ME LAB MANUAL 2022-23 - STUDENTS - New

XAVIER INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
MAHIM, MUMBAI 400016
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION
LAB MANUAL
MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LABORATORY (ECL701)
SEMESTER VII
ACADEMIC YEAR 2022-23
Prof. Shailaja Udtewar
Subject / Practical In-Charge
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

VISION OF INSTITUTE
“The joy of excellence in a world of high technology.”
MISSION OF INSTITUTE
To strive to match global standards in Technical Education by Interaction
with Industry, Continuous Staff training and Development of quality of life.
VISION OF DEPARTMENT
To Nurture the Joy of Excellence in a World of Electronics and

Telecommunication.
MISSION OF DEPARTMENT
1) To equip the students with strong foundations in the field of Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering to enable them for higher studies and lifelong learning.
2) To educate the students in the state of art technologies and meet the challenges of the
Electronics and Telecommunication field.
3) To collaborate and associate with highly reputed Institutes that are in India and Abroad and
enhance academic excellence in the field of ExTC.
4) To impart total quality education for developing innovative, entrepreneurial and ethical
professionals, fit for global competitive environment.
5) To strengthen the soft skills and logical thinking of students through co-curricular and
extra-curricular activities.
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs):

Graduates of Electronics and Telecommunication program will be able to
I. Pre-preparation: To prepare students with a strong foundation in mathematical, scientific

and engineering fundamentals to succeed in their careers.
II. Core Competence: To train the students to cope up with the need of rapidly growing
technology with core knowledge in the area of Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineering.

III. Breadth: To train the students to upskill their knowledge and skills across the range of
disciplines and find solutions to improve the quality of life.
IV. Professionalism: To encourage students to develop sofl skills, ethical values and ability to
work in a team in their chosen field.
V. Learning Environment: To make students competent for self- learning so that they can
contribute to emerging technologies.
Program Outcomes:
A graduate of Electronics and Telecommunication engineering will have the ability:
• Engineering knowledge: To apply knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals and Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering for the solution of complex
engineering problems.
• Problem analysis: To identify, formulate, research literature and analyze complex

engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences.
• Design/ development of solutions: To design solutions for complex engineering problems

and design system components and processes in the field of Electronics &
Telecommunication to meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for public
health and safety, and cultural, societal and environmental considerations.
• Conduct investigations of complex problems: To analyze and interpret data and do

syntheses of information to provide valid conclusions.
• Modern tool usage: To create, select and apply appropriate techniques, resources and
modern engineering and IT tools, including prediction and modelling in the field of
Electronics & Telecommunication with an understanding of the limitations.
• The engineer and society: To apply reasoning informed by contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to professional engineering practice.
• Environment and sustainability: To understand the impact of professional engineering

solutions in societal and environmental contexts and demonstrate knowledge of and need for
sustainable development.
• Ethics: To apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of engineering practice.

• Individual and team work: To function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams and in multi-disciplinary settings.
• Communication: To communicate effectively on complex engineering activities by being

able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations and give and receive clear instructions.
• Project management and finance: To demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
• Life-long learning: To recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs):

At the end of the program, a student will be able:
PSO – 1: To combine fundamentals of electronics, signal processing, communication, control
system along with analysis and programming skills to solve complex problems in the field of
Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering.
PSO–2: To design, develop, test and demonstrate wired and wireless electronics and embedded
system with innovative solutions and consideration of real-time constraints.

Laboratory Objectives:
1. To become familiar working with rectangular waveguides and doing microwave bench set up
2. To determine the characteristics of various microwave components
3. To be able to measure wave parameters like impedance, frequency, wavelength using
microwave bench and VSWR/power meter
4. To study characteristics and behavior of various microwave semiconductor devices.
Laboratory Outcomes:
Students will be able to,
LO1. Comprehend microwave measurements and analyze the characteristics of microwave
components
LO2. Comprehend and analyze Waveguide and transmission line measurements
LO3. Comprehend and analyze characteristics of microwave semiconductor devices
LO4. Demonstrate the microwave bench set up and analyze measurements of different
parameters
LO’s Experiment Nos.
LO1 4,5,6
LO2 7,8,9
LO3 10
LO4 1,2,3

INDEX
EXP. Title of the Experiment LO’S

NO.
1. To study mode characteristics of Reflex klystron. LO4
2. To study the attenuation characteristics of a variable attenuator. LO4
3. To determine the frequency, guided wavelength and VSWR in a rectangular LO4

waveguide working in TE10 mode.
4. To measure coupling factor, directivity and insertion loss of a directional LO1

coupler.
5. To study power division in the magic tee. LO1
6. To study operation of ferrite circulator, isolator and hence measure insertion LO1
loss and isolation offered by these devices.
7. Introduction to Smith chart and its application for the unknown impedance LO2
measurement using Virtual lab.
8. Find the change in characteristics impedance and reflection coefficients of the LO2
transmission line by changing the dielectric properties of materials Embedded
between two conductors using Virtual lab.
9. Study of field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide cavity LO2
using Virtual lab.
10. To calculate the following parameters using Scilab LO3
a) Maximum CW output power and resonant frequency for IMPATT Diode

b) Avalanche zone velocity of TRAPATT Diode
c) Breakdown voltage of BARITT Diode

DESCRIPTION OF MICROWAVE BENCH
INTRODUCTION:
The Measurement Techniques in Microwave frequencies is vastly different from that of the more
conventional techniques. At Low Frequency, it is convenient to measure voltage and current and
use them to calculate power. However at Microwave frequencies, they are difficult to measure
since they vary with position in a transmission lines and hence they are of little value in
determining power. Therefore at microwave frequencies, it is more desirable and simpler to
measure power directly.
At microwave frequencies, quantities measured are relative and is not necessary to know their
absolute values, i.e., it is sufficient to know the ratio of two power rather than exact input or
output powers.
The parameter that can be conveniently measured at microwave frequencies are Frequency,
Power, Attenuation, Voltage Standing Wave Ratio(VSWR), Phase, Impedance, Insertion Loss,
Dielectric Constant Noise Factor.
MICROWAVE BENCH:
The general set up for measurement of any parameter in microwaves is called microwave test
bench. The microwave test bench incorporates a range of instruments capable of allowing all
types of measurements that are usually required for a microwave engineer. The bench is capable
of being assembled or disassembled in a number of ways to suit individual experiments. A
general block diagram of the test bench comprising of different components is shown below.

