Fundamentals of Applied

Electromagnetics, Global Edition, 8th

Edition - eBook PDF
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/fundamentals-of-applied-electromagnetics-global-
edition-8th-edition-ebook-pdf/
 This is a special edition of an established title widely used by colleges and
GLOBAL universities throughout the world. Pearson published this exclusive edition
for the benefit of students outside the United States and Canada. If you
GLOBAL
EDITION purchased this book within the United States or Canada, you should be aware EDITION

EDITION
GLOB AL
that it has been imported without the approval of the Publisher or Author.

Fundamentals of

Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics

Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics has been a seminal text in its field for over a
decade, acclaimed by learners and teachers alike. This eighth edition builds on the style

Applied Electromagnetics
and legacy of its predecessors by including updated content and features. These features
have been designed to help students develop deep understanding of electromagnetic
concepts and familiarize them with its wide-ranging applications in today’s technological
society. The book is also complemented by web-based interactivities that learners can
use in conjunction with the material in the book.

Key Features
EIGHTH EDITION
• 52 web-based simulation modules allow learners to analyze and design
transmission-line circuits; generate spatial patterns of the electric and magnetic fields
induced by charges and currents; visualize in 2-D and 3-D space how the gradient, Fawwaz T. Ulaby
divergence, and curl operate on spatial functions; observe the temporal and spatial
waveforms of plane waves propagating in lossless and lossy media; calculate and Umberto Ravaioli
display field distributions inside a rectangular waveguide; and generate radiation
patterns for linear antennas and parabolic dishes.
• Chapters use enhanced and updated graphs and illustrations to establish
correlations between core concepts of electromagnetics and their engineering and
scientific applications.
• Technology Briefs (short discussions on commonly used electronic objects)
have been updated to reflect the most recent advancements in the field of
electromagnetism.

EDITION
• The companion website provides learners with a wide range of practice questions

EIGHTH
to test their understanding.

Ravaioli
Ulaby

CVR_ULAB6739_08_GE_CVR_Ashford.indd All Pages 31/01/22 9:00 PM

 FUNDAMENTALS OF
APPLIED
ELECTROMAGNETICS
Eighth Edition
Global Edition

Fawwaz T. Ulaby
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Umberto Ravaioli
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Pearson Education Limited
KAO Two
KAO Park
Hockham Way
Harlow
Essex
CM17 9SR
United Kingdom

and Associated Companies throughout the world

Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com

© Pearson Education Limited 2023

The rights of Fawwaz T. Ulaby and Umberto Ravaioli to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted
by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics, Eighth
Edition, ISBN 978-0-13-668158-8 by Fawwaz T. Ulaby and Umberto Ravaioli, published by Pearson Education ©
2023.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written
permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. For information regarding permissions,
request forms, and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights and Permissions department,
please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/.

All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not
vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks
imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners.

This eBook is a standalone product and may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. It also
does not provide access to other Pearson digital products like MyLab and Mastering. The publisher reserves the right
to remove any material in this eBook at any time.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 10: 1-292-43673-5 (print)

ISBN 13: 978-1-292-43673-9 (print)
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-43676-0 (uPDF eBook)

Typeset by Straive B2R Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

We dedicate this book to
Jean and Ann Lucia.
 Preface to Eighth Edition

Building on the core content and style of its predecessor, this NEW TO THIS EDITION
eighth edition (8/e) of Applied Electromagnetics includes fea-
tures designed to help students develop deep understanding of • Additional exercises
electromagnetic concepts and applications. Prominent among • Updated Technology Briefs
them is a set of 52 web-based simulation modules∗ that allow
the user to interactively analyze and design transmission line • Enhanced figures and images
circuits; generate spatial patterns of the electric and magnetic
fields induced by charges and currents; visualize in 2-D and • New/updated end-of-chapter problems
3-D space how the gradient, divergence, and curl operate on
* The interactive modules and Technology Briefs
spatial functions; observe the temporal and spatial waveforms
can be found at the book companion website:
of plane waves propagating in lossless and lossy media;
em8e.eecs.umich.edu.
calculate and display field distributions inside a rectangular
waveguide; and generate radiation patterns for linear anten-
nas and parabolic dishes. These are valuable learning tools; ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
we encourage students to use them and urge instructors to
incorporate them into their lecture materials and homework As authors, we were blessed to have worked on this book with
assignments. the best team of professionals: Richard Carnes, Leland Pierce,
Janice Richards, Rose Kernan, and Paul Mailhot. We are
Additionally, by enhancing the book’s graphs and illustra- exceedingly grateful for their superb support and unwavering
tions and by expanding the scope of topics of the Technology dedication to the project.
Briefs, additional bridges between electromagnetic fundamen-
tals and their countless engineering and scientific applications We enjoyed working on this book. We hope you enjoy
are established. learning from it.

FAWWAZ T. U LABY
U MBERTO R AVAIOLI

4
PREFACE 5

CONTENT tions for the time-varying case, which are then specialized to
electrostatics and magnetostatics. These chapters will provide
the student with an overall framework for what is to come
This book begins by building a bridge between what should
and show him or her why electrostatics and magnetostatics are
be familiar to a third-year electrical engineering student and
special cases of the more general time-varying case.
the electromagnetics (EM) material covered in the book. Prior
Chapter 6 deals with time-varying fields and sets the stage
to enrolling in an EM course, a typical student will have
for the material in Chapters 7 through 9. Chapter 7 covers
taken one or more courses in circuits. He or she should be
plane-wave propagation in dielectric and conducting media,
familiar with circuit analysis, Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s current
and Chapter 8 covers reflection and transmission at discon-
and voltage laws, and related topics.
tinuous boundaries and introduces the student to fiber optics,
Transmission lines constitute a natural bridge between elec-
waveguides, and resonators. In Chapter 9, the student is in-
tric circuits and electromagnetics. Without having to deal with
troduced to the principles of radiation by currents flowing in
vectors or fields, the student will use already familiar concepts
wires, such as dipoles, as well as to radiation by apertures,
to learn about wave motion, the reflection and transmission
such as a horn antenna or an opening in an opaque screen
of power, phasors, impedance matching, and many of the
illuminated by a light source.
properties of wave propagation in a guided structure. All of
To give the student a taste of the wide-ranging applications
these newly learned concepts will prove invaluable later (in
of electromagnetics in today’s technological society, Chap-
Chapters 7 through 9) and will facilitate the learning of how
ter 10 concludes this book with presentations of two system
plane waves propagate in free space and in material media.
examples: satellite communication systems and radar sensors.
Transmission lines are covered in Chapter 2, which is preceded
The material in this book was written for a two-semester
in Chapter 1 with reviews of complex numbers and phasor
sequence of six credits, but it is possible to trim it down to
analysis.
generate a syllabus for a one-semester, four-credit course. The
The next part of this book, contained in Chapters 3
accompanying table provides syllabi for each of these options.
through 5, covers vector analysis, electrostatics, and magneto-
statics. The electrostatics chapter begins with Maxwell’s equa-

Suggested Syllabi
Two-Semester Syllabus One-Semester Syllabus
6 credits (42 contact hours per semester) 4 credits (56 contact hours)
Chapter Sections Hours Sections Hours
1 Introduction: All 4 All 4
Waves and Phasors
2 Transmission Lines All 12 2-1 to 2-8 and 2-11 8
3 Vector Analysis All 8 All 8
4 Electrostatics All 8 4-1 to 4-10 6
5 Magnetostatics All 7 5-1 to 5-5 and 5-7 to 5-8 5
Exams 3 2
Total for first semester 42
6 Maxwell’s Equations All 6 6-1 to 6-3, and 6-6 3
for Time-Varying Fields
7 Plane-Wave Propagation All 7 7-1 to 7-4, and 7-6 6
8 Wave Reflection All 9 8-1 to 8-3, and 8-6 7
and Transmission
9 Radiation and Antennas All 10 9-1 to 9-6 6
10 Satellite Communication All 5 None —
Systems and Radar Sensors
Exams 3 1
Total for second semester 40 Total 56
Extra Hours 2 0
6 PREFACE
MESSAGE TO THE STUDENT
The web-based interactive modules of this book were devel-
oped with you, the student, in mind. Take the time to use them
in conjunction with the material in the textbook. The multiple-
window feature of electronic displays makes it possible to
design interactive modules with “help” buttons to guide you
through the solution of a problem when needed. Video anima-
tions can show you how fields and waves propagate in time and
space, how the beam of an antenna array can be made to scan
electronically, and how current is induced in a circuit under
the influence of a changing magnetic field. The modules are a
useful resource for self-study. You can find them at the book
companion website em8e.eecs.umich.edu. Use them!
BOOK COMPANION WEBSITE
Throughout the book, we use the symbol EM to denote the book
companion website em8e.eecs.umich.edu, which contains a
wealth of information and tons of useful tools.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are due to our reviewers for their valuable
comments and suggestions. They include Constantine Balanis
of Arizona State University, Harold Mott of the University
of Alabama, David Pozar of the University of Massachusetts,
S. N. Prasad of Bradley University, Robert Bond of the New
Mexico Institute of Technology, Mark Robinson of the Uni-
versity of Colorado at Colorado Springs, and Raj Mittra of
the University of Illinois. I appreciate the dedicated efforts of
the staff at Prentice Hall, and I am grateful for their help in
shepherding this project through the publication process in a
very timely manner.
FAWWAZ T. U LABY
 List of
Technology Briefs

TB1 LED Lighting 34 TB10 Electromagnets 263

TB2 Solar Cells 51 TB11 Inductive Sensors 278
TB3 Microwave Ovens 96 TB12 EMF Sensors 306
TB4 EM Cancer Zappers 133 TB13 RFID Systems 329
TB5 Global Positioning System 167 TB14 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) 336
TB6 X-Ray Computed Tomography 175 TB15 Lasers 363
TB7 Resistive Sensors 202 TB16 Bar-Code Readers 374
TB8 Supercapacitors as Batteries 207 TB17 Health Risks of EM Fields 421
TB9 Capacitive Sensors 219

7
 Contents

Contents

Preface 4

List of Technology Briefs 7

List of Modules 12

Photo Credits 13

1 Introduction: Waves and Phasors 17

1-1 Historical Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1-2 Dimensions, Units, and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1-3 The Nature of Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
TB1 LED Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1-4 Traveling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1-5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1-6 Review of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
TB2 Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1-7 Review of Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2 Transmission Lines 62
2-1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2-2 Lumped-Element Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2-3 Transmission-Line Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2-4 Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2-5 The Lossless Microstrip Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2-6 The Lossless Transmission Line: General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2-7 Wave Impedance of the Lossless Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2-8 Special Cases of the Lossless Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
TB3 Microwave Ovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2-9 Power Flow on a Lossless Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2-10 The Smith Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2-11 Impedance Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2-12 Transients on Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

8
CONTENTS 9

TB4 EM Cancer Zappers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

3 Vector Analysis 146

3-1 Basic Laws of Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3-2 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3-3 Transformations between Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3-4 Gradient of a Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
TB5 Global Positioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3-5 Divergence of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3-6 Curl of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
TB6 X-Ray Computed Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3-7 Laplacian Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

4 Electrostatics 188
4-1 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4-2 Charge and Current Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4-3 Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4-4 Gauss’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4-5 Electric Scalar Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
TB7 Resistive Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4-6 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
TB8 Supercapacitors as Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4-7 Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4-8 Electric Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
TB9 Capacitive Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4-9 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4-10 Electrostatic Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4-11 Image Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

5 Magnetostatics 243
5-1 Magnetic Forces and Torques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5-2 The Biot–Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5-3 Maxwell’s Magnetostatic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5-4 Vector Magnetic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
TB10 Electromagnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5-5 Magnetic Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5-6 Magnetic Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
5-7 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
5-8 Magnetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
TB11 Inductive Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

6 Maxwell’s Equations for Time-Varying Fields 288

6-1 Faraday’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
6-2 Stationary Loop in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
6-3 The Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
10 CONTENTS

6-4 Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

6-5 The Electromagnetic Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
6-6 Moving Conductor in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
6-7 Displacement Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6-8 Boundary Conditions for Electromagnetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
6-9 Charge–Current Continuity Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
6-10 Free-Charge Dissipation in a Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
TB12 EMF Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
6-11 Electromagnetic Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

7 Plane-Wave Propagation 317

7-1 Time-Harmonic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
7-2 Plane-Wave Propagation in Lossless Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
7-3 Wave Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
TB13 RFID Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
7-4 Plane-Wave Propagation in Lossy Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
TB14 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
7-5 Current Flow in a Good Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
7-6 Electromagnetic Power Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

8 Wave Reflection and Transmission 353

8-1 Wave Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
TB15 Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
8-2 Snell’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
8-3 Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
8-4 Wave Reflection and Transmission at Oblique Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
TB16 Bar-Code Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
8-5 Reflectivity and Transmissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
8-6 Waveguides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
8-7 General Relations for E and H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
8-8 TM Modes in Rectangular Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
8-9 TE Modes in Rectangular Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
8-10 Propagation Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
8-11 Cavity Resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

9 Radiation and Antennas 400

9-1 The Hertzian Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
9-2 Antenna Radiation Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
9-3 Half-Wave Dipole Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
9-4 Dipole of Arbitrary Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
9-5 Effective Area of a Receiving Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
9-6 Friis Transmission Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
TB17 Health Risks of EM Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
9-7 Radiation by Large-Aperture Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
CONTENTS 11

9-8 Rectangular Aperture with Uniform Aperture Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

9-9 Antenna Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
9-10 N-Element Array with Uniform Phase Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
9-11 Electronic Scanning of Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

10 Satellite Communication Systems and Radar Sensors 450

10-1 Satellite Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
10-2 Satellite Transponders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
10-3 Communication-Link Power Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
10-4 Antenna Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
10-5 Radar Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10-6 Target Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
10-7 Doppler Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
10-8 Monopulse Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

Appendix A: Symbols, Quantities, and Units 467

Appendix B: Material Constants of Some Common Materials 470

Appendix C: Mathematical Formulas 473

Appendix D: Fundamental Constants and Units 476

Appendix E: Answers to Selected Problems 478

Bibliography 484

Index 486

Tables for Reference 494

 List of Modules

To access and exercise the following electronic modules, go to em8e.eecs.umich.edu.

