the beginning of the
universe and the existence of the whole world. They are cunning of
speech, and talk so pleasantly that it is a pleasure to hear them.
They say that there is another world, and that if anyone enters into
their faith, he would live after his death, and would not die for
eternity; but that if he accepts any other faith, he would burn in the
other world. Now, what counsel do you give me? What is your
answer?”
And the boyárs and elders said: “You know, O Prince, that nobody
detracts his own, but praises it. If you are anxious to find out the
truth, you have men whom you can send out to see how they all
serve God.”
And the speech pleased the Prince and all people. They selected
good and clever men, to the number of ten, and said to them: “Go
first to the Bulgarians and inquire into their religion!” And they went,
and saw their abominable deeds and worshipping in shrines, and
returned to their land. Vladímir said to them: “Go now to the
Germans, find out there also, and thence go to Greece!”
And they went to Germany and, having seen their divine service,
they came to Constantinople, and went to the Emperor. The Emperor
asked them what they had come for, and they told him all as it was.
Having heard this, the Emperor was glad, and gave them a banquet
on that very day. Next morning he sent to the Patriarch saying:
“Some Russians have come to find out about our faith; so have the
church and clergy in order, and yourself don the holy garments, that
they may see the glory of our God.”
Having heard this, the Patriarch called together the clergy to
celebrate the day according to the custom, and he had the censers
lighted, and arranged the singing and the choir. The Emperor went
with them to church, and they were placed in a prominent place
where they could see the beauty of the church, hear the singing and
archiepiscopal ministration, and watch the attendance of the
deacons in the divine service. They were surprised, and marvelled,
and praised their service. And the Emperors Basil and Constantine
called them and said to them: “Go to your land!” and they sent them
away with many gifts and honours.
They came back to their country, and their Prince called together
his boyárs and old men. Said Valdímir: “The men we have sent away
have come back. Let us hear what has happened!” And he said:
“Speak before the druzhína!” and they spoke: “When we were in
Bulgaria, we saw them worshipping in the temple, where they talk in
the shrine and stand without their girdles. Having made their
obeisance, they sit down and look around hither and thither like
madmen, and there is no joy among them, only sadness and a great
stench: their religion is not good. And we came to Germany, and we
saw many ceremonies in their temples, but of beauty we saw none.
We went to Greece, and they took us where they worship their God,
and we do not know whether we were in heaven or upon earth, for
there is not upon earth such sight or beauty. We were perplexed, but
this much we know that there God lives among men, and their
service is better than in any other country. We cannot forget that
beauty, for every man that has partaken of sweetness will not
afterwards accept bitterness, and thus we can no longer remain in
our former condition.” And the boyárs answered and said: “If the
Greek religion were bad, your grandmother Ólga, who was the
wisest of all men, would not have accepted it.” And Vladímir
answered and said: “Where shall we receive our baptism?” But they
answered: “Wheresoever it may please you!”
Next year, the year 6496, Vladímir went with his warriors against
Korsún,[17] a Greek city, and the Korsúnians shut themselves up in
the city. Vladímir was encamped at the side of the city nearest the
harbour, at one shot’s distance from it, and they fought valiantly in
the city, and Vladímir beleaguered it. The townspeople were
weakening, and Vladímir said to them: “If you do not surrender, I
shall stay here, if need be, three years.” They paid no attention to it,
and Vladímir drew up his soldiers, and ordered them to build a
rampart to the city. While they were asleep, the Korsúnians
undermined the city wall, and, stealing the dirt which they had thrown
up, carried it into the city, and deposited it there. The soldiers again
filled up the rampart, and Vladímir remained there.
A Korsún man, by the name of Nastás, shot an arrow upon which
was written as follows: “It is by the wells that are behind you in the
east, that the water is led by pipes into the city; dig them up, and
stop the supply!” Hearing this, Vladímir looked to the heavens and
said: “If it shall come to pass, I will be baptised,” and immediately he
ordered the pipes to be dug up, and the water was intercepted. The
people were exhausted with thirst, and they surrendered themselves.
Vladímir entered the city with his druzhína, and he sent word to the
Emperors Basil and Constantine: “I have taken your famous city. I
hear you have a sister who is still a maiden. If you will not give her to
me for a wife, I shall do unto your city as I have done unto this.”
And they heard the tsar, and were sad, and gave the following
answer: “It does not behoove Christians to give in marriage to a
pagan. If you will receive the baptism, you shall get her, and you will
receive the kingdom of heaven, and will be of one faith with us. If you
do not wish to do so, we cannot give you our sister.”
Hearing this, Vladímir said to the messengers of the Emperors:
“Tell your Emperors that I will be baptised, that I have inquired before
these days into your faith, and am pleased with your belief and
divine service, from what the men that had been sent by us have told
me.”
Which when the Emperors heard, they were glad and persuaded
their sister, by the name of Anna, and sent to Vladímir saying:
“Receive the baptism, and then we will send our sister to you.”
But Vladímir answered: “Let them come with your sister to baptise
me!”
The Emperors obeyed, and sent their sister and a few high officers
and presbyters. She did not want to go: “It is as if I were going into
captivity,” she said. “It were better if I died here.” And her brothers
