912 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE,

VOL. 55, NO. 6, JUNE 1967

Impedance Measurements inCoaxial

Waveguide Systems
R. L. JESCH AND R. M. JICKLING, MEMBER, IEEE

A l s t r a c t - W article is a tstoripl review of impednnee measureauzats

throughKU-band (18 GHz). Propagation is ordinarily
dstfadudsiacoaxidwavegmidesystesmpropagathgaTEMwave.It restricted to the TEM mode. Thewavelength at the operat-
desmibestbedevehpmentofcoaxialairkas~st.ndn&,re-
v k v s r ~ t i v e m e a m r e m e d m e t b o & d ~ & e e r r o r s a n d ing frequency should be less than the mean circumference
nreosrwmeptt~oftBeslottedlioemdet.il. of the transmission line to prevent the propagation of
higher modes.These higher modes, if generated at dis-
I. INTRODUCTION continuities in the system, are rapidly attenuatedtoan

A CCURACIES of impedance measurements in wave- undetectable level within the distance of a diameter of the
guide of coaxial cross section have been improved coaxial line. When good connectors are used, leakage is
by a factor of ten in less than two decades, an usually no problem in impedance measurements.
achievement based primarily on the parallel development Transmission-line parameters are frequencydependent.
of precision coaxial-line standards and precision coaxial As the frequency is increased the skin effect becomesnotice-
connectors.’ The development of these coaxial-line stan- able, i.e., current tends to become concentrated at the
dards and their contribution toward improved impedance- surfaces of the conductors. At h g h frequencies this current
measurement systems will be reviewed in this paper. Im- occupies a very small portion of the volume of the con-
provements in bridge, slotted-line, and reflectometer mea- ductor, resulting in an increase in effective resistance. Skin
surement techniques that have taken place during this same effect also results in a decrease of inductance as the fre-
period would not havebeenaccomplished without con- quency isincreased. Although in manyinstances these small
current improvements in precision connectors. These con- variations in the parameters maybe neglected, coaxial-line
nectors have extremely low VSWR’s and provide well de- standards used for measurements andcalibration of instru-
fined reference planes. ments must be corrected for these variations to keep the
To give some background on the early development of uncertainties of the standards sufficiently small.
coaxial impedance measurements, the basic methods and Impedance in coaxial-line systems can be defined as the
techniques will be mentioned. These start with the method complex ratioof voltage u to currenti. However, most mea-
of measuring impedancesby the use of slotted lines [ 1]-[3]. surements of high frequency and microwave impedance in
A single fixed probe can also beused by separating the coaxial lines are based on a sampling of the standing or
probe fromthe load by a length of linecontaining a variable traveling waves on the transmission line, rather than on
phase shifter allowing one to observe the standing-wave voltage and current. Sinusoidal time variation and single
pattern [4] as it sweeps past the probe. Reflectometer sys- frequencies are normally assumed.
tems using directional couplers [5] and hybrid junctions [ 6 ] , The solution of the wave equations and thederivation of
operated at asingle frequency, provide away to measure the the transmission-line equations which are basic to imped-
amplitude of reflection coefficient, but often without in- ance measurements are given, for example, by Everitt and
formation aboutrelative phases of the two traveling waves. Anner [8], Johnson [9], or Ram0 and Whinnery [lo].
Reflectometers operating at single frequencies are described When the transmission line is not terminated in its char-
by Beatty [7]. New methods employing swept-frequency acteristic impedance Zo, the power incident upon the load
techniques, described by Ely [54], can be used to obtain the Z L is reflected, as shown in Fig. l(a). The ratioof the com-
amplitude and the phase of microwave parameters. plextraveling-wave amplitudes, i.e., the reflection co-
efficient r, is related to Z L and Z o by
11. GENERAL BACKGROUND
Coaxial lines can be used from dc to above 40 GHz, but
are widely utilized beginning with the audiofrequencies up

Manuscript received March 31, 1967; revised April 6, 1967. The incident and reflected waves interfere to form stand-
The authors are with theNational Bureau of Standards, Boulder,Colo. ing waves [Fig. l(b)] which can be characterized by the
The term “precision coaxial connectors” refers to those connectors
which have very low reflection and meet other strict specifications of the ratio of the maximum to the minimum voltages (the voltage
IEEE Instrumentation and MeasurementGroup Technical Subcommittee standing-wave ratio a), where
on Standardization of Precision Coaxial Connectors. Manylaboratory
connectors in wide use today, although of low reflection, do not meet the
specifications of the committee. For connector details, see thepaper
“Standardization of Precision Coaxial Connectors,’’ elsewhere in this
issue [14].
JESCH
JICKLING:
IMPEDANCE
MEASUREMENTS
ANDIN COAXIAL SYSTEMS 913