1.1 Sinusoidal Waveforms 43 6.1 Circular Loop in Time-Varying 293

1.2 Traveling Waves 45 Magnetic Field
1.3 Phase Lead/Lag 49 6.2 Rotating Wire Loop in Constant 298
2.1 Two-Wire Line 72 Magnetic Field
2.2 Coaxial Line 73 6.3 Displacement Current 303
2.3 Lossless Microstrip Line 77 7.1 Linking E to H 324
2.4 Transmission Line Simulator 86 7.2 Plane Wave 326
2.5 Wave and Input Impedance 90 7.3 Polarization I 333
2.6 Interactive Smith Chart 112 7.4 Polarization II 334
2.7 Quarter-Wavelength Transformer 122 7.5 Wave Attenuation 340
2.8 Discrete Element Matching 123 7.6 Current in a Conductor 343
2.9 Single-Stub Tuning 124 8.1 Incidence on Perfect Conductor 362
2.10 Transient Response 132 8.2 Multimode Step-Index Optical Fiber 369
3.1 Points and Vectors 157 8.3 Oblique Incidence 379
3.2 Gradient 167 8.4 Oblique Incidence in Lossy Medium 380
3.3 Divergence 172 8.5 Rectangular Waveguide 382
3.4 Curl 178 9.1 Hertzian Dipole 407
4.1 Fields Due to Charges 211 9.2 Linear Dipole Antenna 417
4.2 Charges in Adjacent Dielectrics 224 9.3 Detailed Analysis of Linear Antenna 418
4.3 Charges above a Conducting Plane 226 9.4 Large Parabolic Reflector 429
4.4 Charges near a Conducting Sphere 227 9.5 Two-Dipole Array 433
5.1 Electron Motion in Static Fields 247 9.6 Detailed Analysis of Two-Dipole Array 434
5.2 Magnetic Fields Due to Line Sources 251 9.7 N-Element Array 438
5.3 Magnetic Field of a Current Loop 255 9.8 Uniform Dipole Array 441
5.4 Magnetic Forces between Two 257
Parallel Conductors

12
 Photo Credits
p. 20 (Ch 01-01A): Thales of Miletus (624–546 BC), Photo
Researchers, Inc./Science Source
p. 20 (Ch 01-01B): Isaac Newton, World History Archive/Alamy
Stock Photo
p. 20 (Ch 01-01C): Benjamin West, Benjamin Franklin Drawing
Electricity from the Sky, Painting/Alamy Stock Photo
p. 20 (Ch 01-01D): Replica of the Voltaic pile invented by
Alessandro Volta 1800, Gio.tto/Shutterstock
p. 20 (Ch 01-01E): Hans Christian Ørsted, Danish Physicist, New
York Public Library/Science Source
p. 20 (Ch 01-01F): Andre-Marie
´ Amp ère, Nickolae/Fotolia
p. 21 (Ch 01-01G): Michael Faraday, Nicku/Shutterstock
p. 21 (Ch 01-01H): James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879),
Nicku/Shutterstock
p. 21 (Ch 01-01I): Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, New York Public
Library/Science Source
p. 21 (Ch 01-01J): Nicola Tesla, NASA
p. 21 (Ch 01-01K): Early X-Ray of Hand, Science History
Images/Alamy Stock Photo
p. 21 (Ch 01-01M): Albert Einstein, LOC/Science Source
p. 22 (Ch 01-02A): Telegraph, Morse apparatus, vintage engraved
illustration, Morphart Creation/Shutterstock
p. 22 (Ch 01-02B): Thomas Alva Edison with his ‘Edison Effect’
Lamps, Education Images/Universal Images Group/Getty
Images, Inc.
p. 22 (Ch 01-02C): Replica of an early type of telephone made by
Scottish-born telephony pioneer Alexander Graham Bell
(1847–1922), Science & Society Picture Library/Getty
Images FAD82/Shutterstock
p. 22 (Ch 01-02D): Guglielmo Marconi, Pach Brothers/Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs Division
[LC-USZ62-39702]
13
p. 22 (Ch 01-02E): De Forest seated at his invention, the
radio-telephone, called the Audion, New York Public
Library/Science Source
p. 22 (Ch 01-02F): The staff of KDKA broadcast reports of the
1920 presidential election, Bettmann/Getty Images
p. 23 (Ch 01-02G): This bottle-like object is a Cathode Ray tube
which forms the receiver of the new style television invented
by Dr. Vladimir Zworykin, Westinghouse research engineer,
who is holding it, Album/Alamy Stock Photo
p. 23 (Ch 01-02H): Radar in operation in the Second World War,
Library of Congress Department of Prints and Photographs
[LC-USZ62-101012]
p. 23 (Ch 01-02I): Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen with an
apparatus used in the early investigations which led to the
invention of the transistor, New York Public Library/Science
Source
p. 23 (Ch 01-02J): A Photograph of Jack Kilby’s Model of the First
Working Integrated Circuit Ever Built circa 1958,
Fotosearch/Archive Photos/Getty Images
p. 23 (Ch 01-02K): Shown here is the 135-foot rigidized inflatable
balloon satellite undergoing tensile stress test in a dirigible
hanger at Weekesville, North Carolina, NASA
p. 23 (Ch 01-02L): Pathfinder on Mars, JPL/NASA
p. 24 (Ch 01-03A): Abacus isolated on white, Sikarin
Supphatada/Shutterstock
p. 24 (Ch 01-03B): Pascaline; a mechanical calculator invented by
Blaise Pascal in 1642, New York Public Library/Science
Source
p. 24 (Ch 01-03C): Original Caption: Portrait of American
electrical engineer Vannevar Bush, Bettmann/Getty Images
p. 24 (Ch 01-03D): J. Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly, are
pictured with the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC) in this undated photo from the University
14
of Pennsylvania Archives, University of Pennsylvania/AP
images
p. 24 (Ch 01-03E): Description: DEC PDP-1 computer, on display
at the Computer History Museum, USA, Volker
Steger/Science Source
p. 25 (Ch 01-03F): Classic Antique Red LED Diode Calculator,
James Brey/E+/Getty Images
p. 25 (Ch 01-03G): Apple I computer. This was released in April
1976 at the Homebrew Computer Club, USA, Mark
Richards/ZUMAPROSS.com/Alamy Stock Photo
p. 25 (Ch 01-03H): UNITED STATES—DECEMBER 07: The
IBM Personal Computer System was introduced to the
market in early 1981, Science & Society Picture
Library/Getty Images, Inc.
p. 25 (Ch 01-03I): NEW YORK, UNITED STATES: Chess
enthusiasts watch world chess champion Garry Kasparov on a
television monitor as he holds his head in his hands, Adam
Nadel/AP/Shutterstock
p. 26 (Fig. 1-2(a)): The Very Large Array of Radio Telescopes,
VLA, NRAO/NASA
p. 26 (Fig. 1-2(b)): SCaN’s Benefits to Society—Global
Positioning System, Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA
p. 26 (Fig. 1-2(c)): Motor, ABB
p. 26 (Fig. 1-2(d) and page 338 (Fig. TF14-04)): TV on white
background, Fad82/Shutterstock
p. 26 (Fig. 1-2(e)): Nuclear Propulsion Through Direct Conversion
of Fusion Energy, John Slough/NASA
p. 26 (Fig. 1-2(f)): Tracking station has bird’s eye view on VAFB,
Ashley Tyler/US Air Force
p. 26 (Fig. 1-2(g)): Glass Fiber Cables, Valentyn Volkov/123RF
p. 26 (Fig. 1-2(h)): Touchscreen smartphone, Oleksiy
Mark/Shutterstock
p. 26 (Fig. 1-2(i)): Line Art: Electromagnetics is at the heart of
numerous systems and applications. Source: Based on IEEE
Spectrum
p. 34 (TF1-1(a)): Lightbulb, Chones/Fotolia
p. 34 (TF1-1(b)): Fluorescent bulb, Wolf1984/Fotolia
p. 34 (TF1-1(c)): 3d render of an unbranded screw-in LED lamp,
isolated on a white background, Marcello Bortolino/Getty
Images, Inc.
p. 35 (TF1-3): Line Art: Lighting efficiency. Source: Based on
National Research Council, 2009
p. 48 (Fig. 1-17): Individual bands of the radio spectrum and their
primary allocations in the U.S. [See expandable version on
book website: em8e.eecs.umich.edu.] Source: U.S.
Department of Commerce
p. 75 (Fig. 2-10(c)): Circuit board, Gabriel Rebeiz
p. 133 (TF4-1): Microwave ablation for cancer liver treatment,
Radiological Society of North America (RSNA)
PHOTO CREDITS
p. 133 (TF4-2): Setup for a percutaneous microwave ablation
procedure shows three single microwave applicators
connected to three microwave generators, Radiological
Society of North America (RSNA)
p. 134 (TF4-3): Bryan Christie Design and the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers. IEEE Spectrum by Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Reproduced with
permission of Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, in the format Republish in a book via Copyright
Clearance Center
p. 166 (Mod. 3-2): Screenshot: Gradient. Graphics created with
Wolfram Mathematica R used with permission
p. 167 (TF5-1): Touchscreen smartphone with GPS navigation
isolated on white reflective background, Oleksiy
Mark/Shutterstock
p. 167 (TF5-2): SCaN’s Benefits to Society—Global Positioning
System, U.S. Department of Defense as a navigation tool for
military, developed in 1980
p. 168 (TF5-3): SUV, Konstantin/Fotolia
p. 172 (Mod. 3-3): Screenshot: Divergence, Graphics created with
Wolfram Mathematica R used with permission
p. 175 (TF6-1): X-ray of pelvis and spinal column, Cozyta
Moment/Getty Images, Inc.
p. 175 (TF6-2): CT scan advance technology for medical diagnosis,
Tawesit/Fotolia
p. 176 (TF6-3(c)): Digitally enhanced CT scan of a normal brain in
transaxial (horizontal) section, Scott Camazine/Science
Source
p. 178 (Mod. 3-4): Screenshot: Curl, Graphics created with Wolfram
Mathematica R used with permission
p. 202 (TF7-1): Most cars use over 100 sensors, National Motor
Museum/Shutterstock
p. 207 (TF8-1): Various electrolytic capacitors. Source:
ultracapacitor.org
p. 207 (TF8-2(a)): High-speed train in motion, Metlion/Fotolia
p. 207 (TF8-2(b)): Cordless Drill, Derek Hatfield/Shutterstock
p. 207 (TF8-2(c)): The 2006 BMW X3 Concept Gasoline Electric
Hybrid uses high-performance capacitors (or “Super Caps”)
to store and supply electric energy to the vehicle’s Active
Transmission, Passage/Car Culture/Corbis
p. 207 (TF8-2(d)): LED Electric torch—laser pointer isolated on
white background, Artur Synenko/Shutterstock
p. 222 (TF9-6): Elements of a fingerprint matching system. Bryan
Christie Design and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. IEEE Spectrum by Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers. Reproduced with permission of
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, in the format
Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center
p. 222 (TF9-7): Line Art: Fingerprint representation, Source:
Courtesy of Dr. M. Tartagni, University of Bologna, Italy
PHOTO CREDITS
p. 265 (TF10-5(a)): CHINA—JUNE 20: A maglev train awaits
departure in Shanghai, China, on Saturday, June 20, 2009,
Qilai Shen/Bloomberg/Getty Images
p. 265 (TF10-5(b) and (c)): Line Art: Magnetic trains—(b) internal
workings of the Maglev train. Used with permission—Amy
Mast, “Maglev trains are making history right now.” Flux,
Volume 3, Issue 1, National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
p. 307 (TF12-2): Ultrasonic Transducer, NDT Resource
p. 329 (TF13-1): Jersey cow on pasture, Lakeview
Images/Shutterstock
p. 330 (TF13-2): Line Art: How an RFID system works is illustrated
through this EZ-Pass example: Tag. Source: Cary
Wolinsky/Cavan Images/Alamy Stock Photo
15
p. 363 (TF15-1(a)): Optical Computer Mouse, Satawat
Anukul/123RF
p. 363 (TF15-1(b)): Laser eye surgery, Will & Deni
McIntyre/Science Source
p. 363 (TF15-1(c)): Laser Star Guide, NASA
p. 421 (TF17-1(a)): Smiling woman using computer,
Edbockstock/Fotolia
p. 421 (TF17-1(b)): Vector silhouette of Power lines and electric
pylons, Ints Vikmanis/Alamy Stock Photo
p. 421 (TF17-1(c)): Telecommunications tower, Poliki/Fotolia
p. 430 (Fig. 9-25): The AN/FPS-85 Phased Array Radar Facility in
the Florida panhandle, near the city of Freeport, NASA
This page is intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1
Introduction: Waves and Phasors

Chapter Contents Objectives

Overview, 18 Upon learning the material presented in this chapter, you
1-1 Historical Timeline, 19 should be able to:
1-2 Dimensions, Units, and Notation, 27
1-3 The Nature of Electromagnetism, 27 1. Describe the basic properties of electric and magnetic
TB1 LED Lighting, 34 forces.
1-4 Traveling Waves, 38 2. Ascribe mathematical formulations to sinusoidal waves
1-5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum, 46 traveling in both lossless and lossy media.
1-6 Review of Complex Numbers, 47
TB2 Solar Cells, 51 3. Apply complex algebra in rectangular and polar forms.
1-7 Review of Phasors, 54
Chapter 1 Summary, 58 4. Apply the phasor-domain technique to analyze circuits
Problems, 58 driven by sinusoidal sources.