Fig.1. A typical Microwave bench setup
KLYSTRON POWER SUPPLY:

Klystron Power Supply generates voltage required for driving the Reflex Klystron Tube 2k25. It
is a stable, regulated and short circuit protected power supply. It has built in facility of square
wave and saw tooth generators for amplitude and frequency modulation. The beam voltage range
from 200V to 450V with maximum beam current, 50 mA. The provision is given to vary repeller
voltage continuously from -40V to -200V.
Fig. 2 Klystron power supply
REFLEX KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR:

At high frequencies the performance of a conventional vacuum tube is impaired due to transit
time effects, lead inductance and inter- electrode capacitance. Klystron is a microwave vacuum
tube employing velocity modulation and transit time in achieving its normal operation.
The reflex type, known as reflex Klystron, has been most used source of microwave power in

Laboratory. It consists of an electron gun producing a collimated electron beam. The electron
beam is accelerated towards the reflector by a dc voltage V0, while passing through the positive
resonator grids. The velocity of the electrons in the beam will be
Where e and m being electronic charge and mass respectively.The repeller, which is placed at a
short distance from the resonator grids, is kept at negative potential with respect to cathode, and
consequently it retards and finally reflects the electrons which then turn back through the
resonator grids.
Fig. 3 Reflex klystron

ISOLATOR:
Isolator is a two port device. This device permits untenanted transmission in one direction
(forward direction) but provides very high attenuation in the reverse direction (backward
direction). This is generally used in between the source and rest of the set up to avoid
overloading of the source due to reflected power.
VARIABLE ATTENUATOR:
Attenuator is two port device. The device that attenuates the signal is termed as attenuator.
Attenuators are categorized into two categories, namely, the fixed attenuators and variable
attenuators. The attenuator used in the microwave set up is of variable type.
The variable attenuator consists of a strip of absorbing material which is arranged in such

a way that its profusion into the guide is adjustable. Hence, the signal power to be fed to the
microwave set up can be set at the desired level. This type of attenuator is called flap attenuator.
Fig. 4 Variable Attenuator

FREQUENCY METER:
Frequency meter is basically a absorption cavity resonator. The cavity is connected to a
waveguide having been excited by a certain microwave source. The Cavity can be made to
resonate at source frequency by adjusting its size by rotating the dial of frequency meter. At
resonant frequency it sucks up some signal from the guide to maintain its stored energy.
Thus if a power meter had been monitoring the signal power at resonating condition of the cavity
it will indicate a sharp dip. The frequency can be read from the scale of direct reading frequency
meter. If it is indirect reading frequency meter tuning can be achieved by a micrometer screw.
The frequency can be obtained by using calibrating chart.

Fig. 4 Frequency Meter
SLOTTED SECTION:
To sample the field with in a wave guide, a narrow longitudinal slot with ends tapered to provide
smoother impedance transformation and thereby providing minimum mismatch, is milled in the
center of the top of broader dimension of the wave guide. Such section is known as slotted wave
guide section. The slot is generally so many wave length long to allow many minimum of
standing wave pattern to be covered.
The slot location is such that its presence does not influence the field configurations to any great
degree. A probe is inserted through the slot senses the relative field strength of the standing wave
pattern inside the waveguide. The probe is placed on a carriage plate which can be moved
Along the waveguide. The probe is connected to a crystal detector and the output is connected to
indicating meter. For detector tuning a tuning plunger is provided instead of a stub

Fig. 5 Slotted Section with Probe Carriage
CRYSTAL DETECTOR:
The simplest and the most sensitive detecting element is a microwave crystal Diode. It is a
nonlinear, nonreciprocal device which rectifies the received signal and produces, a current
proportional to the power input. Since the current flowing through the crystal is proportional to
the square law detection property of a crystal is valid at a low power levels (<10 mw). However,
at high and medium power level (>10mw), the crystal gradually becomes a linear detector.
Detector Mount is used for detection in which Crystal Detector is shunted in waveguide.
Fig.5: Crystal Detector

VSWR METER:
Direct-reading VSWR meter is a low-noise voltage tuned amplifier calibrated in dB and VSWR
for use with square law detectors. A typical SWR meter has a standard tuned frequency of 1 KHz
at which the microwave signal is modulated. Clearly the source of power to be used while using
SWR meter must be giving us a 1 KHz square wave modulated output. The band width
facilitates single frequency measurements by reducing noise while the widest setting
accommodates a sweep rate fast enough for oscilloscope presentation.

The scale of VSWR meter is calibrated in VSWR and VSWR in dB. It has two normal and one
expanded scale. In first normal scale VSWR from 1-3 can be measured and in second normal
scale VSWR from 3 to 10 can be measured. To measure low VSWR(less than 1.3) expanded
scale is used. The dB scale is present along with expanded dB scale. Using knob on the front
panel chooses the normal scale or expanded scale.
Using the knobs on the front panel can change the gain in VSWR meter. Two knobs are present
for changing gain from 0 to 10 dB. Gain can also be changed by 0 to 10 dB in steps of 10 dB
using another knob. While measuring VSWR, gain should be either 50 or 60 dB. for accurate
measurement of VSWR.
Both crystal and bolometer may be used in conjunction with the SWR meter. There is provision
for high (2,500 – 10,000 ohm) and low (50-200 ohm) impedance crystal inputs. Input selector
Switch is used to slect the crystal or bolometer.
This instrument is the basic piece of equipment in microwave measuring techniques and is used
in measuring voltage peaks, valleys, attenuation, gain and other parameter determined by the
ratio of two signals.
Fig. 6 Crystal Detector

MICROWAVE COMPONENTS:
WAVE GUIDES:
A wave guide is a hollow metallic tube of a rectangular or circular cross section used to guide
an electromagnetic wave. Wave guides are used principally at microwave frequencies. In
laboratories x band (8 to 12 GHz) range of frequencies are used. Therefore a standard x band
Rectangular wave guides are used having an inner width, 0.4 in and an inner length, 0.9 in.
In wave guides the electric & magnetic fields are confined to the space within the guides. Thus
no power is lost through radiation, and even the dielectric loss is negligible, since the guides are
normally air filled. However, there is some power loss as heat in the walls of the guides.

It is possible to propagate several modes of Electromagnetic waves within a wave guide. A given
wave-guide has a definite cutoff frequency for each allowed mode and behaves as a high pass
filter. The dominant mode in rectangular wave guides is TE10 mode. It is advisable to choose the
dimensions of a guide in such a way that, for a given input signal only the energy of the
dominant mode can be transmitted through the guide.
The cut off frequency for mnth mode
The corresponding cut off wave length
Where C is velocity of light.

a is inner broader dimension of wave guide.
b is inner narrow dimension of wave guide
mn indicates mode number.
The guide wave length related to free space wave length & cut off wave length by
TEES:
Wave guide junctions are used to split the line with proper consideration of the phase. The
junctions that are widely encountered in microwave techniques are E – plane, H – plane and
Magic Tees.
An E-plane tee is obtained by fastening a piece of a similar wave guide to the broader wall of the
main waveguide section. The fastened wave guide, also known as series arm is parallel to the
plane of the electric field of the dominant TE10 mode in the main waveguide.
An H-plane tee is obtained by fastening a piece of a similar wave guide perpendicular to the
narrow wall of the main waveguide section. The fastened wave guide, also known as shunt arm
should lie in the H plane of the dominant TE10 mode in the main waveguide.
Magic Tee is a combination of the E- plane tee and H plane tee. It has certain characteristics
listed below.

(c) Magic Tee
Fig. 7 (a) E-Plane Tee (b) H-Plane Tee (c) Magic Tee
1. If two waves of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into port 1 and port 2, the
output will be zero at E – arm and additive at H – arm.
2. If a wave is fed into H – arm, it will be divided equally between port 1 & port 2 of the
collinear arms and will not appear at E – arm.
3. If a wave is fed into E – arm, it will produce an output of equal magnitude and opposite
phase at port – 1 and port 2. The output at H – arm is zero.
4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 or port 2, it will not appear in the
other collinear arm at port 2 or 1, appears at because E – arm causes a phase delay while the
H – arm causes a phase advance
The Magic Tee can be used as:
● In impedance bridge
● As antenna duplexer
● As Mixer
● As modular, etc.
DIRECTIONAL COUPLER:

Directional coupler is a 4 port wave guide junction. It consists of a primary waveguide and a
secondary waveguide connects together through apertures. These are unit directional coupler are
required to satisfy (1) reciprocity 2) conservation of energy 3) all ports matched terminated. For
ideal Directional coupler input given in port1 is fed to port 2 and 3and not to port 4.
Fig.7 Directional Coupler
CIRCULATOR:
A circulator is a passive microwave component which allows complete transmission from
n to (n+1) port. Circulator can be constructed with the help of Magic Tees & gyrator or
directional coupler with phase shifter or using ferrite material and so on.
A ferrite type circulator employs ferrite material at the center of the junction. This ferrite
post will be magnetized normal to the plane of the junction. Electromagnetic wave, which
propagates through the ferrite material, undergoes phase change during its transverse. The phase
change is dependent upon the intensity of the magnetic bias and the length of the ferrite rod. The
bias & dimensions of the ferrite are so chosen, such that the waves move unidirectional from n to
(n+1) port.