said to her: “Perchance God will through you turn the Russian land
to repentance, and free Greece from a dire war. Do you not see how
much evil the Russians have caused to the Greeks? If you will not
go, they will do even thus to us.” They persuaded her with difficulty.
She boarded a boat, kissed her relatives under tears and went
across the sea. She arrived at Korsún, and the Korsúnians met her
with honours, and led her into the city and seated her in the palace.
By God’s will, Vladímir was at that time ailing with his eyes, and he
could not see, and was much worried. The empress sent to him
saying: “If you want to be rid of your disease, be baptised at once. If
not, you will not be rid of it.”
Hearing this, Vladímir said: “If it will be so in truth, then indeed
your Christian God is great.” And he ordered to baptise him. The
bishop of Korsún with the priests of the empress received Vladímir
as a catechumen and baptised him, and the moment he laid his
hands upon him, he regained his eyesight. When Vladímir saw this
sudden cure, he praised God and said: “Now have I for the first time
found the real God!” When his druzhína perceived this, many were
baptised. He was baptised in the church of St. Basil, and that church
is situated in Korsún, there where the Korsúnians have their market-
place. Vladímir’s palace by the church is standing up to the present
day. The palace of the empress is beyond the altar. After the baptism
he led the empress to the betrothal. Those who do not know right
say that he was baptised in Kíev; others say in Vasilév; others again
say otherwise.
After that, Vladímir took the empress and Nastás, and the Korsún
priests with the holy relics of Clement and Phœbus, his disciple, and
church vessels, and images, for his own use. He built a church in
Korsún on the hill which they had thrown up in the middle of the city
from the dirt they had carried away, and that church is still standing
there. Going away, he took along with him two brass statues and
four brass horses which stand to-day behind the church of the Holy
Virgin, and which the ignorant think to be of marble. He gave as a
marriage price Korsún back to the Greeks, for the sake of the
empress, and went back to Kíev.
Upon his return, he ordered the idols to be cast down, and some
to be cut to pieces, and others to be consumed by fire; but Perún he
had tied to the tail of a horse, and dragged down the hill over the
Boríchev[18] to the brook, and placed twelve men to strike him with
rods, not as if the wood had any feeling, but as a scorn to the devil
who had in that way seduced people, that he might receive his due
punishment from men. As he was dragged along the brook to the
Dnieper, the unbelievers wept over him, for they had not yet received
the holy baptism, and he was cast into the Dnieper. Vladímir stood
by, and said: “Should he be carried anywhere to the banks, push him
off, until he has passed the rapids, when you may leave him!” They
did as they were told. When he passed the rapids, and was let loose,
the wind carried him on a sandbank, which is named from this
“Perún’s Bank,” and is called so to this day.
After that Vladímir proclaimed throughout the whole city:
“Whosoever will not appear to-morrow at the river, whether he be
rich or poor, or a beggar, or a workingman, will be in my disfavour.”
Hearing this, people came gladly and with joy, and said: “If this were
not good, the Prince and boyárs would not have accepted it.” Next
morning Vladímir went out with the priests of the empress and of
Korsún to the Dnieper, and there came together people without
number. They went into the water, and stood there up to their necks,
and some up to their breasts, but the younger nearer the shore, and
others held the younger ones, while the grown people waded into the
water. And the priests stood there and said the prayers; and there
was a joy in heaven and upon earth at the sight of so many saved
souls, but the devil groaned, and said: “Woe to me! I am driven away
from here. Here I had intended to have my habitation, for here are no
apostolic teachings, and they do not know God, and I rejoiced in the
worship with which they served me. And now I am conquered by
ignorant people and not by apostles and martyrs. I shall no longer
reign in these lands.”
Having been baptised, the people went to their houses. Vladímir
was happy for having, himself and his people, found God, and
looking up to heaven he said: “God, Thou hast created heaven and
earth! Guard these Thy new people, and let them, O Lord, find out
the real God, such as the Christian people know Him. Strengthen the
true and constant faith in them, and help me, O Lord, against my foe,
that relying upon Thee and Thy power, I may escape his ambush!”
The people having been baptised, they all went to their homes,
and Vladímir ordered churches to be built, and to place them there
where formerly stood the idols. He built the church of St. Basil on the
hill where stood the idol Perún and the others, to whom the Prince
and others used to bring sacrifices. And he began to locate churches
and priests over the towns, and to lead people to baptism in all
towns and villages. He sent out men to take the children of
noblemen, and to put them out for book instruction; but the mothers
of those children wept for them, for they were not yet firm in their
faith, and they wept for them as for the dead.
FOOTNOTES:
[16] The Khazars, a Tartar tribe that professed the Mosaic Law.
[17] The ancient Tauric Chersonese; this later city was not built
on the ancient site, but near Sebastopol.
[18] A suburb of Kíev.
The Kíev Chronicle. (XII. century.)
The Kíev Chronicle is a continuation of Néstor’s Chronicle,
from 1111-1201, and describes mainly the acts of the
principality of Kíev. The best manuscript of this chronicle is
from the monastery of St. Ipáti, near Kostromá, and dates
from the end of the fourteenth, or the beginning of the
fifteenth, century. The passage given below is selected to
illustrate the historical account of the same incident contained
in the Word of Ígor’s Armament.
THE EXPEDITION OF ÍGOR SVYATOSLÁVICH AGAINST THE