17
18
Liquid crystal
678
Unpolarized light
Entrance polarizer
Figure 1-1 2-D LCD array.
Overview
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have become integral parts
of many electronic consumer products, ranging from alarm
clocks and cell phones to laptop computers and television sys-
tems. LCD technology relies on special electrical and optical
properties of a class of materials known as liquid crystals,
which are neither pure solids nor pure liquids but rather a
hybrid of both. The molecular structure of these materials is
such that when light travels through them, the polarization
of the emerging light depends on whether or not a voltage
exists across the material. Consequently, when no voltage is
applied, the exit surface appears bright. Conversely, when a
voltage of a certain level is applied across the LCD material,
no light passes through it, resulting in a dark pixel. In-between
voltages translate into a range of grey levels. By controlling the
voltages across individual pixels in a two-dimensional array, a
complete image can be displayed (Fig. 1-1). Color displays are
composed of three subpixels with red, green, and blue filters.
◮ The polarization behavior of light in a LCD is a
prime example of how electromagnetics is at the heart of
electrical and computer engineering. ◭
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS
2-D pixel array
Exit polarizer
Molecular spiral
LCD display
The subject of this book is applied electromagnetics (EM),
which encompasses the study of both static and dynamic
electric and magnetic phenomena and their engineering
applications. Primary emphasis is placed on the fundamental
properties of dynamic (time-varying) electromagnetic fields
because of their greater relevance to practical applications,
including wireless and optical communications, radar, bio-
electromagnetics, and high-speed microelectronics. We study
wave propagation in guided media, such as coaxial transmis-
sion lines, optical fibers, and waveguides; wave reflection and
transmission at interfaces between dissimilar media; radiation
by antennas, and several other related topics. The concluding
chapter is intended to illustrate a few aspects of applied EM
through an examination of design considerations associated
with the use and operation of radar sensors and satellite
communication systems.
We begin this chapter with a chronology of the history of
electricity and magnetism. Next, we introduce the fundamental
electric and magnetic field quantities of electromagnetics, as
well as their relationships to each other and to the electric
charges and currents that generate them. These relationships
constitute the underpinnings of the study of electromagnetic
phenomena. Then, in preparation for the material presented in
Chapter 2, we provide short reviews of three topics: traveling
waves, complex numbers, and phasors, which are all useful in
solving time-harmonic problems.
1-1 HISTORICAL TIMELINE
1-1 Historical Timeline
The history of EM may be divided into two overlapping eras.
The first is the classical era, during which the fundamental
laws of electricity and magnetism were discovered and formu-
lated. Building on these formulations, the modern era of the
past 100 years ushered in the birth of the field of applied EM
as we know it today.
1-1.1 EM in the Classical Era
Chronology 1-1 provides a timeline for the development of
electromagnetic theory in the classical era. It highlights those
discoveries and inventions that have impacted the historical
development of EM in a very significant way, even though the
selected discoveries represent only a small fraction of those
responsible for our current understanding of electromagnet-
ics. As we proceed through this book, some of the names
highlighted in Chronology 1-1, such as those of Coulomb
and Faraday, will appear again as we discuss the laws and
formulations named after them.
The attractive force of magnetite was reported by the Greeks
some 2800 years ago. It was also a Greek, Thales of Miletus,
who first wrote about what we now call static electricity: He
described how rubbing amber caused it to develop a force
that could pick up light objects such as feathers. The term
“electric” first appeared in print around 1600 in a treatise
on the (electric) force generated by friction, authored by the
physician to Queen Elizabeth I, William Gilbert.
About a century later, in 1733, Charles-François du Fay
introduced the notion that electricity involves two types of
“fluids,” one “positive” and the other “negative,” and that
like-fluids repel and opposite-fluids attract. His notion of a
fluid is what we today call electric charge. The invention
of the capacitor in 1745, originally called the Leyden jar,
made it possible to store significant amounts of electric charge
in a single device. A few years later, in 1752, Benjamin
Franklin demonstrated that lightning is a form of electricity.
He transferred electric charge from a cloud to a Leyden jar via
a silk kite flown in a thunderstorm. The collective eighteenth-
century knowledge about electricity was integrated in 1785 by
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, in the form of a mathematical
formulation characterizing the electrical force between two
charges in terms of their strengths and polarities and the
distance between them.
The year 1800 is noted for the development of the first elec-
tric battery by Alessandro Volta, and 1820 was a banner year
for discoveries about how electric currents induce magnetism.
This knowledge was put to good use by Joseph Henry, who
developed one of the earliest electromagnets and dc (direct
current) electric motors. Shortly thereafter, Michael Faraday
built the first electric generator (the converse of the electric
motor). Faraday, in essence, demonstrated that a changing
19
magnetic field induces an electric field (and hence a voltage).
The converse relation, namely that a changing electric field
induces a magnetic field, was first proposed by James Clerk
Maxwell in 1864 and then incorporated into his four (now)
famous equations in 1873.
◮ Maxwell’s equations represent the foundation of classi-
cal electromagnetic theory. ◭
Maxwell’s theory, which predicted the existence of elec-
tromagnetic waves, was not fully accepted by the scientific
community at that time. It was later verified experimentally
by means of radio waves by Heinrich Hertz in the 1880s. X-
rays, another member of the EM family, were discovered in
1895 by Wilhelm Röntgen. In the same decade, Nikola Tesla
was the first to develop the ac motor, which was considered a
major advance over its predecessor, the dc motor.
Despite the advances made in the 19th century in our
understanding of electricity and magnetism and how to put
them to practical use, it was not until 1897 that the fundamental
carrier of electric charge, the electron, was identified and its
properties quantified by Joseph Thomson. The ability to eject
electrons from a material by shining electromagnetic energy,
such as light, on it is known as the photoelectric effect.
◮ To explain the photoelectric effect, Albert Einstein
adopted the quantum concept of energy that had been
advanced a few years earlier (1900) by Max Planck.
Symbolically, this step represents the bridge between the
classical and modern eras of electromagnetics. ◭
1-1.2 EM in the Modern Era
Electromagnetics play a role in the design and operation
of every conceivable electronic device, including the diode,
transistor, integrated circuit, laser, display screen, bar-code
reader, cell phone, and microwave oven, to name but a few.
Given the breadth and diversity of these applications (Fig. 1-2),
it is far more difficult to construct a meaningful timeline
for the modern era than for the classical era. That said,
one can develop timelines for specific technologies and link
their milestone innovations to EM. Chronologies 1-2 and 1-3
present timelines for the development of telecommunications
and computers, technologies that have become integral parts
of today’s societal infrastructure. Some of the entries in these
chronologies refer to specific inventions, such as the telegraph,
the transistor, and the laser. The operational principles and
capabilities of some of these technologies are highlighted in
special sections called Technology Briefs that are scattered
throughout this book.
20 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

Chronology 1-1: TIMELINE FOR ELECTROMAGNETICS IN THE CLASSICAL ERA

Electromagnetics in the Classical Era

ca. 900 Legend has it that, while walking across a field in northern 1752 Benjamin Franklin
BC Greece, a shepherd named Magnus experiences a pull (American) invents
on the iron nails in his sandals by the black rock he is the lightning rod and
standing on. The region was later named Magnesia and demonstrates that
the rock became known as magnetite [a form of iron with lightning is electricity.
permanent magnetism].
ca. 600 Greek philosopher Thales 1785 Charles-Augustin
BC describes how amber, after being de Coulomb (French)
rubbed with cat fur, can pick up demonstrates that the
feathers [static electricity]. electrical force between
charges is proportional to
the inverse of the square
of the distance between
ca. Magnetic compass used as a them.
1000 navigational device.
1800 Alessandro Volta (Italian)
develops the first electric
battery.
1600 William Gilbert (English) coins the term electric after the
Greek word for amber (elektron), and observes that a
compass needle points north–south because the Earth
acts as a bar magnet.
1820 Hans Christian Oersted
(Danish) demonstrates the
1671 Isaac Newton (English) demonstrates that white light is a
interconnection between
mixture of all the colors.
electricity and magnetism
through his discovery that
an electric current in a
wire causes a compass
needle to orient itself
perpendicular to
the wire.

1820 André-Marie Ampère (French)

notes that parallel currents in
wires attract each other and
opposite currents repel.

1733 Charles-François du Fay (French) discovers that

electric charges are of two forms and that like charges 1820 Jean-Baptiste Biot (French)
repel and unlike charges attract. and Félix Savart (French)
develop the Biot–Savart law
relating the magnetic field
1745 Pieter van Musschenbroek (Dutch) invents the Leyden induced by a wire segment
jar, which was the first electrical capacitor. to the current flowing through it.
1-1 HISTORICAL TIMELINE 21

Chronology 1-1: TIMELINE FOR ELECTROMAGNETICS IN THE CLASSICAL ERA (continued)

Electromagnetics in the Classical Era

1827 Georg Simon Ohm (German) formulates Ohm's law 1888 Nikola Tesla (American)
relating electric potential to current and resistance. invents the ac (alternating
current) electric motor.
1827 Joseph Henry (American) introduces the concept of
inductance and builds one of the earliest electric motors.
He also assisted Samual Morse in the development
of the telegraph.

1831 Michael Faraday (English)

discovers that a changing
magnetic flux can induce
an electromotive force.

1895 Wilhelm Röntgen (German)

discovers X-rays. One of
1835 Carl Friedrich Gauss (German) formulates Gauss's law his first X-ray images was
relating the electric flux flowing through an enclosed of the bones in his wife's
surface to the enclosed electric charge. hands. [1901 Nobel prize
in physics.]

1873 James Clerk Maxwell

(Scottish) publishes his
Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism, in which he unites 1897 Joseph John Thomson (English) discovers the electron
the discoveries of Coulomb, and measures its charge-to-mass ratio. [1906 Nobel prize
Oersted, Ampère, Faraday, in physics.]
and others into four elegantly
constructed mathematical 1905 Albert Einstein (German-American) explains the
equations, now known as photoelectric effect discovered earlier by Hertz in 1887.
Maxwell’s Equations. [1921 Nobel prize in physics.]

1887 Heinrich Hertz

(German) builds
a system that
can generate
electromagnetic
waves (at radio
frequencies) and
detect them.
22 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

Chronology 1-2: TIMELINE FOR TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Telecommunications

1825 William Sturgeon 1896 Guglielmo Marconi (Italian)

(English) develops files his first of many patents
the multiturn on wireless transmission
electromagnet. by radio. In 1901, he
demonstrates radio telegraphy
across the Atlantic Ocean.
[1909 Nobel prize in physics,
1837 Samuel Morse shared with Karl Braun
(American) patents the (German).]
electromagnetic telegraph
using a code of dots and
dashes to represent letters
and numbers.
1897 Karl Braun (German) invents the cathode ray tube (CRT).
[1909 Nobel prize in physics, shared with Marconi.]
1902 Reginald Fessenden (American) invents amplitude
modulation for telephone transmission. In 1906, he
introduces AM radio broadcasting of speech and music
1872 Thomas Edison (American) on Christmas Eve.
patents the electric
typewriter. 1912 Lee De Forest
(American)
develops the triode
tube amplifier for
wireless telegraphy.
Also in 1912, the
wireless distress
1876 Alexander Graham Bell call issued by the
(Scottish-American) invents Titanic was heard
the telephone. The rotary dial 58 miles away by
becomes available in 1890, the ocean liner
and by 1900, telephone Carpathia, which
systems are installed in managed to rescue
many communities. 705 Titanic passengers
3.5 hours later.

1919 Edwin Armstong (American) invents the

1887 Heinrich Hertz (German) superheterodyne radio receiver.
generates radio waves and
demonstrates that they
share the same properties 1920 Birth of commercial radio
as light. broadcasting; Westinghouse Corporation
establishes radio station
KDKA in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.

1887 Emil Berliner (American) invents the flat gramophone

disc, or record.
1-1 HISTORICAL TIMELINE 23

Chronology 1-2: TIMELINE FOR TELECOMMUNICATIONS (continued)

Telecommunications
1923 Vladimir Zworykin 1958 Jack Kilby (American) builds first integrated circuit (IC) on
(Russian-American) germanium and, independently, Robert Noyce (American)
invents television. In builds first IC on silicon.
1926, John Baird (Scottish)
transmits TV images
over telephone wires
from London to Glasgow.
Regular TV broadcasting
began in Germany (1935),
England (1936), and the
United States (1939).

1960 Echo, the first passive

communication satellite, is
1926 Transatlantic telephone service between London and launched and successfully
New York. reflects radio signals back
to Earth. In 1963, the first
1932 First microwave telephone link, installed (by Marconi) communication satellite is
between Vatican City and the Pope’s summer residence. placed in geosynchronous orbit.

1933 Edwin Armstrong (American) invents frequency 1969 ARPANET is established by the U.S. Department of
modulation (FM) for radio transmission. Defense and will evolve later into the Internet.

1935 Robert Watson-Watt 1979 Japan builds the first cellular telephone network:
(Scottish) invents radar. • 1983: Cellular phone networks start in the United States.
• 1990: Electronic beepers become common.
• 1995: Cell phones become widely available.
1938 H. A. Reeves (American) • 2002: Cell phone supports video and Internet.
invents pulse code
modulation (PCM).
1984 Worldwide Internet becomes operational.

1947 William Shockley, 1988 First transatlantic optical

Walter Brattain, and fiber cable deployed between
John Bardeen (all the U.S. and Europe.
Americans) invent the
junction transistor at Bell
1997 The Mars Pathfinder sends
Labs [1956 Nobel prize
images to Earth.
in physics].

1955 Pager is introduced as a radio communication product in

hospitals and factories. 2004 Wireless communication is supported by many airports,
university campuses, and other facilities.
1955 Narinder Kapany (Indian-American) demonstrates the
optical fiber as a low-loss, light-transmission medium. 2012 Smartphones worldwide exceed 1 billion.
24 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

Chronology 1-3: TIMELINE FOR COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

Computer Technology
ca 1100 The abacus is the earliest known calculating device. 1941 Konrad Zuze (German) develops the first programmable
BC digital computer, making use of binary arithmetic and
electric relays.
1945 John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert (both American)
develop the ENIAC, which is the first all-electronic
computer.

1614 John Napier (Scottish) develops the logarithm system.

1642 Blaise Pascal

(French) builds
the first adding
machine using
multiple dials. 1950 Yoshiro Nakama (Japanese) patents the floppy disk as a
magnetic medium for storing data.
1956 John Backus (American)
develops FORTRAN, which
1671 Gottfried von Leibniz (German) builds calculator that can is the first major programming
do both addition and multiplication. language.