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To study mode characteristics of reflex klystron.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Klystron tube, klystron power supply, Isolator, Frequency meter,
Variable attenuator, Detector mount, V.S.W.R Meter, C.R.O.
THEORY:
Reflex Klystron is one of the most commonly used microwave (low power) generators. It
converts D.C. power into microwave power.
REFLEX KLYSTRONS OSCILLATOR:
The schematic diagram of a reflex klystron tube is shown in Fig. 1, which uses only a single
re-entrants microwave cavity as resonator. The electron beam emitted from the cathode K is
accelerated by the grid G and passes through the cavity anode A to the repeller space between
the cavity anode and the repeller electrode.
Fig. 1 Reflex Klystron Oscillator

MECHANISM OF OSCILLATION:
Due to dc voltage in the cavity circuit, RF noise is generated in the cavity. This electromagnetic
noise field in the cavity becomes pronounced at cavity resonant frequency. The electrons passing
through the cavity gap d experience this RF field and are velocity modulated in the following
manner.
The electrons as shown in Fig. 2 which encountered the positive half cycle of the RF field in the
gap d will be accelerated, those (reference electrons) b which encountered zero RF field will pass
with unchanged original velocity, and the electrons c which encountered the negative half cycle
will be retarded on entering the repeller space.
Fig. 2 Bunching action of a reflex klystron
All these velocity modulated electrons will be repelled back to the cavity by the repeller due to
its negative potential. The repeller distance L and the voltages can be adjusted to receive all the
velocity modulated electrons at a same time on the positive peak of the cavity RF voltage cycle.
Thus the velocity modulated electrons are bunched together and lose their kinetic energy when
they encounter the positive cycle of the cavity RF field. This loss of energy is thus transferred to
the cavity to conserve the total power.

If the power delivered by the bunched electrons to the cavity is greater than the power loss in the
cavity, the electromagnetic field amplitude at the resonant frequency of the cavity will increase
to produce microwave oscillations. The RF power is coupled to the output load by means of a
small loop which forms the center conductor of the coaxial line. When the power delivered by
the electrons becomes equal to the total power loss in the cavity system, a steady microwave
oscillation is generated at resonant frequency of the cavity.
MODE OF OSCILLATION:
The bunched electrons in a reflex klystron can deliver maximum power to the cavity at any
instant which corresponds to the positive peak of the RF cycle of the cavity oscillation. If T is the
time period at the resonant frequency, to is the time taken by the reference electron to travel in
the repeller space between entering the repeller space at b and the returning to the cavity at
positive peak voltage on formatting of the bunch, then

Fig. 3 Modes of Reflex klystron
Thus by adjusting repeller voltage for given dimensions of the reflex klystron, the bunching can
be made to occur at N=1/4, 1 ¾, 2 ¾, etc. for modes n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, respectively. It is obvious
that the lowest order mode 3/4 occurs for a maximum value of repeller voltage when the transit
time to of the electrons in the repeller space is minimum. Higher modes occur at lower repeller
voltages. Since at the highest repeller voltage the acceleration of the bunched electrons of return
is maximum, the power output of the lowest mode is maximum.
MODULATION:
By varying the reflector voltage about a d.c. value, Klystron can be frequency and amplitude
modulated simultaneously. For proper square wave modulation with 100% modulation index, the
reflector voltage and amplitude of the square wave should be set as shown in Fig. 4.
If the square wave peak to peak amplitude is Vm and Vo is the reflector d.c. voltage, the total
reflector voltage will switch between (Vo+Vm) and (VoVm). We have to choose Vo and Vm such
that (Vo+Vm) is in the mode center and (Vo-Vm) is the non-oscillating region for proper square
wave modulation.

Fig. 4 Square wave Modulation
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Fig. 4 Microwave bench setup for study of klystron modes
PROCEDURE:
Mode studies:
● Connect the components and equipments as shown in fig. above
● Keep the control knob of klystron power supply as below:
Mode switch: CW
Beam voltage knob: Fully anti-clockwise
Repeller voltage knob: Fully clockwise
Meter switch: Cathode voltage position
Rotate the frequency meter at one side.

● Switch on the klystron power supply, V.S.W.R meter and cooling fan for the klystron
tube. Wait for 1-2 minutes for the klystron to respond.
● Cathode voltage knob at minimum position gives a beam voltage of 235V. Observe beam
current on the meter by changing meter switch to beam current position. “The beam
current should not be more than 30mA”.
● Now change the meter switch to repeller voltage position.
● Select proper range for the power meter so that power output of maximum mode will not
exceed the meter range.
● Decreasing the reflector voltage, record output power and frequency.
● To measure frequency, switch the Mode-switch of klystron to AM mode and observe
output on CRO display. By matching the detector with tuning posts adjust for maximum
output.
● Use AM amplitude, frequency controls and controls on Oscilloscope front panel try to get
clear display on C.R.O. By rotating the frequency meter, observe for dip in the output and
note the corresponding frequency.
● Plot power/relative frequency versus repeller voltage to get mode curves.
● Compute various parameters from the graph.
Mechanical and Electronic Tuning:

● Mechanical tuning depends on changing the width of cavity i.e. the effective I
capacitance and thus the resonant frequency of the klystron changes. The power output
remains same with tuning.
● Electronic tuning refers to change in repeller voltage causing a change in output
frequency. However, the power output also changes.
● A measure of electronic tuning is given by ‘Electronic Tuning Sensitivity (ETS)’. This
can be determined by taking the slope of the frequency characteristic of the modes.
OBSERVATIONS:

Beam Voltage:
Repeller Voltage:
Frequency (GHz):
S. No. Repeller Voltage (Volts) Power Output (dB)
CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
ATTENUATOR CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To study the attenuation characteristics of a variable attenuator.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Klystron power supply, klystron Tube 2k25, klystron mount,
Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable attenuator, Detector mount, Wave guide stands, V.S.W.R
Meter, BNC Cable etc.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Fig. 1 Setup for Attenuator Characteristics
PROCEDURE:
● Set the components and equipments as shown in figure above.
● Initially set the variable attenuator for maximum attenuation.
● Terminate the receiving end with unknown load.
● Keep the control knob of klystron power supply.
Beam voltage - off
Mod-switch - AM
Beam voltage knob - Full anti clockwise
Reflector voltage knob - Full clockwise
Am-amplitude knob - Full clockwise
Am frequency & amplitude knob - Mid position
● Switch on the klystron power supply, vswr meter & cooling fan.