PÓLOVTSES[19]
In the year 6693 (1185). At that time Ígor, the son of Svyatosláv,
the grandson of Olég, rode out of Nóvgorod on the 23rd of April,
which was on a Tuesday, having taken with him his brother Vsévolod
from Trubétsk, and Svyatosláv Ólgovich, his nephew, from Rylsk,
and Vladímir, his son, from Putívl, and Yarosláv had sent him, at his
request, Olstín Oléksich, the grandson of Prokhór, with Kovúans[20]
from Chernígov. They proceeded slowly, collecting their druzhína, for
their horses were very fat. As they were going towards the river
Donéts, Ígor looked one evening at the sky, and he saw the sun
standing there like a moon, and he said to his boyárs and druzhína:
“Do you see this omen?”
They looked up, and having noticed it, hung their heads, and said:
“Prince, this is not a good omen!”
But Ígor said: “Brothers and druzhína! Nobody knows God’s
mystery, and God is the creator of mystery, as well as of all His
world; but we shall find out in time whether God means our good or
our evil.”
Having said this, he forded the Donéts and came to the river
Oskól, where he waited for two days for his brother Vsévolod who
was marching by another road from Kursk; thence they proceeded to
Sálnitsa. There came to them the guards whom they had sent out to
reconnoitre; they said: “We have seen the army of the enemy; they
were riding rapidly: either you ride fast, or we had better return
home, for the time is not propitious.”
But Ígor consulted his brothers and said: “If we return without
fighting, our shame will be greater than death. Let us proceed with
God’s aid!”
Having said this, they travelled through the night, and the next day,
which was a Friday, they met the army of the Pólovtses at noontime.
When they saw them, they were without their tents, for they had left
them behind them, but the old and young were all standing on the
other side of the river Syuurlí. The Russians arranged their six troops
as follows: Ígor’s troop was in the middle, to his right was the troop of
his brother Vsévolod, and to the left that of his nephew Svyatosláv;
in front of him was placed his son Vladímir, and Yarosláv’s Kovúans,
and a third troop of archers was in front of them, and they were
selected from the troops of all the princes; that was the position of
their troops.
And Ígor spoke to his brothers: “Brothers! We have found what we
have been looking for, so let us move on them!” And they advanced,
placing their faith in God. When they came to the river Syuurlí, the
archers galloped out from the troops of the Pólovtses, sent each an
arrow against the Russians, and galloped back again, before the
Russians had crossed the river Syuurlí; equally the Pólovtses who
stood farther away from the river galloped away. Svyatosláv
Ólgovich, and Vladímir Ígorevich, and Olstín with his Kovúans, and
the archers ran after them, while Ígor and Vsévolod went slowly
ahead, and did not send forward their troops; but the Russians
ahead of them struck down the Pólovtses. The Pólovtses ran beyond
their tents, and the Russians, having come as far as the tents,
plundered them, and some returned in the night with their booty to
the army.
When the Pólovtses had come together, Ígor said to his brothers
and men: “God has given us the power to vanquish our enemy, and
honour and glory to us! We have seen the army of the Pólovtses that
it is large, and I wonder whether they have all been collected. If we
now shall ride through the night, what surety is there that all will
follow us next morning? And our best horsemen will be in the
meantime cut down, and we will have to shift as best we can.”
And Svyatosláv Ólgovich spoke to his uncles: “I have driven the
Pólovtses a long distance, and my horses are played out; if I am to
travel on to-day, I shall have to fall behind on the road,” and
Vsévolod agreed with him that it was best to rest.
Ígor spoke: “Knowing this, it is not proper to expose ourselves to
death,” and they rested there.
When the day broke on the Saturday, the troops of the Pólovtses
began to appear like a forest. The Russian princes were perplexed,
and did not know whom to attack first, for there was a numberless
host of them. And Ígor said: “See, I have collected against me the
whole land: Konchák, Kozá, Burnovích, Toksobích, Kolobích,
Etebích, and Tertrobích.” And seeing them, they dismounted from
their horses, for they wished to reach the river Donéts by fighting,
and they said: “If we remain on horseback, and run away, and leave
our soldiers behind, we will have sinned before God; but let us die or
live together!” And having said this, they all dismounted and fought
on foot.
By the will of God, Ígor was wounded, and his left arm was
disabled, and there was a great sorrow in his troop; and they
captured his general, having wounded him in front. And they fought
that day until evening, and many were the wounded and killed in the