1820 Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar (French) builds the 1958 Bell Labs develops the modem.
Arithmometer: the first mass-produced calculator.

1885 Dorr Felt (American) invents and markets a key-operated 1960 Digital Equipment
adding machine (and adds a printer in 1889). Corporation introduces the
first minicomputer, the PDP-1,
to be followed with the PDP-8
1930 Vannevar Bush (American) develops the differential analyzer,
in 1965.
which is an analog computer for solving differential equations.

1964 IBM’s 360 mainframe

becomes the standard
computer for major businesses.

1965 John Kemeny and PRINT

Thomas Kurtz FOR Counter = 1TO Items
(both American) PRINT USING “##.”; Counter;
develop the BASIC LOCATE , ItemColumn
computer language. PRINT Item$(Counter);
LOCATE , PriceColumn
PRINT Price$(Counter)
NEXT Counter
1-1 HISTORICAL TIMELINE 25

Chronology 1-3: TIMELINE FOR COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY (continued)

Computer Technology

1968 Douglas Engelbart (American) demonstrates a 1989 Tim Berners-Lee (British) invents the World Wide Web by
word-processor system, the mouse pointing device introducing a networked hypertext system.
and the use of “windows.”

1971 Texas Instruments introduces the pocket

calculator. 1991 The internet connects to 600,000 hosts in more than 100
countries.

1995 Sun Microsystems introduces the Java programming

language.

1996 Sabeer Bhatia (Indian-American) and Jack Smith

(American) launch Hotmail, which is the first
webmail service.

1971 Ted Hoff (American) invents the Intel 1997 IBM’s Deep Blue computer defeats World Chess
4004, which is the first computer microprocessor. Champion Garry Kasparov.

1976 IBM introduces the laser printer.

1976 Apple Computer sells

Apple I in kit form, which
is followed by the fully
assembled Apple II in
1977 and the Macintosh
in 1984.

1980 Microsoft introduces the

MS-DOS computer disk
operating system.
Microsoft Windows
is marketed in 1985.
2002 The billionth personal computer is sold; the second
billion is reached in 2007.
1981 IBM introduces the PC.

2010 The iPad is introduced in 2010.

26 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

Astronomy:
The Very Large
Array of Radio
Telescopes

Global Positioning System (GPS) Motor

LCD
Screen

Plasma
propulsion

Radar

Telecommunication

Optical fiber

Ultrasound transducer

Ablation catheter
Liver
Ultrasound
Cell phone image

Microwave ablation for liver cancer treatment

Figure 1-2 Electromagnetics is at the heart of numerous systems and applications.

1-3 THE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM 27

Table 1-1 Fundamental SI units. Table 1-2 Multiple and submultiple prefixes.

Dimension Unit Symbol Prefix Symbol Magnitude

Length meter m exa E 1018
Mass kilogram kg peta P 1015
Time second s tera T 1012
Electric charge coulomb C giga G 109
Temperature kelvin K mega M 106
Amount of substance mole mol kilo k 103
Luminous intensity candela cd
milli m 10−3
micro µ 10−6
nano n 10−9
pico p 10−12
femto f 10−15
1-2 Dimensions, Units, and Notation atto a 10−18

The International System of Units, abbreviated SI after its

French name Système Internationale, is the standard system
used in today’s scientific literature for expressing the units
of physical quantities. Length is a dimension and meter is
the unit by which it is expressed relative to a reference
standard. The SI system is based on the units for the seven
fundamental dimensions listed in Table 1-1. The units for
all other dimensions are regarded as secondary because they
are based on, and can be expressed in terms of, the seven
fundamental units. Appendix A contains a list of quantities
used in this book, together with their symbols and units.
For quantities ranging in value between 10−18 and 1018, a
set of prefixes arranged in steps of 103 are commonly used to
denote multiples and submultiples of units. These prefixes, all
of which were derived from Greek, Latin, Spanish, and Danish
terms, are listed in Table 1-2. A length of 5 × 10−9 m, for
example, may be written as 5 nm.
In EM, we work with scalar and vector quantities. In
this book, we use a medium-weight italic font for symbols
denoting scalar quantities, such as R for resistance, and a
boldface roman font for symbols denoting vectors, such as E
for the electric field vector. A vector consists of a magnitude
(scalar) and a direction, with the direction usually denoted by
a unit vector. For example,
E = x̂E, (1.1)
where E is the magnitude of E and x̂ is its direction. A symbol
denoting a unit vector is printed in boldface with a circumflex
(ˆ) above it.
Throughout this book, we make extensive use of phasor
representation in solving problems involving electromagnetic
quantities that vary sinusoidally in time. Letters denoting
phasor quantities are printed with a tilde (∼) over the letter.
Thus, Ee is the phasor electric field vector corresponding to
the instantaneous electric field vector E(t). This notation is
discussed in more detail in Section 1-7.
Notation Summary
• Scalar quantity: medium-weight italic, such as C for
capacitance.
• Units: medium-weight roman, as in V/m for volts per
meter.
• Vector quantities: boldface roman, such as E for
electric field vector
• Unit vectors: boldface roman with circumflex (ˆ)
over the letter, as in x̂.
• Phasors: a tilde (∼) over the letter; Ee is the phasor
counterpart of the sinusoidally time-varying scalar
field E(t), and Ee is the phasor counterpart of the
sinusoidally time-varying vector field E(t).
1-3 The Nature of Electromagnetism
Our physical universe is governed by four fundamental forces
of nature:
• The nuclear force, which is the strongest of the four, but
its range is limited to subatomic scales, such as nuclei.
• The electromagnetic force exists between all charged
28 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

particles. It is the dominant force in microscopic systems,

such as atoms and molecules, and its strength is on the Fg21
order of 10−2 that of the nuclear force.
m2
• The weak-interaction force, whose strength is only 10−14
that of the nuclear force. Its primary role is in interactions Fg12
involving certain radioactive elementary particles.
ˆ 12
R R12
• The gravitational force is the weakest of all four forces, m1
having a strength on the order of 10−41 of the nuclear
force. However, it often is the dominant force in macro-
scopic systems, such as the solar system.
Figure 1-3 Gravitational forces between two masses.
This book focuses on the electromagnetic force and its conse-
quences. Even though the electromagnetic force operates at the
atomic scale, its effects can be transmitted in the form of elec-
tromagnetic waves that can propagate through both free space
and material media. The purpose of this section is to provide an −Rˆ
overview of the basic framework of electromagnetism, which
consists of certain fundamental laws governing the electric and
magnetic fields induced by static and moving electric charges,
m1
the relations between the electric and magnetic fields, and how
these fields interact with matter. As a precursor, however, we Gravitational
will take advantage of our familiarity with gravitational force field ψ1
by describing some of its properties because they provide a
useful analogue to those of electromagnetic force.

1-3.1 Gravitational Force: A Useful Analogue Figure 1-4 Gravitational field ψ 1 induced by a mass m1 .
According to Newton’s law of gravity, the gravitational
force Fg21 acting on mass m2 due to a mass m1 at a distance
R12 from m2 (Fig. 1-3) is given by not physically emanate from the object, yet its influence exists
at every point in space such that, if another object of mass m2
Gm1 m2 were to exist at a distance R12 from the object of mass m1 , the
Fg21 = −R̂12 (N), (1.2)
R212 object of mass m2 would experience a force acting on it equal
to
where G is the universal gravitational constant, R̂12 is a unit Fg21 = ψ 1 m2 , (1.3)
vector that points from m1 to m2 , and the unit for force where
is newton (N). The negative sign in Eq. (1.2) accounts for Gm1
the fact that the gravitational force is attractive. Conversely, ψ 1 = −R̂ (N/kg). (1.4)
R2
Fg12 = −Fg21 , where Fg12 is the force acting on mass m1 due to
In Eq. (1.4), R̂ is a unit vector that points in the radial direction
the gravitational pull of mass m2 . Note that the first subscript
away from object m1 ; therefore, −R̂ points toward m1 . The
of Fg denotes the mass experiencing the force and the second
force due to ψ 1 acting on a mass m2 , for example, is obtained
subscript denotes the source of the force.
from the combination of Eqs. (1.3) and (1.4) with R = R12 and
R̂ = R̂12 . The field concept may be generalized by defining the
◮ The force of gravitation acts at a distance. ◭ gravitational field ψ at any point in space such that, when a
test mass m is placed at that point, the force Fg acting on it is
related to ψ by
The two objects do not have to be in direct contact for each to Fg
ψ= . (1.5)
experience the pull by the other. This phenomenon of action m
at a distance has led to the concept of fields. An object of The force Fg may be due to a single mass or a collection of
mass m1 induces a gravitational field ψ 1 (Fig. 1-4) that does many masses.
1-3 THE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM
1-3.2 Electric Fields
The electromagnetic force consists of an electrical component
Fe and a magnetic component Fm .
◮ The electrical force Fe is similar to the gravitational
force, but with two major differences:
(1) the source of the electrical field is electric charge, not
mass, and
(2) even though both types of fields vary inversely
as the square of the distance from their respec-
tive sources, electric charges may have positive or
negative polarity, resulting in a force that may be
attractive or repulsive. ◭
We know from atomic physics that all matter contains a
mixture of neutrons, positively charged protons, and neg-
atively charged electrons with the fundamental quantity of
charge being that of a single electron, usually denoted by
the letter e. The unit by which electric charge is measured is
the coulomb (C), named in honor of the eighteenth-century
French scientist Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806).
The magnitude of e is
e = 1.6 × 10−19 (C). (1.6)
The charge of a single electron is qe = −e and that of a proton
is equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity: qp = e.
◮ Coulomb’s experiments demonstrated that:
(1) two like charges repel one another, whereas two
charges of opposite polarity attract,
(2) the force acts along the line joining the charges, and
(3) its strength is proportional to the product of the mag-
nitudes of the two charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. ◭
These properties constitute what today is called Coulomb’s
law, which can be expressed mathematically as
q1 q2
Fe21 = R̂12 (N) (in free space), (1.7)
4πε0 R212
where Fe21 is the electrical force acting on charge q2 due
to charge q1 when both are in free space (vacuum), R12 is
29
Fe21
Force on charge q1 +q2
due to charge q2
ˆ 12
R
R12
Fe12 +q1
Figure 1-5 Electric forces on two positive point charges in free
space.
the distance between the two charges, R̂12 is a unit vector
pointing from charge q1 to charge q2 (Fig. 1-5), and ε0 is
a universal constant called the electrical permittivity of free
space [ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12 farad per meter (F/m)]. The two
charges are assumed to be isolated from all other charges.
The force Fe12 acting on charge q1 due to charge q2 is
equal to force Fe21 in magnitude, but opposite in direction:
Fe12 = −Fe21 .
The expression given by Eq. (1.7) for the electrical force
is analogous to that given by Eq. (1.2) for the gravitational
force, and we can extend the analogy further by defining the
existence of an electric field intensity E due to any charge q as
q
E = R̂ (V/m) (in free space), (1.8)
4πε0 R2
where R is the distance between the charge and the observation
point, and R̂ is the radial unit vector pointing away from the
charge. Figure 1-6 depicts the electric field lines due to a
positive charge. For reasons that will become apparent in later
chapters, the unit for E is volt per meter (V/m).
◮ If a point charge q′ is present in an electric field E (due
to other charges), the point charge will experience a force
acting on it equal to Fe = q′ E. ◭
Electric charge exhibits two important properties.
◮ The first property of electric charge is encapsulated by
the law of conservation of electric charge, which states
that the (net) electric charge can neither be created nor
destroyed. ◭
30 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

+ +

− +
+ −

− +
+ +

+
− − − −
ˆ

−
R

− +
+ − +

+ −

− +
+ − +

+
− −

−
+

− +
+ − + − + − +
− − − + − + − +
+q
+ − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − +
Electric q
+ − + − + − −
field lines

+ −
− + − + − + −
+ +

+ − −

− +

+ −
+ −
−

−
− + −
+ +

+
− −

− +

+ −
−

−
+ −
− −
+ + + +

Figure 1-6 Electric field E due to charge q.
If a volume contains np protons and ne electrons, then its total
charge is
q = np e − nee = (np − ne )e (C). (1.9)
Even if some of the protons were to combine with an equal
number of electrons to produce neutrons or other elementary
particles, the net charge q remains unchanged. In matter,
the quantum mechanical laws governing the behavior of the
protons inside the atom’s nucleus and the electrons outside it
do not allow them to combine.
◮ The second important property of electric charge is
embodied by the principle of linear superposition, which
states that the total vector electric field at a point in space
due to a system of point charges is equal to the vector
sum of the electric fields at that point due to the individual
charges. ◭
This seemingly simple concept allows us in future chapters
to compute the electric field due to complex distributions of
charge without having to be concerned with the forces acting
on each individual charge due to the fields by all of the other
charges.
The expression given by Eq. (1.8) describes the field
induced by an electric charge residing in free space. Let us
now consider what happens when we place a positive point
charge in a material composed of atoms. In the absence of
the point charge, the material is electrically neutral with each
atom having a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a
cloud of electrons of equal but opposite polarity. Hence, at
any point in the material not occupied by an atom, the electric
field E is zero. Upon placing a point charge in the material, as
shown in Fig. 1-7, the atoms experience forces that cause them
+
Figure 1-7 Polarization of the atoms of a dielectric material by
a positive charge q.
to become distorted. The center of symmetry of the electron
cloud is altered with respect to the nucleus with one pole of
the atom becoming positively charged relative to the other
pole. Such a polarized atom is called an electric dipole, and
the distortion process is called polarization. The degree of
polarization depends on the distance between the atom and
the isolated point charge, and the orientation of the dipole is
such that the axis connecting its two poles is directed toward
the point charge, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 1-7. The
net result of this polarization process is that the electric fields
of the dipoles of the atoms (or molecules) tend to counteract
the field due to the point charge. Consequently, the electric
field at any point in the material is different from the field that
would have been induced by the point charge in the absence
of the material. To extend Eq. (1.8) from the free-space case
to any medium, we replace the permittivity of free space ε0
with ε , where ε is the permittivity of the material in which the
electric field is measured and is therefore characteristic of that
particular material. Thus,
q
E = R̂ (V/m). (1.10)
4πε R2
(material with permittivity ε )
Often, ε is expressed in the form
ε = εr ε0 (F/m), (1.11)
where εr is a dimensionless quantity called the relative per-
mittivity or dielectric constant of the material. For a vacuum,
εr = 1; for air near the Earth’s surface, εr = 1.0006; and the
values of εr for materials that we have occasion to use in this
book are tabulated in Appendix B.
1-3 THE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM 31

In addition to the electric field intensity E, we often find it

convenient to also use a related quantity called the electric flux
density D given by

N
D = εE (C/m2 ), (1.12)

with unit of coulomb per square meter (C/m2 ).