● Switch on the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300v.
● Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in vswr meter.
● Tune the output by tuning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of AM
modulation.
● Tune plunger of klystron mount and probe for maximum deflection in vswr meter.
● Keep the control knob of VSWR meter as below:
o Switch : normal
o Input switch : Low impedance
o Range db switch : 40 db
o Gain control knob : Fully clockwise
● Connect detector output to SWR meter.
● Adjust the square wave modulation frequency to approximately 1 KHz.
● Tune the detector by adjusting short plunger for maximum meter deflection.
● Move the probe along slotted line, adjust it at standing wave minimum. Record the probe
position as X1, (this is the position of reference minimum) and next minimum position as
X2.
● Replace load by short circuit termination and move the probe carriage to new standing
wave minimum and record the probe position as Xs.(This is known as position of
reference plane.
● Find the shift minima (Xs – X2 or Xs – X1). It will be positive if minimum is shifted
towards load (i.e., for inductive load) and negative if minimum is shifted towards
generator (for capacitive load). Shift in minimum for different loads can be easily known
from the standing wave patterns given below.
● Convert the shift in wavelength units, i.e., (Xs – X1) / l. Wavelengths.
● Position on minimum can be known more accurately if it is taken as midpoint of
positions of equal responses on either side of minimum.

OBSERVATIONS:
S.No. Screw Gauge Reading (mm) Attenuation in Decibels
CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
MEASURING VSWR
AIM: To determine the frequency, guided wavelength and VSWR in a rectangular waveguide
working in TE10 mode.
EQUIPMENTS: Klystron power supply, Klystron mount, Klystron tube, Isolator, Frequency
meter, Variable Attenuator, Slotted section, Tunable probe, wave guide stands, Movable short
load, BNC cable, VSWR meter, slide screw, matched termination
THEORY:
Standing waves are an indication of the quality of transmission. A well matched transmission
line has no reflection and consequently the VSWR is unity. The slotted line is the basic
instrument. A probe is moved along the line to sample the voltage , the output of the probe is
detected and read on the VSWR meter. The ratio between maximum voltage and minimum
voltage is of course, the VSWR.
The output meter can be any type of voltmeter, in practice however a standing wave ratio meter
is used. This is an audio amplifier peaked at a modulation frequency with a meter calibrated
especially for reading VSWR. The probe is set at a voltage maximum so that the VSWR meter
reads full scale. The probe is then moved to a minimum point and assuming there is a square law
detector, the scale on the VSWR meter reads VSWR directly. The standing wave ratio in decibel
is expressed as
SWR (db) = 20 log (VSWR)
REFLECTION CO-EFFICIENT (R):

When a signal is sent down a transmission line, it travels smoothly until it reaches a
discontinuity. The same of the energy is reflected, the size of the reflection depending on the size
and nature of the discontinuity. The size of the reflection is called the reflection co-efficient. The
simplest standing wave occurs when the reflection co-efficient is unity, this occurs when the load
impedance is a short circuit, an open circuit. It does not occur if the load has a resistive
component which will absorb some of the incident power.
If the transmission line is terminated in a short or open circuit, the reflected voltage (Er) is equal

to the incident voltage (Ei) and the reflection co-efficient is unity and the VSWR is infinite. If a
matched termination is connected to the transmission line, the reflected wave is zero, the
reflection co-efficient is also zero and VSWR is 1.
It should be noted that reflection co-efficient must lie between zero and one. However the same
information could be presented by referring to the loss in decibels between the incident and
reflected signals. This is called as return loss and is designated LR, the relationship are
LR =20 log10 ( Ei / Er ) – 20 log10 (1/R)
=20 log10 (VSWR+1) / (VSWR -1)
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line may be considered as the sum of two
travelling waves, the incident waves, which propagate from the source to the load and the
reflected wave which propagate towards the generator. The reflected wave is set up by reflection
of incident wave from a discontinuity in the line or from the load impendence. The superposition
of the two travelling waves gives rise to a standing wave along a line.
The maximum field Strength is found where the waves are in phase and along the line. The
distance between the two successive minimum and maximum is half the guide wavelength on the
line. The ratio of the electric field strength of reflected and incident waves is called reflection
co-efficient
VSWR = Emax/Emin
= (Ei + Er) / (Ei – Er)
= (1+refl co-eff)/(1-refl co-eff)
R= ( Ei / Er) = ( Zi – Zo ) / ( Zi + Zo Zi)
R=(VSWR-1)/(VSWR+1)
Where Ei = incident voltage and Er = reflected voltage.
Zi =load impedance and Zo= characteristic impedance

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR MEASURING LOW, MEDIUM AND HIGH VSWR:
Fig. 1 Setup for VSWR measurement
PROCEDURE
● Set the equipment as shown in above setup
● Keep variable attenuator in the minimum attenuation position
● Keep the control knob of VSWR meter as below,
Range db -40db to 50db
Input switch – low impedance
Meter switch- normal
Gain- mid position
● Keep the control knob of klystron power supply as follows:
Beam voltage –off
Mod-switch- Am
Beam voltage knob- full anticlockwise
Reflector voltage knob – full clockwise
Am freq and amp knob – mid postion
● Switch on the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling FAN
● Switch on the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300V

● Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter
● Tune the output by tuning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of am
modulation.
● Tune plunger of klystron mount and probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
If required, change the range the range db switch variable attenuator position and gain
control knob to get deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.
As we move along the slotted line, the deflection will change.
Measurement of low and medium VSWR

● Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
● Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter indicates
1.0 on normal VSWR scale.
● Keep all the control knobs as it is, move the probe to next minimum position.
● Read the VSWR on scale. Repeat the above step for change of SS tuner probe depth and
record the corresponding SWR.
● If VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, change the range db to next higher position and read the
VSWR on second VSWR scale of 3-10.
Measurement of high VSWR

● Set the depth of SS tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR
● Move the probe along the slotted line until a minimum is indicated
● Adjust the VSWR gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain a reading of 3db in
the normal db scale(0-10db) of VSWR meter
● Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full scale deflection is obtained on 0-10db
scale note and record the probe position on slotted line let it be d1
● Repeat the step 3 and then move the probe right along the slotted line until full scale
deflection is obtained on 0-10db normal db let it be d2
● Replace the SS tuner and termination by movable short.
● Measure the distance between two successive minima positions of the probe > twice this
distance in guide wavelength.
● Compute VSWR from the following equation.

a) Standing wave b) Double minima method
VSWR = λg / π (d1 - d2) = λg / π (Δx)
Where λg is the guide wavelength, d1 and d2 are locations of double minimum points. The units
of λg and distance are same.
CALCULATIONS:
Beam Voltage:
Repeller Voltage:
Theoretical calculation of λg:
Practical Calculation of λg:
λg =2(dmin1-dmin2) or
λg=2(dmax1-dmax2)