Russian army. They fought till late into the night, and when the
Sunday began to break, the Kovúans became confused and ran
away. Ígor was at that time on horseback, for he was wounded, and
he followed them up, trying to bring them back to the army. Seeing
that he had gone far away from his people, he took off his helmet so
that they might recognise him and might return to the army, and he
rode back to his troop. But no one returned, except Mikhálko
Gyúrgevich who had recognised the Prince. The trouble was, no
one, except a few of the rank and file and boyárs’ youths, had
thoroughly mingled with the Kovúans, for they were all busy fighting
on foot; among these, Vsévolod excelled in bravery. As Ígor was
approaching his troop, the Pólovtses crossed his path and made him
prisoner within an arrow’s shot from his troop. While Ígor was held
captive, he saw his brother fighting mightily, and in his heart he
implored for his own death that he might not see his brother fall
dead; but Vsévolod was fighting until he had no weapons left in his
hands, and they were fighting around a lake.
It was on the day of the holy Sunday that the Lord brought down
His anger upon them, and changed joy into weeping, and instead of
pleasure gave them sorrow, on the river Kayála. And Ígor spoke: “I
now recall my sins before the Lord my God, for I have caused much
slaughter and bloodshed in the Christian land, and did not spare the
Christians, but took by storm the town of Glyébov near Pereyáslavl.
Then innocent Christians suffered no small measure of evil, for
fathers were separated from their children, brother from brother,
friend from friend, wives from husbands, and daughters from their
mothers, and all was confused in captivity and sorrow. The living
envied the dead, and the dying rejoiced because they had like holy
martyrs received their trial by fire in this life; old men were killed,
young men received fierce and inhuman wounds, men were cut to
pieces. All this I have done, and I am not worthy to live; to-day the
revenge of the Lord has reached me. Where is now my beloved
brother? Where is now the son of my brother? Where is the child of
my loins? Where are the counselling boyárs, where are the brave
men, the ranks of the soldiers? Where are the horses and costly
weapons? Am I not separated from all that, and has not the Lord
given me fettered into the hands of the pagans? The Lord has repaid
me for my lawlessness and my meanness, and my sins have this
day come down upon my head. The Lord is just, and His judgments
are right, and I have nothing in common with the living. I see to-day
others receiving the crown of martyrdom, but why can I not, guilty
one, suffer for all of them? But Lord my God! Do not reject me to the
end, but as Thy will, O Lord, is done, so also is Thy mercy to us, Thy
slaves!”
The battle being over, the Pólovtses scattered, and went to their
tents. Ígor was captured by the Targólans, by a man named Chilbúk;
his brother Vsévolod was taken by Román Kzich, Svyatosláv
Ólgovich by Eldechyúk of the Boburchéviches, and Vladímir by Kópti
of the Ulashéviches. Then Konchák took care of Ígor on the
battlefield, for he was wounded. Of the many prisoners taken but few
could run away, God being willing, for it was not possible for anyone
to escape, being surrounded on all sides by the Pólovts army as with
mighty walls; and yet there escaped about fifteen of us Russians,
and fewer Kovúans, but the rest were drowned in the sea.
At that time Grand Prince Vsévolod’s son Svyatosláv had gone to
Koráchev[21] to collect warriors in the upper lands, wishing in the
summer to go to the Don against the Pólovtses. When Svyatosláv
returned and was at Nóvgorod Syéverski, he heard that his brothers
had gone against the Pólovtses, without his knowledge, and he was
displeased. Svyatosláv was travelling in boats, and when he arrived
in Chernígov, Byelovolód Prosóvich came to him and told him what
had happened with the Pólovtses. When Svyatosláv heard that, he
sighed much and, wiping off his tears, he said: “O beloved brothers
and sons and men of the Russian land! Oh, that God would grant me
to crush the pagans! But they, impulsive in their youth, have opened
the gates into the Russian land. The will of the Lord be on
everything! However sorry I was for Ígor, I am more sorry for Ígor, my
brother!”
After that Svyatosláv sent his son Olég and Vladímir into the
Posémie,[22] for when the cities of the Posémie heard of the disaster,
they were disturbed, and there was a sorrow and heavy anguish
upon them, such as had never before been in the whole Posémie, in
Nóvgorod Syéverski and in the whole district of Chernígov. They had
heard that their princes had been taken prisoners, and the druzhína
had been captured, and killed; and they became restless, as if in