B
◮ These two electric quantities, E and D, constitute
one of two fundamental pairs of electromagnetic fields.
Magnetic
The second pair consists of the magnetic fields discussed
field lines
next. ◭ S

1-3.3 Magnetic Fields

As early as 800 BC, the Greeks discovered that certain kinds
Figure 1-8 Pattern of magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.
of stones exhibit a force that attracts pieces of iron. These
stones are now called magnetite (Fe3 O4 ), and the phenomenon
they exhibit is known as magnetism. In the thirteenth century,
French scientists discovered that, when a needle was placed on z
the surface of a spherical natural magnet, the needle oriented
itself along different directions for different locations on the
magnet. By mapping the directions indicated by the needle, it
was determined that the magnetic force formed magnetic field I φ̂
lines that encircled the sphere and appeared to pass through B
B
two points diametrically opposite to each other. These points,
called the north and south poles of the magnet, were found to y
r B
exist for every magnet, regardless of its shape. The magnetic- B
field pattern of a bar magnet is displayed in Fig. 1-8. It was
also observed that like poles of different magnets repel each B
other and unlike poles attract each other. x B

B
◮ The attraction–repulsion property for magnets is similar B
to the electric force between electric charges, except
for one important difference: Electric charges can be
isolated, but magnetic poles always exist in pairs. ◭ Figure 1-9 The magnetic field induced by a steady current
flowing in the z direction.

If a permanent magnet is cut into small pieces, no matter how

small each piece is, it will always have a north and a south
pole.
The magnetic lines surrounding a magnet represent the
magnetic flux density B. A magnetic field not only exists
around permanent magnets but also can be created by electric
current. This connection between electricity and magnetism
was discovered in 1819 by the Danish scientist Hans Oersted
(1777–1851), who observed that an electric current in a wire
caused a compass needle placed in its vicinity to deflect
and that the needle turned so that its direction was always
perpendicular to the wire and to the radial line connecting the
wire to the needle. From these observations, he deduced that
the current-carrying wire induced a magnetic field that formed
closed circular loops around the wire (Fig. 1-9). Shortly after
Oersted’s discovery, French scientists Jean-Baptiste Biot and
Félix Savart developed an expression that relates the magnetic
flux density B at a point in space to the current I in the
conductor. Application of their formulation, known today as
the Biot–Savart law, to the situation depicted in Fig. 1-9 for
32
a very long wire residing in free space leads to the result that
the magnetic flux density B induced by a constant current I
flowing in the z direction is given by
µ0 I
B = φ̂φ (T), (1.13)
2π r
where r is the radial distance from the current and φ̂φ is an
azimuthal unit vector expressing the fact that the magnetic
field direction is tangential to the circle surrounding the cur-
rent. The magnetic field is measured in tesla (T), named in
honor of Nikola Tesla (1856–1943). Tesla was an electrical
engineer whose work on transformers made it possible to
transport electricity over long wires without too much loss.
The quantity µ0 is called the magnetic permeability of free
space [µ0 = 4π × 10−7 henry per meter (H/m)], and it is
analogous to the electric permittivity ε0 . In fact, as we will
see in Chapter 2, the product of ε0 and µ0 specifies c, which is
the velocity of light in free space:
1 but conveys no specific information about the character of
c= √ = 3 × 108 (m/s). (1.14)
µ0 ε0
We noted in Section 1-3.2 that, when an electric charge q′ is
subjected to an electric field E, it experiences an electric force
Fe = q′ E. Similarly, if a charge q′ resides in the presence of a
magnetic flux density B, it experiences a magnetic force Fm ,
but only if the charge is in motion and its velocity u is in
a direction not parallel (or anti-parallel) to B. In fact, as we
learn in more detail in Chapter 5, Fm points in a direction
perpendicular to both B and u.
To extend Eq. (1.13) to a medium other than free space, µ0
should be replaced with µ , which is the magnetic permeability
of the material in which B is being observed. The majority of
natural materials are nonmagnetic, meaning that they exhibit
a magnetic permeability µ = µ0 . For ferromagnetic materials,
such as iron and nickel, µ can be much larger than µ0 . The
magnetic permeability µ accounts for magnetization proper-
ties of a material. In analogy with Eq. (1.11), µ of a particular
material can be defined as
µ = µr µ0 (H/m), (1.15)
where µr is a dimensionless quantity called the relative mag-
netic permeability of the material. The values of µr for com-
monly used ferromagnetic materials are given in Appendix B.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS
◮ We stated earlier that E and D constitute one of two
pairs of electromagnetic field quantities. The second pair
is B and the magnetic field intensity H, which are related
to each other through µ :
B = µ H. (1.16)
◭
1-3.4 Static and Dynamic Fields
In EM, the time variable t, or more precisely if and how
electric and magnetic quantities vary with time, is of crucial
importance. Before we elaborate further on the significance of
this statement, it will prove useful to define the following time-
related adjectives unambiguously:
• Static—describes a quantity that does not change with
time. The term dc (i.e., direct current) is often used as a
synonym for static to describe not only currents, but other
electromagnetic quantities as well.
• Dynamic—refers to a quantity that does vary with time,
the variation.
• Waveform—refers to a plot of the magnitude profile of a
quantity as a function of time.
• Periodic—a quantity is periodic if its waveform repeats
itself at a regular interval, namely its period T . Examples
include the sinusoid and the square wave. By application
of the Fourier series analysis technique, any periodic
waveform can be expressed as the sum of an infinite series
of sinusoids.
• Sinusoidal—also called ac (i.e., alternating current),
describes a quantity that varies sinusoidally (or cosinu-
soidally) with time.
In view of these terms, let us now examine the relationship
between the electric field E and the magnetic flux density B.
Because E is governed by the charge q and B is governed by
I = dq/dt, one might expect that E and B must be somehow
related to each other. As we learn later, they may or may not
be interrelated, depending on whether I is static or dynamic.
Let us start by examining the dc case in which I remains
constant with time. Consider a small section of a beam of
charged particles, all moving at a constant velocity. The
moving charges constitute a dc current. The electric field due
to that section of the beam is determined by the total charge q
contained in it. The magnetic field does not depend on q,
but rather on the rate of charge (current) flowing through that
section. Few charges moving very fast can constitute the same
1-3 THE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM 33

Table 1-3 The three branches of electromagnetics.

Branch Condition Field Quantities (Units)

Electrostatics Stationary charges Electric field intensity E (V/m)

(∂ q/∂ t = 0) Electric flux density D (C/m2 )
D = εE
Magnetostatics Steady currents Magnetic flux density B (T)
(∂ I/∂ t = 0) Magnetic field intensity H (A/m)
B = µH
Dynamics Time-varying currents E, D, B, and H
(time-varying fields) (∂ I/∂ t 6= 0) (E, D) coupled to (B, H)

current as many charges moving slowly. In these two cases, the

induced magnetic field is the same because the current I is the Table 1-4 Constitutive parameters of materials.
same, but the induced electric field is quite different because
the numbers of charges are not the same. Parameter Units Free-Space Value
Electrostatics and magnetostatics refer to the study of EM
under the specific, respective conditions of stationary charges Electrical F/m ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12
and dc currents. They represent two independent branches, so permittivity ε
1
characterized because the induced electric and magnetic fields ≈ × 10−9
36π
do not couple to each other. Dynamics, the third and more
Magnetic
general branch of electromagnetics, involves time-varying permeability µ H/m µ0 = 4π × 10−7
fields induced by time-varying sources, that is, currents and
associated charge densities. If the current associated with the Conductivity σ S/m 0
beam of moving charged particles varies with time, then the
amount of charge present in a given section of the beam also
varies with time, and vice versa. As we will see in Chapter 6,
the electric and magnetic fields become coupled to each other
in that case. ◮ The parameters ε , µ , and σ are often referred to as
the constitutive parameters of a material (Table 1-4).
A medium is said to be homogeneous if its constitutive
◮ A time-varying electric field generates a time-varying
parameters are constant throughout the medium. ◭
magnetic field, and vice versa. ◭

Concept Question 1-1: What are the four fundamental

Table 1-3 provides a summary of the three branches of
forces of nature, and what are their relative strengths?
electromagnetics.
The electric and magnetic properties of materials are char-
acterized by the parameters ε and µ , respectively. A third
Concept Question 1-2: What is Coulomb’s law? State
fundamental parameter also needed is the conductivity of a
its properties.
material σ , which is measured in siemens per meter (S/m).
The conductivity characterizes the ease with which charges
(electrons) can move freely in a material. If σ = 0, the charges
Concept Question 1-3: What are the two important
do not move more than atomic distances, and the material
properties of electric charge?
is said to be a perfect dielectric. Conversely, if σ = ∞, the
charges can move very freely throughout the material, which
is then called a perfect conductor. (continued on p. 38)
34 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

Technology Brief 1: LED Lighting

After lighting our homes, buildings, and streets for
over 100 years, the incandescent light bulb created
by Thomas Edison (1879) will soon become a relic of
the past. Many countries have taken steps to phase it (a)
out and replace it with a much more energy-efficient
alternative: the light-emitting diode (LED).

Light Sources
The three dominant sources of electric light are
the incandescent, fluorescent, and LED light bulbs (b)
(Fig. TF1-1). We examine each briefly.

Incandescent Light Bulb

◮ Incandescence is the emission of light from a hot

object due to its temperature. ◭

By passing electric current through a thin tungsten fila-

ment, which basically is a resistor, the filament’s temper-
ature rises to a very high level, causing the filament to
(c)
glow and emit visible light. The intensity and shape of
the emitted spectrum depends on the filament’s temper-
ature. A typical example is shown by the green curve in
Fig. TF1-2. The tungsten spectrum is similar in shape to
that of sunlight (yellow curve in Fig. TF1-2), particularly
in the blue and green parts of the spectrum (400–
550 nm). Despite the relatively strong (compared with
sunlight) yellow light emitted by incandescent sources,
the quasi-white light they produce has a quality that the
human eye finds rather comfortable.
Figure TF1-1 (a) Incandescent light bulb; (b) fluorescent
mercury vapor lamp; (c) white LED.
◮ The incandescent light bulb is significantly less
expensive to manufacture than the fluorescent and
LED light bulbs, but it is far inferior with re-
gard to energy efficacy and operational lifetime Fluorescent Light Bulb
(Fig. TF1-7). ◭
To fluoresce means to emit radiation in consequence to
incident radiation of a shorter wavelength. By passing a
Of the energy supplied to an incandescent light bulb, stream of electrons between two electrodes at the ends
only about 2% is converted into light, with the remainder of a tube (Fig. TF1-1(b)) containing mercury gas (or the
wasted as heat! In fact, the incandescent light bulb is noble gases neon, argon, and xenon) at very low pres-
the weakest link in the overall conversion sequence from sure, the electrons collide with the mercury atoms, caus-
coal to light (Fig. TF1-3). ing them to excite their own electrons to higher energy
1-3 THE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM 35

Light-Emitting Diode
100
Noon sunlight The LED contained inside the polymer jacket in
Energy (arbitrary units)

75 Fig. TF1-1(c) is a p-n junction diode fabricated on a

Incandescent semiconductor chip. When a voltage is applied in a
tungsten forward-biased direction across the diode (Fig. TF1-4),
50 current flows through the junction and some of the
White LED
(with phosphor) streaming electrons are captured by positive charges
25 (holes). Associated with each electron-hole recombining
act is the release of energy in the form of a photon.
Fluorescent
mercury
0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Wavelength (micrometers)

Figure TF1-2 Spectra of common sources of visible light.

levels. When the excited electrons return to the ground

state, they emit photons at specific wavelengths, mostly Photon Photon
in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. Consequently, the
spectrum of a mercury lamp is concentrated into narrow I _
lines, as shown by the blue curve in Fig. TF1-2. e
p-type n-type

Holes Electrons
◮ To broaden the mercury spectrum into one that
resembles that of white light, the inside surface of the
_
fluorescent light tube is coated with phosphor parti- +
cles [such as yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) doped V
with cerium]. The particles absorb the UV energy
and then reradiate it as a broad spectrum extending Figure TF1-4 Photons are emitted when electrons combine
from blue to red; hence the name fluorescent. ◭ with holes.

Coal

Power plant Transmission lines Light

E1 = 0.35 E2 = 0.92 E3 = 0.024

Overall efficiency for conversion of chemical energy to light energy is

E1 × E2 × E3 = 0.35 × 0.92 × 0.024 ═ 0.8%

Figure TF1-3 Lighting efficiency. (Source: National Research Council, 2009.)