S. no. Maxima Minima λg
Measured Frequency:
f=9.32GHz (Using frequency meter)
f=c/√[(1/λg)2 +(1/2a)2]
λg =
2a=
c=
f=
VSWR MEASUREMENT:
d1 = ___ cm
d2 = ___ cm
d3= ___ cm
d4 = ___ cm
λg =
λ𝑔
VSWR= π(𝑑1−𝑑2)
CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
PROPERTIES OF DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
AIM: To measure coupling factor, directivity and insertion loss of a directional coupler
EQUIPMENT: Klystron power supply, Reflex Klystron, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable
Attenuator (or Gunn Power Supply, Gunn Oscillator, Isolator, Pin Modulator), Termination,
Crystal detector, VSWR meter, Directional coupler.
THEORY:
The standing wave detector picks up and detects the field along a transmission line. This field is
the sum of the incident and reflected wave on the line. Instead of measuring the sum of two
waves it is possible to measure, the two waves separately. A device, which can separate two
waves travelling in opposite directions, is the directional coupler.
A directional coupler is a four-port wave guide junction. It consists of primary waveguide 1-2
and secondary waveguide 3-4. When all ports are terminated to their characteristic impedance,
there is free transmission of power, without reflection between port 1 and 2 and there is no
transmission of power between port 1 and 4 or between ports 2 and 3. The coupling between (1
and 3) and (2 and 4) depends upon the structure of the coupler.
To measure coupling and directivity one of the ports of the coupler is terminated with a matched
load.
Coupling (dB) = -10logP3/P1 = P 1 – P3
Isolation (dB) = -10logP4/P1 = P 1 – P4
Directivity (dB) = -10logP4/P3 = P 3 – P4
Insertion loss (dB) = -10logP1/P2 = P 1 – P2

Thus the coupling is a measure of how strongly the primary and secondary arms are coupled to
each other and the directivity is a measure of how good separation between the incident and
reflected waves is accomplished.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
PROCEDURE
● Set up the equipment as shown in fig b without the directional coupler i.e. directly
connects crystal detector with VSWR meter in order to measure input after attenuator.
● Set the variable attenuator at maximum position.
● Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below:
Range dB : 50 dB position
Input switch : Crystal low impedance/200K
Meter switch : Normal position
Gain (coarse and fine) : Mid position
● Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:
Mod-switch : AM
Beam voltage knob : fully anti-clockwise
Reflector voltage : fully clockwise
AM-Amplitude knob : around fully clockwise
AM-Frequency knob : around mid-position
● ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
● Turn the meter switch of power supply to beam voltage position and beam voltage at 300
V with the help of beam voltage knob.

● Adjust the reflector voltage to set klystron for maximum mode of operation. Get some
deflection, in VSWR meter.
● Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power supply
and set some reference reading in VSWR meter. Note this attenuator setting as (A1)dB
● Now insert directional coupler as shown in fig b. Feed the power through port 1 and
measure output at port 2 by terminating port 3 using matched termination.
● Reduce the attenuation to get the reference reading obtained in step 8 on VSWR meter.
Note down the attenuator setting as (A2) dB
● Reverse the directional coupler and feed the power through port 2 and measure the output
at port 3. Let the attenuator setting for this reading be (A4) dB
● Calculate directivity, coupling, isolation and insertion loss.
● Repeat the experiment at other frequencies to obtain coupling characteristics over the
band of interest.
OBSERVATIONS:
Freq (GHz) A1dB A2dB A3dB A4dB
CALCULATIONS:
oupling (dB) A1 – A3 dB
rectivity (dB) A3 – A4 dB
olation (dB) A1 – A4 dB
sertion loss (dB) A1 – A2 dB
CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
STUDY OF POWER DIVISION IN MAGIC TEE
AIM: To measure isolation between E and H arms of the magic tee & Demonstrate 3dB power
division in the side arm of the magic tee.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Klystron power supply, klystron mount, Isolator, Attenuator,
Frequency meter, V.S.W.R Meter, magic tee and matched terminations.
MAGIC TEE:
A four port junction which is a combination of an E- plane and H-Plane Tees is called Hybrid
Tee when matching elements are introduced to reduce the reflections. It is called Magic Tee. It
has four arms or ports which have the names indicated as follows:
The arm which makes an H-plane tee with the collinear arms is called H-arm or shunt arm. The
fourth arm which makes E-Plane tee with the collinear arms is called E-arm or series arm. The
shunt and series arms are cross polarized, i.e., the voltage vectors in these two arms are
perpendicular to each other. Therefore as long as there is nothing within the junction to rotate the
polarization, there can be no coupling between the two arms. The E and H arms are matched by
employing posts and irises to minimize reflections from there two ports.
Fig. 1 Magic Tee

The magic associated with the hybrid junction is the way in which the power is divided in the
various arms. The signal fed into the shunt or H-arm divides its- If equally and in phase in the
two side arms with no coupling in the E-arm. When the signal is fed into the series or E-arm it
also divides itself equally in the two arms, but this time the two halves are 1800.Out of phase and
there is no coupling to the H-arm. If the power is fed into one of the side arms, it divides equally
in the shunt and series arm and there is no coupling in the other side arm, That is to say finally
that ‘In a magic tee, opposite arms are isolated’.
A magic tee can also be used as a signal combiner. If the signals are fed to both the side arms,
they will combine in phase in H-arm and 1800 out of phase in E-arm.
A magic tee is normally characterized by two quantities
1. Isolation between E and H arms

2. Power division in collinear arms
ISOLATION BETWEEN E AND H ARMS

If the power flowing into E arm is taken as PE and power flowing out of H-arm as PH then
Isolation (dB) =-10 log10 PH/ PE.
= - 10log10P4/P3 in dB
This assumes that both the collinear arms are match terminated.
POWER DIVISION
The power fed in either the E or H arm should divide itself equally in both the side arms when
the opposite port is match terminated. If we designate the power entering the E arm as PE and
power in side arms as PC1 and PC1 then the ratio of the power coupled in side arms to that
entering in the E-arm is given by the relation.
Coupling (dB) = -10log10 Pc1/PH =-10log10 PC2/PH
= - 10log10P1/P4 or -10log10P2/P4

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Fig. 2a For Input Power measurement
Fig. 2b For coupled/isolated Power measurement
PROCEDURE:
● Setup the equipment as shown in fig above
● Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below.
Mode switch : AM
Beam Voltage Knob : Fully Anticlockwise
Repeller Voltage Knob : Fully Clockwise
Meter Switch : Cathode Voltage Position
● Measurement or isolation between E and H arms.
o Set the attenuator around 20dB. Let this setting be (A1) dB.

o Achieve a state reference reading on the SWR meter, preferably in 40dB range of
the SWR meter.
o Reduce the attenuation till the SWR meter reads the value obtained in step above.
● Note the attenuation setting (A2) dB. The difference in the attenuator settings (A1 – A2)
dB gives the isolation in dB
● Experimental setup for demonstrating the 3dB power division in the collinear arms.
o Now the power input be either at E or H arms.
o Set the attenuator to get reference reading on the SWR meter without the
component under test. Note the attenuator setting (A1) dB.
o Connect the component under test (Magic tee)
o Reduce the attenuation to get the reference reading obtained in step ii.
o Note down the attenuator setting (A2) dB.
● The difference in the attenuator settings gives the ratio of the power coupled to the
collinear to that in the main arm, in dB. This value should be around 3 dB.
CALCULATIONS:
Isolation = PE-PH
Coupling = PH-PC1
CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
ISOLATOR & CIRCULATOR CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To study operation of ferrite circulator, isolator and hence measure insertion loss and
isolation offered by these devices.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Klystron power supply, klystron mount, Variable attenuator,
Matched termination, crystal detector, V.S.W.R Meter, isolator, circulator.
PROCEDURE:
● Setup the equipment as shown in figure without the ferrite device i.e., directly
connectdetector with vswr meter in order to measure input.
● Set the variable attenuator at maximum position.
● Keep the control knob of klystron power supply as below:
Mode Switch : AM
Beam Voltage Knob : Fully Anti Clockwise
Repeller Voltage Knob : Fully Clockwise
Meter Switch : Cathode Voltage Position
● Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below:
Range db : 50 db position
Input switch : Crystal low impedance
Meter switch : Normal position
Gain (Coarse and fine) : Mid position
● ‘ON’ the klystron power supply, VSWR Meter and cooling fan.
● Set some reference reading in VSWR meter by adjusting the variable attenuator.
● Note this attenuator setting as (A1) db.
CIRCULATOR
● Carefully remove the detector setup and insert the circulator as in the set-up, with powerfed
through port 1.
● Measure output at port 2 with port 3 terminated in matched load.
● Reduce the attenuation to get the reference reading obtained .Note down the attenuator
setting as (A2) db.
● Determine insertion loss or forward loss in decibels by noting the change in attenuator
setting in order to get reference reading in VSWR meter.