turbid water, and the cities revolted, and many had no care for their
relatives, but they renounced their souls, weeping for their princes.
After that Svyatosláv sent to David of Smolénsk, saying: “We had
intended to go against the Pólovtses, and pass the summer on the
Don; but now the Pólovtses have vanquished Ígor, and his brother
with his son; now come, brother, to protect the Russian land!” And
David came to the Dnieper, and there arrived also other help, and
they stopped at Trepól, but Yarosláv collected his troops at
Chernígov.
The pagan Pólovtses, having conquered Ígor and his brothers,
were filled with great conceit, and they gathered all their tribes
against the Russian land. And there was a strife among them, for
Konchák said: “Let us march against Kíev, where our brothers and
our Grand Prince Bonyák were cut down!” But Kza said: “Let us go
against the Sem, where their wives and children are left, an easy
booty for us; we shall sack their cities without danger!” And thus they
divided into two parts. Konchák went against Pereyáslavl. He
besieged the city, and they fought the whole day. At that time
Vladímir Glyébovich was the Prince of Pereyáslavl. He being bold
and a mighty warrior, rode out of the city and rushed against the
enemy, and then a few men of his druzhína were emboldened, and
they fought valiantly. Many Pólovtses surrounded them. Then the
others, seeing their Prince hard pressed, rushed out of the city, and
saved their Prince, who was wounded with three spear thrusts. This
good Vladímir rode back into the city heavily wounded, and he wiped
the sweat from his brave face, having fought doughtily for his
country.
Vladímir sent word to Svyatosláv, and to Rúrik, and to David: “The
Pólovtses are at my gates, help me!” Svyatosláv sent word to David,
who stood at Trepól with his Smolénsk troop. The men of Smolénsk
held a council, and said: “We have marched to Kíev to fight in case
there is a war there; but we cannot look for another war, for we are
worn out.” Svyatosláv hurried to the Dnieper with Rúrik and other
troops, against the Pólovtses, and David went away with his
Smolénsk men. When the Pólovtses heard this, they went away from
Pereyáslavl, but on their way they attacked Rímov. The Rímovans
shut themselves up in the city; having climbed the rampart, two
wicker structures gave way with all their men, God having so willed,
and broke in the direction of the enemy. Terror fell upon the city
people. Some of them sallied from the city and kept up a running
fight into the Rímov swamps, and thus escaped capture; but those
who remained in the city were all taken prisoners. Vladímir sent
again to Svyatosláv Vsévolodich and Rúrik Rostislávich, imploring
them to come to his aid. But they were tardy in coming, having
waited for David with his Smolénsk troop, and thus they did not get
there in time to meet the Pólovtses. Having taken the city of Rímov,
the Pólovtses returned to their homes, loaded down with booty. The
princes went back to their homes, and they were very sad, and they
were sorry for Vladímir Glyébovich, for he was struck down with
mortal wounds, and they were sorry for the Christians that had been
taken prisoners by the pagans....
The other Pólovtses were going by another road to Putívl. Kza had
a large host with him; they laid waste the country, burnt the villages,
and also burnt the castle near Putívl, and returned home again.
Ígor Svyatoslávich was that year with the Pólovtses, and he said:
“According to my deserts have I received defeat at Thy hands, my
Lord, and not the daring of the pagans has broken the might of Thy
servants. I do not complain of my suffering, for I have been punished
for my misdeeds.” The Pólovtses, respecting his leadership, did not
do him any harm, but placed over him fifteen guards of their sons,
and five lords’ sons, in all twenty. They gave him permission to go
where he wanted, and he went a-hunting with the hawk, and there
were with him five or six of his servants. His guards obeyed him and
honoured him, and whithersoever he sent them, they did his
command without grumbling. He had brought with him a priest from
Russia, with all the divine service, for he did not know the divine will,
and he thought he would have to stay there for a long time. But the
Lord delivered him for the many prayers of the Christians which they
sent up to heaven, and the many tears which they shed for him.
While he was among the Pólovtses, there was a man there, himself
a Pólovts, by the name of Lavór; he having a blessed thought said: “I
will go with you to Russia!” At first Ígor had no confidence in him, but
had a high opinion of his own manliness, for he did not intend to take
the man and run with him into Russia; he said: “For glory’s sake I did
not then run away from my druzhína, and even now will I not walk
upon an inglorious road.”