I 1 only enables one to relate impedances to VSWR or reflec-

QL
20

IZL
I

ZL # zo
tion coefficient and position of a voltage minimum but is
also useful for impedance transformations and
of data.
the plotting

111. RIGIDAIR-SPACED
COAXIAL
LINES
As IMPEDANCE
STANDARDS
Sections of rigid coaxial transmission line have been used
as standards of impedance for a number of years. Poly-
styrene foam supported thecenter conductor of those early
(b) lines [12]. Later, incremental coaxial standards with solid
Standing
Waves polystyrene or teflon support provedto be useful /13].
Dimensional and dielectricconstantuncertainties limited
the accuracy of those standards to afew tenths of a percent
- at best. However, with the improved machiningtechniques
Termind developed during the last ten years, the mechanical un-
Plane
certainties in the manufacture of accurate tubing diameters
Fig. 1 . Incident and reflected wave of a transmission line terminated
in a mismatched condition showing the resulting standing wave. have been reduced to less than a hundredth percent. The
present-day precision air-spaced line standardsare con-
In general, the impedance Z, at any point along the line structed from this tubing; the center conductors are nor-
is related to the load impedance by the expression mally supported at their ends by adjacent coaxial connec-
tors or dielectric beads.
The accuracy of laboratory precision line standards also
z, = z,
+
Z, 2, tanh y l
depends on a definable electrical length, a problem greatly
Z , + Z , tanh $' simplified by the precision ceaxial connectors developed
during the past dozen years both in this country and abroad.
where Precision coaxial connectors are described in another paper
Z , =characteristic impedance of the transmission line, [14] in t h s issue. The advent of general precision coaxial
Z, = complex load impedance, connectors has also simplified the problem of defining the
y =complex propagation constant, a + j g = [(R+ j o L ) reference plane forimpedancemeasurements, as both
. (G+jwC)]' (a is the attenuation constant and inner and outer conductors of the coaxial line end in the
p = 2 4 ; . is the phase constant), same transverse mechanical plane. Improved standards de-
1 = length of line between the point and load. pending on precision connectors are describedin earlier
articles [ 151, [ 161.
For the specialcasewhen line losses are ignored, r=O,
y =j p , (3) becomes A . Characteristics of Coaxial Air-Spaced Lines
+ j Z , tan p l The equationfor the characteristic impedance of a coaxial
z,= z,ZZ ,, jz,
+ tan ~ 1 .
line, Zos 60 In (bla),should be corrected for electrical skin
depthandenvironmental conditions in order to be ap-
plicable to precision line standards. Since the characteristic
The load impedance at the end of a transmission line impedance is defined as
can be calculated from the VSWR present on the line and the
position of a voltage minimum with respect to the load. The
above equation canbe reduced to an expressionfor the
load impedance Z , in terms of the VSWR and the distance I :
the accuracy with which 2, can be determined will depend
1 - ja tan p1 on the knowledge of R, L, G, and C, the resistance, induc-
z,= z,a - j tan PI tance, conductance,and capacitance perunit length, re-
spectively.
The load impedance, Z , = R +JX, can be calculated directly Stratton [17] has providedconvenientapproximate
from (5) which can be rationalized as follows : equations for R and L :