36
Spectral power (arbitrary units)
3 100
2 White LED
1
0
400 500
Wavelength (nm)
Figure TF1-5 The addition of spectra from three monochro-
matic LEDs.
◮ The wavelength of the emitted photon depends on
the diode’s semiconductor material. The materials
most commonly used are aluminum gallium arsenide
(AIGaAs) to generate red light, indium gallium nitride
(InGaN) to generate blue light, and aluminum gallium
phosphide (AIGaP) to generate green light. In each
case, the emitted energy is confined to a narrow
spectral band. ◭
Two basic techniques are available for generating
white light with LEDs: (a) RGB and (b) blue/conversion.
The RGB approach involves the use of three monochro-
matic LEDs whose primary colors (red, green, and blue)
are mixed to generate an approximation of a white-
light spectrum. An example is shown in Fig. TF1-5. The
advantage of this approach is that the relative intensities
of the three LEDs can be controlled independently,
thereby making it possible to “tune” the shape of the
overall spectrum to generate an esthetically pleasing
color of “white.” The major shortcoming of the RGB
technique is cost: manufacturing three LEDs instead of
just one.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS
Energy (arbitrary units)
75
(phosphor-based blue LED)
50
25
Blue LED
600 700 0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Wavelength (micrometers)
Figure TF1-6 Phosphor-based white LED emission spectrum.
With the blue LED/phosphor conversion technique,
a blue LED is used with phosphor powder particles
suspended in the epoxy resin that encapsulates it. The
blue light emitted by the LED is absorbed by the phos-
phor particles and then reemitted as a broad spectrum
(Fig. TF1-6). To generate high-intensity light, several
LEDs are clustered into a single enclosure.
Comparison
◮ Luminous efficacy (LE) is a measure of how
much light in lumens is produced by a light source
for each watt of electricity consumed by it. ◭
Of the three types of light bulbs we discussed, the
incandescent light bulb is by far the most inefficient
and its useful lifespan is the shortest (Fig. TF1-7).
For a typical household scenario, the 10-year cost—
including electricity and replacement cost—is several
times smaller for the LED than for the alternatives.
1-3 THE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM 37

Parameter Type of Light Bulb

Incandescent Fluorescent White LED

Circa 2010 Circa 2025

Luminous Efficacy
~12 ~40 ~70 ~150
(lumens/W)

Useful Lifetime
~1000 ~20,000 ~60,000 ~100,000
(hours)

Purchase Price ~$1.50 ~$5 ~$10 ~$5

Estimated Cost
~$410 ~$110 ~$100 ~$40
over 10 Years

Figure TF1-7 Even though the initial purchase price of a white LED is several times greater than that of the incandescent light bulb, the
total 10-year cost of using the LED is only one-fourth of the incandescent’s (in 2010) and is expected to decrease to one-tenth by 2025.
38 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

Concept Question 1-4: What do the electrical permit- Answer: (a) B = 0, (b) B = 2B1 . (See EM
.)
tivity and magnetic permeability of a material account
for?
1-4 Traveling Waves
Concept Question 1-5: What are the three branches Waves are a natural consequence of many physical processes:
and associated conditions of electromagnetics? Waves manifest themselves as ripples on the surfaces of
oceans and lakes; sound waves constitute pressure distur-
bances that travel through air; mechanical waves modulate
Exercise 1-1: Given charges q1 = 10 mC, q2 = −10 mC, stretched strings; and electromagnetic waves carry electric
and q3 = 5 mC, all in free space, what is the direction of and magnetic fields through free space and material media as
the force acting on charge q3 ? microwaves, light, and X-rays. All of these various types of
waves exhibit a number of common properties, including:
y
q3 • Moving waves carry energy.
• Waves have velocity; it takes time for a wave to travel
from one point to another. Electromagnetic waves in a
vacuum travel at a speed of 3 × 108 m/s, and sound waves
2m 2m
in air travel at a speed approximately a million times
slower, specifically 330 m/s. Sound waves cannot travel
q1 q2 in a vacuum.
x
• Many waves exhibit a property called linearity. Waves
that do not affect the passage of other waves are called
2m linear because they can pass right through each other.
Figure E1.1 The total of two linear waves is simply the sum of
the two waves as they would exist separately. Electro-
magnetic waves are linear, as are sound waves. When
Answer: Along +x̂ direction. [See (the “ EM ” symbol
EM
two people speak to one another, the sound waves they
refers to the book website: em8e.eecs.umich.edu).] generate do not interact with one another but simply
pass through each other. Water waves are approximately
linear; the expanding circles of ripples caused by two
Exercise 1-2: Two parallel, very long, wires carry cur- pebbles thrown into two locations on a lake’s surface do
rents I1 and I2 . The magnetic field due to current I1 alone not affect each other. Although the interaction of the two
is B1 . What is the magnetic field due to both currents at a circles may exhibit a complicated pattern, it is simply
point midway between the wires if the linear superposition of two independent expanding
circles.
(a) I1 = I2 and both currents flow along the +ŷ direction?
Waves are of two types: transient waves caused by sudden
(b) I1 = I2 , but I2 flows along the −ŷ direction? disturbances and continuous periodic waves generated by a
repetitive source. We encounter both types of waves in this
I1 I2 book, but most of our discussion deals with the propagation of
continuous waves that vary sinusoidally with time.
An essential feature of a propagating wave is that it is a
B=?
self-sustaining disturbance of the medium through which it
travels. If this disturbance varies as a function of one space
variable, such as the vertical displacement of the string shown
in Fig. 1-10, we call the wave one-dimensional. The vertical
displacement varies with time and with the location along
Figure E1.2 the length of the string. Even though the string rises up
into a second dimension, the wave is only one-dimensional
1-4 TRAVELING WAVES 39

they include plane waves, cylindrical waves, and spherical

waves. A plane wave is characterized by a disturbance that
at a given point in time has uniform properties across an
infinite plane perpendicular to its direction of propagation
(Fig. 1-11(b)). Similarly, for cylindrical and spherical waves,
the disturbances are uniform across cylindrical and spherical
surfaces (Figs. 1-11(b) and (c)).
In the material that follows, we examine some of the basic
properties of waves by developing mathematical formulations
that describe their functional dependence on time and space
variables. To keep the presentation simple, we limit our
u discussion to sinusoidally varying waves whose disturbances
are functions of only one space variable, and we defer the
discussion of more complicated waves to later chapters.

1-4.1 Sinusoidal Waves in a Lossless Medium

Figure 1-10 A one-dimensional wave traveling on a string.
because the disturbance varies with only one space variable.
A two-dimensional wave propagates out across a surface,
like the ripples on a pond (Fig. 1-11(a)), and its disturbance
can be described by two space variables. By extension, a
three-dimensional wave propagates through a volume, and its
disturbance may be a function of all three space variables.
Three-dimensional waves may take on many different shapes;
Regardless of the mechanism responsible for generating them,
all linear waves can be described mathematically in common
terms.
◮ A medium is said to be lossless if it does not attenuate
the amplitude of the wave traveling within it or on its
surface. ◭
By way of an example, let us consider a wave traveling on
a lake’s surface, and let us assume for the time being that
frictional forces can be ignored, thereby allowing a wave
generated on the water’s surface to travel indefinitely with no
loss in energy. If y denotes the height of the water’s surface

Cylindrical wavefront Spherical wavefront

Plane wavefront
Two-dimensional wave

(a) Circular waves (b) Plane and cylindrical waves (c) Spherical wave

Figure 1-11 Examples of two-dimensional and three-dimensional waves: (a) circular waves on a pond, (b) a plane light wave exciting a
cylindrical light wave through the use of a long narrow slit in an opaque screen, and (c) a sliced section of a spherical wave.
40 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

relative to the mean height (undisturbed condition) and x

denotes the distance of wave travel, the functional dependence y(x, 0)
of y on time t and the spatial coordinate x has the general form At t = 0
A
 
2π t 2π x
y(x,t) = A cos − + φ0 (m), (1.17) x
T λ 0 λ λ 3λ
2 2
−A
where A is the amplitude of the wave, T is its time period, λ
λ is its spatial wavelength, and φ0 is a reference phase. The (a) y(x, t) versus x at t = 0
quantity y(x,t) also can be expressed in the form
y(0, t)
y(x,t) = A cos φ (x,t) (m), (1.18)
At x = 0
where A
 
2π t 2π x
φ (x,t) = − + φ0 (rad). (1.19) t
T λ 0 T T 3T
2 2
The angle φ (x,t) is called the phase of the wave, and it should −A
not be confused with the reference phase φ0 , which is constant T
with respect to both time and space. Phase is measured by the (b) y(x, t) versus t at x = 0
same units as angles, that is, radians (rad) or degrees, with 2π


radians = 360◦ . Figure 1-12 Plots of y(x,t) = A cos 2π t
T − 2λπ x as a function
Let us first analyze the simple case when φ0 = 0: of (a) x at t = 0 and (b) t at x = 0.
 
2π t 2π x
y(x,t) = A cos − (m). (1.20)
T λ
or
The plots in Fig. 1-12 show the variation of y(x,t) with x at y 
t = 0 and with t at x = 0. The wave pattern repeats itself at a 2π t 2π x 0
− = cos−1 = constant. (1.23)
spatial period λ along x and at a temporal period T along t. T λ A
If we take time snapshots of the water’s surface, the height
The apparent velocity of that fixed height is obtained by taking
profile y(x,t) would exhibit the sinusoidal patterns shown
the time derivative of Eq. (1.23), so
in Fig. 1-13. All three profiles correspond to three different
values of t, and the spacing between peaks is equal to the
2π 2π dx
wavelength λ , even though the patterns are shifted relative to − = 0, (1.24)
one another because they correspond to different observation T λ dt
times. Because the pattern advances along the +x direction at
progressively increasing values of t, y(x,t) is called a wave which gives the phase velocity up as
traveling in the +x direction. If we track a given point on
the wave, such as the peak P, and follow it in time, we can
dx λ
measure the phase velocity of the wave. At the peaks of the up = = (m/s). (1.25)
wave pattern, the phase φ (x,t) is equal to zero or multiples dt T
of 2π radians. Thus,
2π t 2π x
φ (x,t) = − = 2nπ , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (1.21) ◮ The phase velocity, also called the propagation veloc-
T λ
ity, is the velocity of the wave pattern as it moves across
Had we chosen any other fixed height of the wave, say y0 , the water’s surface. ◭
and monitored its movement as a function of t and x, this
again would have been equivalent to setting the phase φ (x,t)
constant such that The water itself mostly moves up and down; when the wave
 
2π t 2π x moves from one point to another, the water does not move
y(x,t) = y0 = A cos − (1.22) physically along with it.
T λ
1-4 TRAVELING WAVES 41

compact form as
y(x, 0)
A P  
2π
y(x,t) = A cos 2π f t − x
λ
x
λ λ 3λ = A cos(ω t − β x), (1.28)
2 2
−A (wave moving along +x direction)
(a) t = 0
up where ω is the angular velocity of the wave and β is its phase
y(x, T/4) constant (or wavenumber), defined as
P
A
ω = 2π f (rad/s), (1.29a)
x 2π
λ λ 3λ β= (rad/m). (1.29b)
2 2 λ
−A
(b) t = T/4 In terms of these two quantities,
y(x, T/2) ω
up = f λ = . (1.30)
P β
A
So far, we have examined the behavior of a wave traveling
x in the +x direction. To describe a wave traveling in the −x
λ λ 3λ direction, we reverse the sign of x in Eq. (1.28):
2 2
−A
(c) t = T/2
2π t

y(x,t) = A cos(ω t + β x). (1.31)
Figure 1-13 Plots of y(x,t) = A cos T − 2λπ x as a function
of x at (a) t = 0, (b) t = T /4, and (c) t = T /2. Note that the wave (wave moving along −x direction)
moves in the +x direction with a velocity up = λ /T .

◮ The direction of wave propagation is easily determined

by inspecting the signs of the t and x terms in the
The frequency of a sinusoidal wave, f , is the reciprocal of expression for the phase φ (x,t) given by Eq. (1.19): If one
its time period T : of the signs is positive and the other is negative, then the
wave is traveling in the positive x direction, and if both
1 signs are positive or both are negative, then the wave is
f= (Hz). (1.26) traveling in the negative x direction. The constant phase
T
reference φ0 has no influence on either the speed or the
direction of wave propagation. ◭
Combining the preceding two equations yields

We now examine the role of the phase reference φ0 given

up = f λ (m/s). (1.27) previously in Eq. (1.17). If φ0 is not zero, then Eq. (1.28)
should be written as

The wave frequency f is measured in cycles per second and
has been assigned the unit hertz (Hz), named in honor of the
German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), who pioneered
the development of radio-wave instrumentation.
Using Eq. (1.26), Eq. (1.20) can be rewritten in a more
y(x,t) = A cos(ω t − β x + φ0). (1.32)
A plot of y(x,t) as a function of x at a specified t or as
a function of t at a specified x is shifted in space or time,
respectively, relative to a plot with φ0 = 0 by an amount
42 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

Leads ahead of y Reference wave (φ0 = 0)

reference wave Lags behind reference wave
A
φ0 = π/4 φ0 = −π/4

t
T T 3T
2 2

−A

Figure 1-14 Plots of y(0,t) = A cos [(2π t/T ) + φ0 ] for three different values of the reference phase φ0 .

proportional to φ0 . This is illustrated by the plots shown in

Answer: (a) A = 6 V, (b) λ = 4 cm, (c) f = 150 Hz.
Fig. 1-14. We observe that when φ0 is positive, y(t) reaches
its peak value, or any other specified value, sooner than when (See EM
.)
φ0 = 0. Thus, the wave with φ0 = π /4 is said to lead the wave
with φ0 = 0 by a phase lead of π /4; and similarly, the wave
with φ0 = −π /4 is said to lag the wave with φ0 = 0 by a phase
Exercise 1-4: The wave shown in red in Fig. E1.4 is given
lag of π /4. A wave function with a negative φ0 takes longer to
by υ = 5 cos 2π t/8. Of the following four equations:
reach a given value of y(t), such as its peak, than the zero-
phase reference function. (1) υ = 5 cos(2π t/8 − π /4),
(2) υ = 5 cos(2π t/8 + π /4),
◮ When its value is positive, φ0 signifies a phase lead in (3) υ = −5 cos(2π t/8 − π /4),
time, and when it is negative, it signifies a phase lag. ◭
(4) υ = 5 sin 2π t/8,

(a) which equation applies to the green wave? (b) which

equation applies to the blue wave?
Exercise 1-3: Consider the red wave shown in Fig. E1.3.
What is the wave’s (a) amplitude, (b) wavelength, and υ (volts)
(c) frequency given that its phase velocity is 6 m/s?
5
υ (volts)
6
4 0 t (s)
2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0 x (cm)
-2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -5
-4 Figure E1.4
-6
Figure E1.3 Answer: (a) #2, (b) #4. (See EM
.)
1-4 TRAVELING WAVES 43

Module 1.1 Sinusoidal Waveforms Learn how the shape of the waveform is related to the amplitude, frequency, and
reference phase angle of a sinusoidal wave.