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1 Steam and Its Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.12 Industrial and Utility Boilers ........................... . 99

3 Design and Construction of Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

4 Combustion of Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

5 Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment . . . 235

6 Boiler Accessories .......................................... . 323

7 Operation and Maintenance of Boilers ........................ . 377

70201 Combustion Control 000000000000000000000000000 381

9 Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

9.2.7 Relief Valves for Turbines ...................... . 497

10 Operating and Maintaining Steam Turbines, Condensers,

11 Auxiliary Steam Plant Equipment .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551

1108 Pipeline Separators and Strainers 000000000000000000000000 590

12 Environmental Control Systems ............................... 601

13 Waste-to-Energy Plants .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645

A Unit Conversions 689

B Geometric Formulas 693

c Steam Tables and Charts 695

D Answers to Problems 707

and presented information in an easily understood format using illustrations and

1. Environmental mandates have resulted in the retirement of many older coal-fired

2. The availability of large quantities of low-cost natural gas because of "£racking"

• Coal- and oil-fired power plants

addition to those we traditionally think about-lights, motors, air conditioners, etc.

Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA).

TABLE 1 . 1 Energy Sources for Electricity Generatio n i n

televisions, commercial buildings, etc.), the increase in demand is expected to be less,

Base load plants-These are large-capacity plants which operate at a constant

Obviously, water vapor is not a contributor to "global warming," but, to an indi­

Cost and availability of an energy source will continue to be a determining factor

1.2 The Use of Steam

1. A fossil fuel-coal, oil, natural gas, or a biomass fuel

Nearly 75 percent of the residential use of electricity is associated with such

1.3 The Steam-Plant Cycle

FIGURE 1 . 1 Schematic d iagra m for a Rankine cycle.

1.4 The Power Plant

1. Coal receipt and preparation

Fuel Primary Forced

I made my pilgrimage in the reign of Grand Prince Svyatopólk

FROM A SERMON ON THE FIRST SUNDAY AFTER EASTER

The Church needs a great teacher and a wise orator to properly

THE BAPTISM OF VLADÍMIR AND OF ALL RUSSIA

THE EXPEDITION OF ÍGOR SVYATOSLÁVICH AGAINST THE

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Obviously, water vapor is not a contributor to "global warming," but, to an indi