R = 2,
o(1 + tan2 Dl) - +( M Iohms per meter, (9)
a2 + tan2 p1 (~)'-'["~)'" b
- 1)tanpl
x = z,(a2
a2 + tan2 p1
One of the more useful graphcal aids for transmission-
line computations is the Smith Chart [l 1 ]. This chart not . [ +-(papb)1'2]
b
henrys per meter, (10) .
914
where
a = outer diameter of the inner conductor, in meters,
b = inner diameter of the outer conductor,in meters,
p o = permeability of free space,
pa= permeability of the inner conductor material,
pa = resistivity of inner conductor material,
/.&=permeability of the outer conductormaterial,
pb = resistivity of the outer conductor material,
f = frequency in hertz.
For the great majority of electrical conductors, pa= pb= po.
The resistance per unit length R is the sum of the resistance
of the inner and outer conductors and, due to skin effect, is
proportional to y)’”. Equation (9) is valid to an uncer-
tainty of a few percent at 100 kHz and above. This uncer-
tainty, however, is not a serious obstacle to accurate char-
acteristic impedance calculation because of the small con-
tribution of R to the value of Zo.
The first term in (10) isthe zero skindepth form of coaxial
inductance, the external inductance per unit length. The
second and third terms comprise the internal inductance
of the conductors and are frequency-sensitive because of
skin effect.
The calculation of the exact solutions of R and L, pub-
lished by Russell [18] in 1909 in terms of a series of Bessel
functions, is more difficult and reasonably requires the use
of a computer. In view of the uncertainty in the physical
dimensions of the conductors, Stratton’s approximations
are quite satisfactory above 1 MHz [19].
The dielectric loss, G = OC tan 6 , in the medium (air) be-
tween the conductors is negligiblylowbelow approxi-
mately 80-percent relative humidity.
The capacitance per unit length can be calculated from
the physical dimensions by the exact equation
c = - 27CE farads per meter,
In bla
where
E = keto
k,= relative dielectric constant of the medium (usually
air)
z 8.8542 x farads per meter.
The value of k, may be computed from k,=n2, where n is
the refractive index of air [20]:
177.4103.49
(n - 1)106 = -P1 +
T T
P2
I 86.26 (
l+-
5y8)
P3. (12)
T
Thetotal barometric pressure is the sum of thepartial
pressures pl, p2, and p 3 of dry carbondioxide-free air,
carbon dioxide, and water vapor, respectively, at absolute
temperature T. For all but the most precise work, the effect
of carbon dioxide may be neglectedandp, set equal to zero.
A handbook [21] gives p3 for a known value of relative
humidity. The value of k, at 760 mm, 50-percent relative
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JUNE 1967
humidity is approximately 1.000649; this reduces to
1.OW558 at 628 mm (Boulder, Colo.).
In air-spaced lines when the skin depth is insignificant
compared with the dimensional uncertainties in the con-
ductors, (8) becomes the lossless case, Zo = (L/C‘)’i2. Sub-
stituting thefirst term of (10)and (1 1) yields
2c x lo-’ b 59.9585 b
z, = In-=- In -. (13)
k, a kc a
Mechanical tolerances in the conductors cause an un-
certainty in the calculated values of R, L, and C. Their
effect on R may bedisregarded. The effect on Z, of diameter
tolerances Aa and Ab and center conductor eccentricity e
can be estimated 1221 by the sum of
and
5 ---- 240e2
zo Zo(b2 - a’)
MacKenzie and Sandersonhave described the many prac-
tical difficulties indetermining the effective diameters of the
conductors; measurements are complicated by conductor
ellipticity, triangularity, and lack of straightness. Although
the surface finish resulting from high-quality machining
practice may not interfere with the present state-of-the-art
in air-gauging of conductor diameters, the measured value
of characteristic impedance of a reference air line ap-
parently does depend on the surface finish [16].
B. Applications of Standard Lines
Coaxial-line standards wereused at Bell Telephone
Laboratories, Inc., about1950 to calibrate RF bridges [12].
These lines were constructed of 3/8-inch copper tubing and
had the inner conductor supported at intervals with poly-
styrene foam. The frequency range of the bridges (30 MHz
,and lower) required long line standards.
Later Selby et al. [13] and other authorsdeveloped short
sections of rigid line spaced with solid dielectric. These line
sections, with an inner diameter of the outer conductor of
0.280 inch, approximately the same diameter as type Nand
type C cable connectors, were used for the study by the
nodal-shift technique of the two-terminal pair network
parameters of coaxial cable connectors.
Alford and Watts described a quarter-wavelength tech-
nique for the calibration of coaxial hybrids in which the
standard was a section of air line of accurately known char-
acteristic impedance [38].
With thedevelopment of improved machining techniques
such as floating tools, cold forging on a precision steel
mandrel, and electroforming, tubing finished to a uni-
formity of a few tens of microinches is now possible. Inner
conductors canbe constructed to these tolerances by center-
less grinding. Air-spaced rigid coaxial standard lines can
now be constructed to anaccuracy for Zo of 0.05 percent or
JESCH A N D JICKLING:
IMPEDANCE
MEASUREMENTS IN COAXIAL SYSTEMS 91 5