● Interchange the positions of detector set-up and matched load between ports 2 and 3.
● Adjust the attenuator setting to get reference reading on SWR meter. Note the attenuator
setting as (A3) db. Determine the isolation (or attenuation) in db by noting the change in
attenuator setting (with reference reading in VSWR meter).
THREE PORT CIRCULATOR
ISOLATOR
● Now insert isolator in place of circulator with input power fed to port 1.
● Measure output at port 2, adjust the attenuator to get reference reading in indicatingmeter.
Note this attenuator setting as A12 db.
● Inter change the ports of isolator and adjust the attenuator.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Fig.1 setup for measurement of Circulator and Isolstor characteristics

OBSERVATIONS:

CIRCULATOR
A1 dB A2 dB A3 dB
ISOLATOR
A1 dB A12 dB A21 dB
CALCULATIONS:
CIRCULATOR
Insertion loss dB = A1 – A2 dB
Isolation dB = A1 – A4 dB
ISOLATOR
Insertion loss dB = A1 – A12 dB
Isolation dB = A1 – A21 dB
CONCLUSION:
EXPERIMENT NO. 7

UNKNOWN IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT
AIM: Introduction to Smith chart and its application for unknown impedance measurement
REQUIREMENT: You have to install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run
the exe file in order to perform the experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded free of
cost from the following link: http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en
KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED FOR THE EXPERIMENT:

● Transmission line calculations.
● Smith Chart.
● Resistance and Reactance Circle on Smith Chart.
OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT:
Transmission-line calculation – such as determination of input impedance, reflection and load
impedance, involve tedious manipulation of complex numbers. This tedium can be alleviated by
using a graphical method of solution. The best known and most widely used graphical chart is
the Smith chart devised by P.H. Smith.
Here Smith chart has been designed using LabVIEW programming for better understanding the
concept behind smith chart using graphical user interface.
This experiment gives an introduction to Smith chart and its application for the unknown
impedance measurement. From this experiment we will learn to use the Smith chart for
transmission-line calculations. This experiment will be helpful in learning following topics:
● Realization of Smith chart and the basics of drawing a Smith chart.
● Identification of resistance, reactance and VSWR circles on Smith chart.
● Understanding the meaning of intersection of resistance and reactance circle over smith
chart.
● Representation of short-circuit and open-circuit points on Smith chart.
● Identification of Admittance point, when load point is known.
● Using smith chart for the evaluation of the unknown impedance.
THEORY:
Smith Chart: Smith chart devised by P.H. Smith is the most widely used graphical chart for

transmission line calculations. It is a chart of resistance (r) and reactance (x) circles in the Г𝑟
- Г𝑖 plane for | Г | < 1 where, r - and x- circles are everywhere orthogonal to one another. The
intersection of an r-circle and an x-circle defines a point that represents normalized load
impedance 𝑍𝐿 = r + jx. This can be obtained on the LabVIEW programme by selecting option 3
from menu and providing the values of r and x in the space specified. The actual load impedance
is 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅0 (r + jx). Since a Smith chart plots the normalized impedance for | Г | ≤ 1, it can be
used for calculations concerning a lossless transmission line only with arbitrary characteristic
impedance. The Smith chart is marked with Г𝑟 and Г𝑖 rectangular coordinates. The same chart
can be marked with polar coordinates, such that every point in the Γ- plane is specified by a
magnitude | Г | and a phase angle θГ. All | Г |- circles are centered at the origin, and their radii
vary uniformly from 0 to 1. The | Г |- circles can be drawn in the LabVIEW programme provided
with the experiment by selecting option 6 from the menu and giving desired value of | Г | in the
column specified. The radius of the VSWR circle is equal to the magnitude | Г | of the load
reflection coefficient.

Each | Г | - circle intersects the real axis ( Г𝑟 ) at two points. The points are marked in the above
figure as 𝑃𝑀 on the positive-real axis ( 𝑂𝑃𝑂𝐶) and 𝑃𝑚 on the negative-real axis (𝑂𝑃𝑆𝐶). Since
x= 0 along the real axis, 𝑃𝑀 and 𝑃𝑚 both represent situations with a purely resistive load,
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 .Obviously, 𝑅𝐿 > 𝑅0 at 𝑃𝑀 , where r >1; and 𝑅𝐿 < 𝑅0 at 𝑃𝑚 , where r <. Value of the
r-circle passing through the point 𝑃𝑚 is numerically equal to the standing-wave ratio (S).
Similarly, the value of the r-circle passing through the point on the negative-real axis is
numerically equal to 1/S.
CALCULATION OF INPUT IMPEDANCE:

'
As we know that the input impedance looking toward the load at a distance 𝑍 from the load is
' '
the ratio of V(𝑍 ) and I(𝑍 )
We note that the magnitude of the reflection coefficient and therefore the standing-wave ratio S,
'
are not changed by the additional line length 𝑍 . Thus just as we can use the Smith chart to find |
Г | and θГ for a given 𝑍𝑙 at the load, we can keep | Г | constant and subtract (rotate in the
' '
clockwise direction) from θГ an angle equal to 2β𝑍 =4π𝑍 /λ. This will locate the point for |
𝑗Φ
Г | 𝑒 , which determines 𝑍𝑖, the normalized input impedance looking into a lossless line of

'
characteristic impedance 𝑅0 length 𝑍 , and a normalized load impedance 𝑍𝐿 .
PROCEDURE:
Please download the files shown on the left to perform the actual experiment.
Step 1: Select the option from menu according to your requirement.
Step 2: Enter the values corresponding to the option provided in previous step.
Step 3: Run the VI to see the desired plot in Smith chart. In case, you wish to see the other plot
then click stop and repeat steps 1-2 before running the program again.
OBSERVATION:
CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE AND REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
AIM: Find the change in characteristics impedance and reflection coefficients of the
transmission line by changing the dielectric properties of materials embedded between two
conductors.

● Transmission Lines
● Reflection Coefficient (Г)
● Coaxial Transmission Lines
● Parallel Plate Transmission Lines
● Strip Lines
● Microstrip Lines
This experiment will make you familiar to the design of the various transmission lines and the
differences in their geometry. Here, one can get the brief description of the transmission line
parameters as well. This experiment shows the change in the dielectric property of the material
effects the characteristic impedance (Zo) and the reflection coefficients (Г) of the transmission
lines. In this experiment, one can see the variation of the reflection coefficient magnitude (|Г|)
and the phase with the frequency. Here, you can get well acquainted with the geometry of the
various transmission lines and the difference between them.