1-4.2 Sinusoidal Waves in a Lossy Medium

Exercise 1-5: The electric field of a traveling electromag-
netic wave is given by If a wave is traveling in the x direction in a lossy medium,
its amplitude decreases as e−α x . This factor is called the
E(z,t) = 10 cos(π × 107t + π z/15 + π /6) (V/m). attenuation factor, and α is called the attenuation constant
of the medium and its unit is neper per meter (Np/m). Thus, in
Determine (a) the direction of wave propagation, (b) the general,
wave frequency f , (c) its wavelength λ , and (d) its phase y(x,t) = Ae−α x cos(ω t − β x + φ0). (1.33)
velocity up .
The wave amplitude is now Ae−α x , not just A. Figure 1-15
Answer: (a) −z direction, (b) f = 5 MHz, (c) λ = 30 m, shows a plot of y(x,t) as a function of x at t = 0 for A = 10 m,
(d) up = 1.5 × 108 m/s. (See EM
.) λ = 2 m, α = 0.2 Np/m, and φ0 = 0. Note that the envelope of
the wave pattern decreases as e−α x .
44 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS

y(x)
y(x)
10 m Wave envelope
10e-0.2x

5m

0 x (m)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

-5 m

-10 m

Figure 1-15 Plot of y(x) = (10e−0.2x cos π x) meters. Note that the envelope is bounded between the curve given by 10e−0.2x and its
mirror image.

The real unit of α is (1/m); the neper (Np) part is a dimen- is 1 kHz, the velocity of sound in water is 1.5 km/s, the wave
sionless, artificial adjective traditionally used as a reminder amplitude is 10 N/m2 , and p(x,t) was observed to be at its
that the unit (Np/m) refers to the attenuation constant of maximum value at t = 0 and x = 0.25 m. Treat water as a
the medium, α . A similar practice is applied to the phase lossless medium.
constant β by assigning it the unit (rad/m) instead of just (l/m).
Solution: According to the general form given by Eq. (1.17)
for a wave traveling in the positive x direction,
Concept Question 1-6: How can you tell if a wave is
 
traveling in the positive x direction or the negative x 2π 2π
direction? p(x,t) = A cos t− x + φ0 (N/m2 ).
T λ

The amplitude A = 10 N/m2 , T = 1/ f = 10−3 s, and from

Concept Question 1-7: How does the envelope of the up = f λ ,
wave pattern vary with distance in (a) a lossless medium
up 1.5 × 103
and (b) a lossy medium? λ= = = 1.5 m.
f 103
Hence,
Concept Question 1-8: Why does a negative value  
of φ0 signify a phase lag? 4π
p(x,t) = 10 cos 2π × 103t − x + φ0 (N/m2 ).
3

Since at t = 0 and x = 0.25 m, p(0.25, 0) = 10 N/m2 , we have

   
Example 1-1: Sound Wave in Water −4π −π
10 = 10 cos 0.25 + φ0 = 10 cos + φ0 ,
3 3

An acoustic wave traveling in the x direction in a fluid (liquid which yields the result (φ0 − π /3) = cos−1 (1), or φ0 = π /3.
or gas) is characterized by a differential pressure p(x,t). The Hence,
unit for pressure is newton per square meter (N/m2 ). Find an  
expression for p(x,t) for a sinusoidal sound wave traveling in 4π π
p(x,t) = 10 cos 2π × 103t − x+ (N/m2 ).
the positive x direction in water given that the wave frequency 3 3
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 "Oh, don't mind us."

"Thank you. It's really for your benefit, so you'd better listen. Let me
see, where were we? Oh yes, 'One pound of beef, ninepence; three pounds
of potatoes, fourpence; one piece of emery paper for the blanc-mange,
tuppence; one pound of india-rubber——'"

"'Dahlia darling,'" interrupted Myra, in a fair imitation of Archie's

voice, "'how often have I told you that we can't afford india-rubber in the
cake? Just a few raisins and a cherry is really all you want. You mustn't be
so extravagant.'"

"'Dearest, I do try; and after all, love, it wasn't I who fell into the cocoa
last night.'"

"'I didn't fall in, I simply dropped my pipe in, and it was you insisted on
pouring it away afterwards. And then, look at this—One yard, of lace, 4s.
6d. That's for the cutlets, I suppose. For people in our circumstances paper
frillings are quite sufficient.'"

Archie and Dahlia listened to us with open mouths. Then they looked at
each other, and then at us again.

"Is there any more?" asked Archie.

"There's lots more, but we've forgotten it."

"You aren't ill or anything?"

"We are both perfectly well."

"How's Miss Dalton?"

"Dora," I said, "is also well. So is Miss Fortescue and so is Thomas. We

are all well."

"I thought, perhaps——"

"No, there you are wrong."

 "I expect it's just the heat and the excitement," said Dahlia, with a smile.
"It takes some people like that."

"I'm afraid you miss our little parable," said Myra.

"We do. Come on, Dahlia."

"You'll pardon me, Archibald, but Miss Blair is dancing this with me."

Archie objected strongly, but I left, him with Myra, and took Miss Blair
away. We sat on the stairs and thought.

"It has been a lovely week," said Dahlia.

"It has," I agreed.

"Perhaps more lovely for me than for you."

"That's just where I don't agree with you. You know, we think it's
greatly over-rated. Falling in love, I mean."

"Who's 'we'?"

"Myra and I. We've been talking it over. That's why we rather dwelt
upon the sordid side of it just now. I suppose we didn't move you at all?"

"No," said Dahlia, "we're settled."

"That's exactly it," I said. "I should hate to be settled. It's so much more
fun like this. Myra quite agrees with me."

Dahlia smiled to herself. "But perhaps some day," she began.

"I don't know. I never look more than a week ahead. 'It has been great
fun this week, and it will probably be great fun next week.' That's my
motto."

"Well, ye—es," said Miss Blair doubtfully.

 PART II

CHAPTER I

ONE OF THE PLAYERS

"Do I know everybody?" I asked Myra towards the end of the dinner,
looking round the table.

"I think so," said Myra. "If there's anybody you don't see in the window
ask for him."

"I can see most of them. Who's that tall handsome fellow grinning at me
now?"

"Me," said Archie, smiling across at us.

"Go away," said Myra. "Gentlemen shouldn't eavesdrop. This is a

perfectly private conversation."

"You've got a lady on each side of you," I said heatedly, "why don't you
talk to them? It's simply scandalous that Myra and I can't get a moment to
ourselves."

"They're both busy; they won't have anything to say to me."

"Then pull a cracker with yourself. Surely you can think of something,
my lad."

"He has a very jealous disposition," said Myra, "and whenever Dahlia
—— Bother, he's not listening."
 I looked round the table again to see if I could spy a stranger.

"There's a man over there—who's he? Where this orange is pointing."

"Oranges don't point. Waggle your knife round. Oh, him? Yes, he's a
friend of Archie's—Mr Derry."

"Who is he? Does he do anything exciting?"

"He does, rather. You know those little riddles in the Christmas
crackers?"

"Yes?"

"Yes. Well, he couldn't very well do those, because he's an electrical

engineer."

"But why——"

"No, I didn't. I simply asked you if you knew them. And he plays the
piano beautifully, and he's rather a good actor, and he never gets up till
about ten. Because his room is next to mine, and you can hear everything,
and I can hear him not getting up."

"That doesn't sound much like an electrical engineer. You ask him
suddenly what amperes are a penny, and see if he turns pale. I expect he
makes up the riddles, after all. Simpson only does the mottoes, I know. Now
talk to Thomas for a bit while I drink my orange."

Five minutes elapsed, or transpired (whichever it is), before I was ready

to talk again. Generally, after an orange, I want to have a bath and go
straight off to bed, but this particular one had not been so all-overish as
usual.

"Now then," I said, as I examined the crystallised fruit, "I'm with you in
one minute."

Myra turned round and looked absently at me.

 "I don't know how to begin," she said to herself.

"The beginning's easy enough," I explained, as I took a dish of green

sweets under my charge, "it's the knowing when to stop."

"Can you eat those and listen to something serious?"

"I'll try.... Yes, I can eat them all right. Now, let's see if I can listen....
Yes, I can listen all right."

"Then it's this. I've been putting it off as long as I can, but you've got to
be told to-night. It's—well—do you know why you're here?"

"Of course, I do. Haven't I just been showing you?"

"Well, why are you here?"

"Well, frankly, because I'm hungry, I suppose. Of course, I know that if

I hadn't been I should have come in to dinner, just the same, but—— Hang
it, I mean that's the root idea of a dining-room, isn't it? And I am hungry. At
least I was."

"Stave it off again with an almond," said Myra, pushing them along to
me. "What I really meant was why you're here in the house."

This was much more difficult. I began to consider possible reasons.

"Because you all love me," I started; "because you put the wrong
address on the envelope; because the regular boot-boy's ill; because you've
never heard me sing in church; because—stop me when I'm getting warm—
because Miss Fortescue refused to come unless I was invited; because——"

"Stop," said Myra. "That was it. And, of course, you know I didn't mean
that at all."

"What an awful lot of things you don't mean to-night. Be brave, and
have it right out this time."
 "All right, then, I will. One, two, three—we're going to act a play on
Saturday."

She leant forward, and regarded me with apprehension.

"But why not? I'll promise to clap."

"You can't, because, you see, you're going to act too. Isn't it jolly?" said
Myra breathlessly.

I gave what, if I hadn't just begun the last sweet, would have been a
scornful laugh.

"Me act? Why, I've never—I don't do it—it isn't done—I don't act—not
on Saturdays. How absurd!"

"Have you told him, Myra?" Dahlia called out suddenly.

"I'm telling him now. I think he's taking it all right."

"Don't talk about me as 'him'!" I said angrily. "And I'm not taking it all
right. I'm not taking it at all."

"It's only such a very small part—we're all doing something, you know.
And your costume's ordered and everything. But how awfully sporting of
you."

After that, what could I say?

"Er—what am I?" I asked modestly.

"You're a—a small rat-catcher," said Myra cheerfully.

"I beg your pardon?"

"A rat-catcher."

"You said a small one. Does that mean that I'm of diminutive size, or
that I'm in a small way of business, or that my special line is young ones?"
 "It means that you haven't much to say."

"I see. And would you call it a tragic or a pathetic part?"

"It's a comic part, rather. You're Hereditary Grand Rat-Catcher to the

Emperor Bong. Bong the Second. Not the first Bong, the Dinner Bong."

"Look here. I suppose you know that I've never acted in my life, and
never been or seen a rat-catcher in my life. It is therefore useless for you to
tell me to be perfectly natural."

"You have so little to do; it will be quite easy. Your great scene is where
you approach the Emperor very nervously——"

"I shall do the nervous part all right."

"And beg him to spare the life of his mother-in-law."

"Why? I mean, who is she?"

"Miss Fortescue."

"Yes, I doubt if I can make that bit seem quite so natural. Still, I'll try."

"Hooray. How splendid!"

"A rat-catcher," I murmured to myself. "Where is the rat? The rat is on

the mat. The cat is on the rat. The bat is on the cat. The——"

"Mr Derry will go through your part with you to-morrow. Some of it is
funnier than that."

"The electrical engineer? What do they know about rat-catching?"

"Nothing, only——"

"Aha! Now I see who your mysterious Mr Derry is. He is going to

coach us."
 "He is. You've found it out at last. How bright green sweets make you."

"They have to be really bright green sweets. Poor man! What a job he'll
have with us all."

"Yes," said Myra, as she prepared to leave me. "Now you know why he
doesn't get up till ten."

"In the rat-catching business," I said thoughtfully, as I opened the door,

"the real rush comes in the afternoon. Rat-catchers in consequence never
get up till ten-thirty. Do you know," I decided, "I am quite beginning to like
my little part."

CHAPTER II

ALARMS AND EXCURSIONS

I was, I confess, very late the next morning, even for a rat-catcher. Mr
Derry was in the middle of his breakfast; all the others had finished. We
saluted, and I settled down to work.

"There is going to be a rehearsal at eleven o'clock, I believe," said

Derry. "It must be nearly that now."

"I shall be there," I said, "if I have to bring the marmalade with me.
You're going to coach us?"

"Well, I believe I said I would."

"Though I have never assumed the buskin myself," I went on, "I have,
of course, heard of you as an amateur actor." (Liar.) "And if you could tell
me how to act, while I am finishing my bacon, I should be most awfully
obliged."
 "Haven't you really done any?"

"Only once, when I was very small. I was the heroine. I had an offer, but
I had to refuse it, I said, 'Alath, dear heart, I may not, I am married
already.'"

"Very right and proper," murmured Derry.

"Well, as it turned out, I had made a mistake. It was my first who had
been married already. The little play was full of surprises like."

Derry coughed, and took out his pipe. "Let me see," he began, "what's
your part?"

"I am—er—a rodent-collector."

"Oh yes—the Emperor's rat-catcher."

"Grand hereditary," I said stiffly. "It had been in the family for years."

"Quite so."

I was about to enlarge upon the advantages of the hereditary principle

when the door opened suddenly to admit Myra and Archie.

"You don't say you're down at last!" said Myra, in surprise.

"I hardly say anything at breakfast, as a rule," I pointed out.

"What an enormous one you're having. And only last night——"

"On the contrary, I'm eating practically nothing—a nut and one piece of
parsley off the butter. The fact is, I glanced at my part before I went to bed,
and there seemed such a lot of it I hardly slept at all."