better for improved impedance measurements [23], for

precision bridge calibrations [24], slotted-line measure-
ments [25l-[27], reflectometer measurements, and trans-
comparatorcalibrations [28]. Sliding-load techniques in To Detector
coaxial systems also require precision lines [29], [30].
. Movable
The calibrationof the time-domain reflectometer is one of Probe
the more recent uses in which precision line standards have
proved to be well suited [31]. For t h s special application, a
short section of line is constructed with its outer conductor
diameter the same as the outer conductorof the reflectome-
ter system. Then a series of inner conductors of various
Capacitive Probe x
diameters computed from (1 3)are ground, yielding a set of
line standards of characteristic impedances ranging between
40 and 60 ohms.

I v . BRIDGEMETHODS OF IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENTS

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the Byrne impedance bndge.
Basically, in RF bridge techniques, an unknown imped-
ance is compared with a known standard impedance. To be the inductive and capacitive probes, located in the coaxial
most useful, the standard must be variable in both magni- line as near the unknown terminal as possible, respond to
tudeand phase, not an easy accomplishment above a the magnetic and electric fields, respectively. The voltage
megahertz or so. Some measure of success has been achieved
induced in the inductive probe is proportional to the cur-
in the VHF region. For the progress on bridge circuits at the
rent flowing past the sampling point, while the voltage in-
lower frequencies, see the paper, “Lumped Parameter
duced in the capacitive probe is proportional to the voltage
Impedance Measurements,” by Huntley and Jones, in t h s
at this point. The ratio of these two voltages is propor-
issue [32].
tional to the impedance magnitude at the sampling plane
A . ModiJied Schering Bridge and the phase difference between these two voltages is
proportional to the impedance phase.
A model of Sinclair’s modified Schering bridge circuit us-
In its practical application [36], the inductive and capaci-
ing a coaxial terminal was devised by Soderman, extending
tive probes arephysically coupled as shown and theimped-
the frequency utilization of t h s circuit to 165 MHz [33].
ance magnitude is read directly from an appropriate front
Careful design work to minimize the residual parameters
panel scale. The phaseangle probe is also coupled to a front
of the bridge components resulted in a measurement un-
panel display. A correction for the length of coaxial line
certainty of (2 percent + 1 ohm) in resistance for a range
between the sampling plane and the actual unknown termi-
of zero to 200 ohms and k (5 percent + 2 ohms) in reactance
nal is performed using (4), or more conveniently an imped-
over a range of -230 to +230 ohms at 100 MHz.
ance chart such as Carter (2-0) [3] or Smith [ll].
B. Tbvin-T Admittance Bridge Air-spaced 50-ohm coaxial lines in both open and short-
circuited configuration are used in the initial calibration of
Woods extended the useful frequency range of the basic
this instrument. An uncertainty in impedance measure-
twin-Tcircuit. With acareful evaluation of the residual im-
ments of about 1 to 2 percent can be realizedin practice with
pedances in the various bridge arms, he was able to develop
a commercial model of this bridge. Because of its wide
a precision instrument with which it is possible to measure
impedance range, 2-2000 ohms and - 90 to + 90 degrees
complex admittances of any phase angle at frequencies up
above 50 MHz, and itsease of balancing, the bridge is a use-
to 200 MHz to anuncertainty of k (0.2 percent + 0.005 pF)
ful tool for studying the electrical characteristics of an
in capacitance and ? (0.2 percent + 5 micromhos) in con-
impedance in the VHF region. By the use of precision con-
ductance. Conductance values of 0-50 millimhos and ca-
nectors and the timedomain reflectometer as an explora-
pacitance values of k 50 pF over a frequency range of 3-300
tory tool (see Section VI), higher accuracy up to 1.3 GHz is
MHz can be measured on the present model [34].
expected from a laboratory model now being developed.
Of absolute necessity for this accuracy, Woods developed
a precision set of rigid coaxial-line standards of character-
istic impedance matching the low-impedance (24.3-ohm) D. ThurstonCircuit
terminals of the bridge and designed with laboratory con- Thurston originated the rapid,convenient, direct-reading
nectors. A new scaled-down model designed to reach 500 null device diagramed in Fig. 3. The instrumentconsists of a
MHz is under development. T-junction of four arms, the
first terminated in the unknown
admittance, the second terminated in a conductance stan-
C. Byrne Circuit dard G,= l/Z0, and the third terminated in a susceptance
A bridge-like nulling method for the determination of standard (an eighth-wavelength shorted line) jB, = -j/Zo.
impedance in the 5- to 5C)o-MHz range designed by Byrne The signal source fromthefourth arm drives the three
[35] is shown in Fig. 2. When power is applied to the circuit, admittance arms in parallel; therefore, the current in each
916 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JUNE 1967