THEORY:
TRANSMISSION LINES:
The transmission lines are used as wave-guiding structures for transferring power and
information from one point to another. Transmission line is often schematically represented as a
two wire line, since transmission lines always have at least two conductors. A maximum transfer
of power from a given voltage source occurs under "matched conditions". A line is matched
when the load impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance of the line.
Fig.1 Transmission line terminated with a load impedance ZL
For a finite transmission line having characteristic impedance Zo terminated by a load

impedance of ZL, and the length of line is "ℓ". A sinusoidal voltage source Vg with an internal
impedance Zg is connected to the line at z=0. In such a case, total voltage on the line can be
written as the sum of incident and reflected waves.
Similarly, the total current on the line is described as:
The total voltage and current at the load are related by the load impedance, so at z=0 we must
have

Solving for Vo- gives
The amplitude of the reflected voltage wave normalized to the amplitude of the incident voltage
wave is defined as the voltage reflection coefficient, Г
From the above relation, we can see that only when Г = 0, there is no reflected wave.
COAXIAL TRANSMISSION LINES:

This consists of an inner conductor and a coaxial outer conducting sheath separated by a
dielectric medium. This structure has an important advantage of confining the electric and
magnetic fields entirely within the dielectric region. No stray fields are generated by a coaxial
transmission line, and little external interference is coupled into the line. Examples are telephone
and TV cables and the input cables to high - frequency precision measuring instruments.

Fig 2. (a) Geometry of coaxial line (b) Layered structure of Coaxial line
Characteristic Impedance, Zo can be given as:
PARALLEL PLATE TRANSMISSION LINE

This type of transmission line consists of two parallel conducting plates separated by a dielectric
slab of a uniform thickness. It is the simplest type of the transmission lines.
Fig.3 Geometry of parallel Plate Transmission Line
For a parallel plate transmission line with perfectly conducting plates of width 'w' and separated
by a lossless dielectric slab of thickness d, the characteristic impedance, Zo is d/w times the
intrinsic impedance η of the dielectric medium.
Characteristic Impedance, Zo of the parallel plate transmission line can be obtained from the
relation:

STRIP LINES:
This is a planar type of transmission line that lends itself well to microwave integrated circuitry
and photolithographic fabrication. A thin conducting strip of width 'W' is centered between two
wide conducting ground planes of separation 'H', thickness of strip is 'T' and the entire region
between the ground planes is filled with dielectric, εr . Since strip line has two conductors and a
homogeneous dielectric, it can support a TEM wave, and this is the usual mode of operation.
Fig.4 Geometry of strip lines

The phase velocity of a TEM mode is given by, where ‘c’ is the speed of light in vaccum.
The characteristic impedance is given by:
Where we is the effective width of the center conductor given by:

MICROSTRIP LINES:
The microstrip line is one of the most popular types of planar transmission lines, because it can
be fabricated by photolithographic processes and is easily integrated with other passive and
active microwave devices. The geometry of a microstrip line is shown in the figure below. A
conductor of width 'W' is printed on a thin, grounded dielectric substrate of thickness 'h' and
relative permittivity εr.
Fig.5 Geometry of microstrip lines
The presence of the dielectric, and particularly the fact that the dielectric does not fill the air
region above the strip, complicates the behavior of microstrip line. The microstrip has some
(usually most) of its field lines in the dielectric region, concentrated between the strip conductor
and the ground plane, and some fraction in the air region above the substrate. For this reason the
microstrip line cannot support a pure TEM wave, since the phase velocity of TEM fields in the
dielectric region would be c/√εr, but the phase velocity of TEM fields in the air region would be
c. Thus, a phase mismatch occurs at the dielectric- air interface.

Microstrip lines support quasi-TEM mode. Since some of the field lines are in dielectric region
and some are in air, the effective dielectric constant satisfies the relation: 1 < εe < εr and is
dependent on the substrate thickness, h, and the conductor width, W.
The effective dielectric constant of a microstrip line is given approximately by
For given dimensions of the microstrip line, the characteristic impedance can be calculated as:
For given characteristic impedance Zo and dielectric constant εr, the W/h ratio can be found as:
PROCEDURE:
Please download the files to perform the actual experiment. The exe file is the LabView file that
will run on Lab VIEW Run time Engine.
Step 1: Set the maximum frequency range between 5-10 GHz.
Step 2: Select the type of transmission line from the drop down menu.
Step 3: Now select the sample material for which you wish to find the change in characteristic
impedance and reflection coefficient of the transmission line.

Step 4: Run the VI to see the characteristic impedance (Zo), the |Г| vs. frequency curve and the
reflection coefficient phase angle vs. frequency curve.
Step 5: In case, you wish to see the characteristic impedance (Zo), the |Г| vs. frequency curve
and the reflection coefficient phase angle vs. frequency curve for other sample materials, then
click stop and repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 before running the exe file again.
OBSERVATION:
CONCLUSION:
EXPERIMENT NO. 9
MODES INSIDE RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
AIM: Study of field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide.

● Waveguides
● Wave behavior inside a waveguide
● Configuration of Modes (TEmn , TMmn)
● Cut off frequency
● Surface current density

This experiment provides the field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide.
This gives the basic idea of the change in the field pattern; that is, electric and magnetic field
patterns with the change in modes inside a rectangular waveguide. One can observe the field
patterns of various modes in xy, xz and yz planes for different frequency bands. Surface current
density can also be observed on the walls of a rectangular waveguide.
Fig.1 Rectangular Waveguide

THEORY:
Electromagnetic waves propagating in open space travel out in all directions. The power
intensity of these waves decreases as the distance increases - it is proportional to the power of the
source divided by the square of the distance. The waveguide operates by confining the
electromagnetic wave inside a metallic structure so that it does not spread out, and losses
resulting from this effect are eliminated. In electromagnetics, the term waveguide may refer to
any linear structure that guides electromagnetic waves between two endpoints. Typically a
waveguide is thought of as a transmission electromagnetic waves are propagated. Unlike coaxial
cable, there is no centre conductor within the waveguide. Signals propagate within the confines
of the metallic walls that act as boundaries. The signal is confined by total internal reflection
from the walls of the waveguide. Waveguides are used principally at frequencies in the
microwave range. Waveguides will only carry or propagate signals above a certain frequency,
known as the cut-off frequency. Below this the waveguide is not able to carry the signals. The
cut-off frequency of the waveguide depends upon its dimensions.
A rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross section. The
conducting walls of the waveguide confine the electromagnetic fields and thereby guide the

electromagnetic wave. The rectangular waveguide is basically characterized by its dimensions
i.e., length ‘a’ and breadth ‘b’.
Fig. 2 Waveguide structure with dimension ‘a’ and ‘b’
MODES:
Electromagnetic waveguides are analyzed by solving Maxwell's equations, or their reduced form,
the electromagnetic wave equation, with boundary conditions determined by the properties of the
materials and their interfaces. These equations have multiple solutions, or modes, which are
eigen functions of the equation system. Each mode is therefore characterized by an eigenvalue,
which corresponds to a cutoff frequency below which the mode cannot exist in the guide.
Waveguide propagation modes depend on the operating wavelength and polarization and the
shape and size of the guide. The modes of the waveguide are typically classified into following
types:
● TE modes (Transverse Electric) have no electric field component in the direction of
propagation.
● TM modes (Transverse Magnetic) have no magnetic field component in the direction of
propagation.
● TEM modes (Transverse Electromagnetic) have neither electric nor magnetic field
component in the direction of propagation.