"Why, you don't come on very much," said Archie. "Neither do I. I'm a
conjuror. Can any gentleman here oblige me with a rabbit? ... No, sir, I said
a rabbit. Oh, I beg your pardon, I thought you were coming up on to the
stage.... Any gentleman——"
 "Have some jam instead. What do you mean by saying I don't come on
very much?" I took the book out of my pocket, and began to turn the leaves.
"Here you are, nearly every page—'Enter R.,' 'Exit R.,' 'Enter L.'—I don't
know who he is—'Exeunt R.,'—why, the rat-catcher's always doing
something. Ah, here they're more explicit—'Enter R.C.' Hallo, that's funny,
because I'd just—— Oh, I see."

"One of our oldest and most experienced mimes," said Archie to Derry.
"You must get him to talk to you."

"No secret of the boards is hid from him," added Myra.

"Tell us again, sir, about your early struggles," begged Archie.

"He means your early performances on the stage," explained Myra.

"There's one very jolly story about Ellen Terry and the fireproof curtain.
Let me see, were you Macbeth then, or Noise of Trumpets? I always forget."

I drank my last cup of tea, and rose with dignity.

"It is a humorous family," I apologised to Derry. "Their grandfather was

just the same. He would have his little joke about the first steam-engine."

Outside, in the hall, there was a large crowd of unemployed, all talking
at once. I caught the words "ridiculous" and "rehearsal," and the connection
between the two seemed obvious and frequent. I singled out Thomas,
abstracted his pouch, and began to fill up.

"What is all this acting business?" I asked. "Some idea about a little
play, what? Let's toddle off, and have a game of billiards."

"They've let me in for a bally part," said Thomas, "and you needn't think
you're going to get out of it. They've got you down, all right."

"Thomas, I will be frank with you. I am no less a person than the

Emperor Bong's Hereditary (it had been in the family for years) Grand Rat-
catcher. The real rush, however, comes in the afternoon. My speciality is
young ones."
 "I'm his executioner."

"And he has a conjuror too. What a staff! Hallo, good morning,

Simpson. Are you anything lofty?"

"'Oh, I am the Emperor Bong,'" said Simpson gaily; "'I am beautiful,

clever and strong——'"

"Question," said Thomas.

"''Tis my daily delight to carouse and to fight, and at moments I burst

into song.'"

I looked at him in amazement.

"Well, just at present," I said, "all I want is a match.... A lucifer, Emp. A

pine vesta, Maj. Thanks.... Now tell me—does anybody beside yourself
burst into song during the play? Any bursting by Thomas or myself, for
instance?"

"Nobody sings at all. My little poem is recitative."

"If you mean it's very bad, I agree with you," said Thomas.

"I made it up myself. It was thought that my part should be livened up a

little."

"Well, why hasn't it been?"

"If you will give me two minutes, Simpson," I said, "I will liven up my
own part better than that. What rhymes with rat-catcher?"

"Cat-catcher."

"Wait a bit.... Yes, that's got it.

"'Oh, I'm on the Emperor's staff

I'm a rodent-collector (don't laugh)—
My record (in braces)
 Of rats and their races
Is a thousand and eight and a half.'"

"May we have that again?" said Myra, appearing suddenly.

"'Oh, I'm on——'"

"No," said Thomas.

"'Oh, I'm on——'"

"No," said Simpson.

"There is no real demand, I'm afraid."

"Well, I did just hear it before," said Myra. "I wish you'd make up one
for me. I think we might all announce ourselves like that, and then the
audience will have no difficulty in recognising us."

"They'll recognise Thomas if he comes on with an axe. They won't think

he's just trotted round with the milk. But what are you, Myra?"

"The Emperor's wife's maid."

"Another member of the highly trained staff. Well, go on, Simpson."

"'Oh, I am her Majesty's maid,'" declared Simpson. "We all begin with
'Oh,' to express surprise at finding ourselves on the stage at all. 'Oh, I am
her Majesty's maid, I'm a sad little flirt, I'm afraid.'"

"I'm respectable, steady and staid," corrected Myra.

"No," I said; "I have it—"

"'Oh, I am her Majesty's maid!

And her charms are beginning to fade,
I can sit in the sun
 And look just twenty-one,
While she's thirty-six in the shade.'"

Myra made a graceful curtsey.

"Thank you, sir. You'll have to pay me a lot more of those before the
play is over."

"Will I really?"

"Well, seeing as the Grand Hereditary One is supposed to be making up

to her Majesty's confidential attendant——"

Miss Fortescue came pushing up to us.

"It is too ridiculous," she complained; "none of us know our parts yet,
and if we have a rehearsal now—what do you think about it?"

I looked at Myra and smiled to myself. "I'm all for a rehearsal at once,"
I said.

CHAPTER III

A REHEARSAL

"Now this is a very simple trick," said Archie, from the centre of the
stage. "For this little trick all I want is, a hippopotamus and a couple of
rubies. I take the hippopotamus in one hand—so—and cover it with the
handkerchief. Then, having carefully peeled the rubies——"
 Thomas put the last strip of silver paper on to his axe, and surveyed the
result proudly.

"But how splendid!" said Myra, as she hurried past. "Only you want
some blood." And she jumped over the footlights and disappeared.

"Good idea. Archie, where do you keep the blood?"

"Hey, presto! it's gone. And now, sir, if you will feel in your waistcoat
pockets you will find the hippopotamus in the right-hand side and the red
ink in the left. No? Dear, dear, the hippopotamus must have been a bad
one."

"Be an artist, Thomas," I said, "and open a vein or two. Do the thing
properly, Beerbohm. But soft, a winsome maid, in sooth; I will approach
her. I always forget that sooth bit. But soft, a win——"

"Why don't we begin?" asked Simpson; "I can't remember my part

much longer. Oh, by the way, when you come up to me and say, 'Your
Majesty e'en forgets the story of the bull's-eye and the revolving bookcase
——"

"Go away; I don't say anything so silly."

"Oh, of course it's Blair. Blair, when you come up to me and say——"
They retired to the back of the stage to arrange a very effective piece of
business.

"Any card you like, madam, so long as it is in the pack. The Queen of
Hearts? Certainly. Now I take the others and tear them up—so. The card
remaining will be yours. Ah, as I thought—it is the Queen of Hearts."

"Archie, you're talking too much," said Dahlia, "and none of it comes
into your part really."

"I'm getting the atmosphere. Have you an old top hat on you, dear,
because if so we'll make a pudding. No top hat? Then pudding is horf."
 "But stay, who is this approaching? Can it be—I say, mind the
footlights. When are we going to begin?"

"There!" said Thomas proudly. "Anybody would know that was blood."

"But how perfectly lovely," said Myra. "Only you want some notches."

"What for?"

"To show where you executed the other men, of course. You always get
a bit off your axe when you execute anybody."

"Yes, I've noticed that too," I agreed. "Notches, Thomas, notches."

"Why don't you do something for a change? What about the trap or
whatever it is you catch your bally rats with? Why don't you make that?"

"It isn't done with a trap, Thomas dear. It's partly the power of the
human eye and partly kindness. I sit upon a sunny bank and sing to them."

"Which is that?"

"If we don't begin soon," began Simpson——

"Hallo, Emperor, what's that you're saying? Quite so, I agree with you. I
wonder if your High Fatness can lend me such a thing as a hard-boiled egg.
Simpkins, when this rehearsal is over—that is to say, to-morrow—I'll take
you on at juggling; I'm the best——"

Deny finished his conversation with Miss Fortescue and turned to the
stage.

"Now then, please, please," he said. "We'll just take the First Act.
Scene, The Emperor's Palace. Enter Rat-catcher. You come on from the
left."

I coughed and came on.

 My part was not a long one, but it was a very important one. I was the
connecting link between the different episodes of the play, and they wanted
some connecting. Whenever anybody came on to the stage, I said
(supposing I was there, and I generally was—the rat-catcher of those days
corresponding to the modern plumber)—I said, "But who is this?" or "Hush,
here comes somebody." In this way, the attention of the wakeful part of the
audience was switched on to the new character, and continuity of action was
preserved.

I coughed and came on.

"No," said Derry, "you must come on much more briskly."

"I can't. I've been bitten by a rat."

"It doesn't say so anywhere."

"Well, that's how I read the part. Hang it, I ought to know if I've been
bitten or not. But I won't show it if you like; I'll come on briskly."

I went out, and came on very briskly.

"That's better," said Derry.

"'His Majesty ordered me to be here at the stroke of noon,'" I said.

"'Belike he has some secret commands to lay upon me, or perchance it is
nought but a plague of rats. But who is this?'"

"'Oh,'" said Myra, coming in suddenly, "'I had thought to be alone.'"

"'Nay, do not flee from me, pretty one. It is thus that——' I say, Myra,
it's no good my saying do not flee if you don't flee."

"I was just going to. You didn't give me a chance. There, now I'm
fleeing."

"Oh, all right. 'It is thus that the rats flee when they see me approaching.
Am I so very fearsome?'"
 "'Orrid," said Archie to himself from the wings.

"One moment," said Derry, and he turned round to speak to somebody.

"Puffickly 'orrid," said Archie again.

"Nay, do not frown," Myra went on, "'tis only my little brother, who is
like unto a codfish himself, and jealous withal."

"Ay, ay, and I thought it was a codfish. So that I had e'en brought the
egg-sauce with me."

"Trouble not thyself for that," said Archie. "For verily the audience will
supply thee with all the eggs thou wantest. I say, we are being funny."

"I'm not, I'm quite serious, I really did think it was a co—— 'But tell
me, fair one,'" I said hurriedly, "'for what dost the Emperor want me?'"

"Yes, yes," said Derry, "I'm sorry I had to interrupt you. I think perhaps
we had better begin again. Yes, from the beginning."

The rehearsal rolled on.

* * * * * * *

"I think it went splendidly," said Myra. "If only we had known our parts
and come in at the right moments and been more serious over it."

"If there's any laughing to be done it will have to be done by us. The
audience won't laugh."

"'Mr Derry having explained that the author was not in the house, the
audience collected their cauliflowers and left quietly.' I think it's a rotten
play."

"Well, it isn't frightfully funny," said Myra, "but we can put that in
ourselves."
 "It's so jolly hard to say the lines properly—they're so unnatural,"
complained Thomas. "'Truly thou hast created a favourable impression with
the damsel'—well, I mean, it's absurd. Any ordinary person would say
'Truly thou art amongst them, old spot,' or something of that kind."

"Well, you say that, Thomas; you'll be all right,"

"We might put a few songs in," said Dahlia, "and a dance or two."

"I think you've forgotten that we've done only Act I.," remarked Archie.
"His Majesty's conjuror doesn't really let himself go till Act II. Still, I'm all
for a song and a dance. Simpson, come and Apache with me."

They dashed at each other fiercely.

"Oh, we'll make it go all right," said Myra.

CHAPTER IV

LAST MOMENTS

"Has anybody here seen Kelly?" asked Dahlia, putting her head in at the
billiard-room door. "I mean Archie."

"I'm waiting here for Kate," I said. "I mean Myra."

"Oughtn't you to be dressing? It doesn't matter about me—I'm not on for

a long time."

"A rat-catcher's best suit is not an elaborate one; I can put it on in about
five minutes. It is now seven-thirty, we begin at eight-thirty—hence the
billiard cue. More chalk."
 "Oh, why aren't you nervous? How you can stand calmly there——"

"I am nervous. Look." I aimed carefully and put the red into a pocket
some miles away. "There you are. Have you ever seen me do that in real
life? Of course not. If my hand had been steady I should have been a foot to
the right. Still more chalk."

"Well, I want Archie, and I shall cry if I don't find him. That's how I
feel." She sat down and got up again.

"My dear Dahlia," I said solemnly, "now you can understand a father's
feelings—I mean, now, you see what you women have brought on
yourselves. Who suggested a play? The women. Who dragged me into it?
The women. Who said rat-catchers always wore whiskers? The women.
Who is designing me a pair of whiskers at this moment? The wom——
Simpson. Who but for whom (this is going to be a very difficult sentence)
who but for whom, would be just thinking of dressing leisurely for dinner,
instead of which we had a hasty snack, and have now got to put on heaven
knows what? The women. Well, it serves you right."

"Don't be horrid. I want Archie." She got up for the third time and
drifted out of the room.

I chalked my cue and went into a pocket without touching anything.

When I say I went in I mean that the ball I was playing with went in. You
do see that? Very well, then. I took it out and began to squint along my cue
again, when two hands came suddenly over my eyes and a voice said;
"Guess who is is."

"The Queen of Sheba," I tried.

"Right," said Myra.

I turned and looked at her.

"Golly, you do, you really do!" I said at last. "Did they always dress like
that in the Bong era? Short skirts, long pigtail, bare arms—lovely!"
 "'I can sit in the sun and look just twenty-one,'" sang Myra as she
dropped into the sofa.

"Well, just at present you're sitting in the billiard-room and looking

about fifteen.... How are you getting on with your French this term? I had a
very bad report in the holidays from your governess. The extra ninepence a
week seems to have been simply thrown away."

"Aren't you excited?" said Myra, looking at me with sparkling eyes.

"As for calisthenics, well, what I say is, 'My daughter is Church of
England, and if you don't like it, she can come away. I'm not going to have
her stuffed up with all that nonsense.'"

Myra jumped up. "Aren't you excited?" she insisted.

"Feel my tongue—I mean my pulse, it's quite normal. And why?

Because I've forgotten my part, and I'm going to bed."

"It's a great responsibility our beginning the play."

"It is. Have you ever thought that, if we refused to begin, the play
couldn't continue, and then the audience would be able to go home? My
idea was to tackle the people as they arrive, and come to terms with them.
I'm sure there's money in it."

"You aren't bothering, are you?"

"Of course, I am. I'd give a hundred pounds to be out of it. No, I
wouldn't—I'd give a hundred pounds if you'd always wear that frock and do
your hair like that. Will you? And you shall go on with your French, child."

Myra curtsied prettily.

"And I'll go on with my whiskers. You haven't seen me in those yet,

have you?" There was a loud noise without. "Here they are, coming in."

It was not the whiskers, however, but Archie and Thomas in full
costume; Archie in green and Thomas in black.