FIELD THEORY:
As we know, an electromagnetic field is comprised of electric and magnetic fields which are
perpendicular to each other. These fields have different patterns for each mode. These patterns
depend upon the mode numbers (m and n) and the dimensions (‘a’ and ‘b’) of the waveguide.
The electric field and magnetic field pattern are different for various modes in different
waveguides. The electric field component of an EM wave is characterized by Ex, Ey and Ez
components of the wave.
Similarly, the magnetic field component of an EM wave is characterized by Hx, Hy and Hz
components of the wave.
These components are usually plotted on an XY plane which shows the field pattern for both the
fields.
FIELD EQUATIONS:

PROCEDURE:
Step 1: Select the frequency band in which you wish to see the field pattern.
Step 2: Select the type of mode, i.e. either Transverse Electric (TE) or Transverse magnetic
(TM).
Step 3: Select pattern:
● Electric Field: Select this to view the electric field pattern of the given mode.
● Magnetic Field: Select this to view the magnetic field pattern of the given mode.
● Surface Current: Select this option to view the surface current density for TE10 mode.
Step 4: Enter the values of m and n to obtain the field pattern, where m stands for number of half

waves of electric or magnetic intensity in the X- direction, and n stands for number of half waves
in the y direction if the propagation of wave is in z direction.
Step 5: Run the VI up to see the desired field pattern in XY, YZ and XZ planes. In case, you
wish to see the other field pattern then click stop and repeat steps 1-4 before running the program
again.
OBSERVATION:
CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
AIM: To calculate the following parameters using Scilab

a) Maximum CW output power and resonant frequency for IMPATT Diode
b) Avalanche zone velocity of TRAPATT Diode
c) Breakdown voltage of BARITT Diode
REQUIREMENT: SCILAB 6.1.1
THEORY:
The process of having a delay between voltage and current, in avalanche together with transit
time, through the material is said to be Negative resistance. The devices that helps to make a
diode exhibit this property are called as Avalanche transit time devices.
The examples of the devices that come under this category are IMPATT, TRAPATT and BARITT
diodes. Let us take a look at each of them, in detail.
IMPATT Diode
This is a high-power semiconductor diode, used in high frequency microwave applications. The
full form IMPATT is IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit Time diode.
A voltage gradient when applied to the IMPATT diode, results in a high current. A normal diode
will eventually breakdown by this. However, IMPATT diode is developed to withstand all this. A
high potential gradient is applied to back bias the diode and hence minority carriers flow across
the junction.
Application of a RF AC voltage if superimposed on a high DC voltage, the increased velocity of

holes and electrons results in additional holes and electrons by thrashing them out of the crystal
structure by Impact ionization. If the original DC field applied was at the threshold of developing
this situation, then it leads to the avalanche current multiplication and this process continues.

This can be understood by the following figure.
TRAPATT Diode
The full form of TRAPATT diode is TRApped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit diode. A
microwave generator which operates between hundreds of MHz to GHz. These are high peak
power diodes usually n+- p-p+ or p+-n-n+ structures with n-type depletion region, width varying

from 2.5 to 1.25 Âµm. The following figure depicts this.
TRAPATT Diode
The electrons and holes trapped in low field region behind the zone, are made to fill the depletion
region in the diode. This is done by a high field avalanche region which propagates through the
diode.
The following figure shows a graph in which AB shows charging, BC shows plasma formation,
DE shows plasma extraction, EF shows residual extraction, and FG shows charging.
Let us see what happens at each of the points.

A: The voltage at point A is not sufficient for the avalanche breakdown to occur. At A, charge
carriers due to thermal generation results in charging of the diode like a linear capacitance.
A-B: At this point, the magnitude of the electric field increases. When a sufficient number of

carriers are generated, the electric field is depressed throughout the depletion region causing the
voltage to decrease from B to C.
C: This charge helps the avalanche to continue and a dense plasma of electrons and holes is
created. The field is further depressed so as not to let the electrons or holes out of the depletion
layer, and traps the remaining plasma.
D: The voltage decreases at point D. A long time is required to clear the plasma as the total
plasma charge is large compared to the charge per unit time in the external current.
E: At point E, the plasma is removed. Residual charges of holes and electrons remain each at one
end of the deflection layer.
E to F: The voltage increases as the residual charge is removed.
F: At point F, all the charge generated internally is removed.
F to G: The diode charges like a capacitor.
G: At point G, the diode current comes to zero for half a period. The voltage remains constant as
shown in the graph above.
This state continues until the current comes back on and the cycle repeats.

BARITT Diode
The full form of BARITT Diode is BARrier Injection Transit Time diode. These are the latest
invention in this family. Though these diodes have long drift regions like IMPATT diodes, the
carrier injection in BARITT diodes is caused by forward biased junctions, but not from the plasma
of an avalanche region as in them.
In IMPATT diodes, the carrier injection is quite noisy due to the impact ionization. In BARITT
diodes, to avoid the noise, carrier injection is provided by punch through of the depletion region.
The negative resistance in a BARITT diode is obtained on account of the drift of the injected holes
to the collector end of the diode, made of p-type material. The following figure shows the
constructional details of a BARITT diode.

For a m-n-m BARITT diode, Ps-Si Schottky barrier contacts metals with n-type Si wafer in
between. A rapid increase in current with applied voltage above30v is due to the thermionic hole
injection into the semiconductor.
The critical voltage (Vc) depends on the doping constant (N), length of the semiconductor (L)
and the semiconductor dielectric permittivity (ϵS) represented as
SCILAB CODE AND OUTPUT:
CONCLUSION:


ME LAB MANUAL 2022-23 - STUDENTS - New

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ME LAB MANUAL 2022-23 - STUDENTS - New

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

XAVIER INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

MAHIM, MUMBAI 400016

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION

MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LABORATORY (ECL701)

ACADEMIC YEAR 2022-23

Prof. Shailaja Udtewar

Subject / Practical In-Charge

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

To Nurture the Joy of Excellence in a World of Electronics and

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs):

I. Pre-preparation: To prepare students with a strong foundation in mathematical, scientific

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

• Engineering knowledge: To apply knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

• Problem analysis: To identify, formulate, research literature and analyze complex

• Design/ development of solutions: To design solutions for complex engineering problems

• Conduct investigations of complex problems: To analyze and interpret data and do

• Environment and sustainability: To understand the impact of professional engineering

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

• Communication: To communicate effectively on complex engineering activities by being

• Project management and finance: To demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs):

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

LO’s Experiment Nos.

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

EXP. Title of the Experiment LO’S

1. To study mode characteristics of Reflex klystron. LO4

2. To study the attenuation characteristics of a variable attenuator. LO4

3. To determine the frequency, guided wavelength and VSWR in a rectangular LO4

4. To measure coupling factor, directivity and insertion loss of a directional LO1

5. To study power division in the magic tee. LO1

10. To calculate the following parameters using Scilab LO3

a) Maximum CW output power and resonant frequency for IMPATT Diode

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

KLYSTRON POWER SUPPLY:

Fig. 2 Klystron power supply

REFLEX KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR:

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Fig. 3 Reflex klystron

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Fig. 4 Variable Attenuator

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Fig.5: Crystal Detector

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Fig. 6 Crystal Detector

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

The corresponding cut off wave length

Where C is velocity of light.

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Fig.7 Directional Coupler

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To study mode characteristics of reflex klystron.

Fig. 1 Reflex Klystron Oscillator

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Fig. 2 Bunching action of a reflex klystron

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23

Fig. 4 Microwave bench setup for study of klystron modes

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, XIEME LAB SEM-VII A.Y:2022-23