Susceptance
Standard

R F Source

Gs P- Detector
Fig. 3. Principal elements of Thurston admittance comparator.
LOCUS of
Constant VSWR
line isproportional to the admittance of that line. The volt-
age induced in each of three adjustable current coupling
probes is proportional to the current in the corresponding Fig. 4. Vector diagram on Smith Chart representing the probe output
of an idealized slotted line.
line and its magnitude depends on the orientation of the
probe. Thethree probes are connected inparallel. When the
probes are properly oriented, the combined output at the
detector is zero, and the admittance components, G and B,
can be read directly from thecalibrated scales.
The improved version of this instrument described by DETECTION
Soderman [37] has a direct-reading range of 40 to 1500 SYSTEM
MHz with an uncertainty of +(3 percent +0.2 millimho)
up to 1 GHz for both conductance and susceptance arms *
from 0 to 20 millimhos, and of f (3m
percent +0.2 I AND MATCHED !
millimho) from 20 to c13 millimhos, where M is the scale I I I
multiplier. Above 1 GHz the series inductance of the com- L u n i f o r m Slotted LReference
I Section I I Plane
mon junctionslowly increases the uncertainty to a value of I I I
I I I
f5 percent at 1.5 GHz. I I I

Fig. 5. Slotted-linemeasurementsystem.
E. Coaxial Hybrid Junction
A . Instrumentation
Basically the four-arm circuits of the hybrid junction act
as a bridge in the sense that if the impedances connected The main componentsof the apparatus which make up a
either to arms 1 and 2 or 3 and 4 are identical, zero power slotted-line measurement system are shown in Fig. 5 . An
transmission will result between the remainingtwo arms. A isolator helps to ensure that the frequency andoutput level
family of bridges usinghybrid characteristics was developed of the signal source will not shift with changes in load
[38] in which the balance is independent of frequency. A impedance, while a low-pass filter rejects harmonics that
wideband coaxial hybrid was also found to have a useful may be generated in the signal source along with the funda-
application in the development of anRF impedance mental frequency.
plotter [ 5 5 ] . Depending uponapplication and accuracies required, one
has a choice between slotted lines equipped with regular
coaxial connectors and the coaxial slotted line equipped
V. SLOTTED LINES
with the precision coaxial connector. Certain desirable
Most commercially available slotted lines use electric fieldcharacteristics of a coaxial slotted line include the following.
probes. The variation of the voltage with probeposition can The dimensions of the conductors must beheld to very
be shown graphically, as in Fig. 4. As the vector rotates close tolerances, including the slot width. The slotted line
uniformly with the angle 2/31, where B is the propagation should be equipped at the measurement end with a coaxial
constant and 1 is the displacement of the probe from a connector that has mechanical dimensions and electrical
reference plane, it can be seen that the ratio of maximum- characteristics precisely compatible with those of the slotted
to-minimum probe output(VSWR) is line. The carnage assembly must be capable of moving the
probe so that the travel of the probe's tip and the axis of
the midpoints between the inner and the outer conductor
of the slotted line are accurately parallel.
JESCH AND JICKLING:IMPEDANCEMEASUREMENTS IN COAXIAL SYSTEMS 917

B. Slotted-Line Errors
Certain inherent errors in slotted lines mustbe considered
if these lines are tobe used for accurateimpedance measure-
ments. The most common sources of error are caused by
the residual VSWR, probe effects, and line losses.
Residual VSWR is a measure of the standing waves pres-
ent on a slotted line that is terminated by a standard non-
reflecting load and excited by a single frequency from a non-
reflecting source. This residual VSWR may be a result of
discontinuities caused by variations in characteristic imped-
ance, slot effects, or the connector on theend of the slotted
line. The residual VSWR usually increases with frequency. Fig. 6 . Representation of residual VSWR on an expanded Smith Chart.
Three measurement techniques thatare useful in deter-
mining the residual VSWR of the slotted line are described. By returning the probe to the position of the original volt-
I) Quarter- Wavelength Technique: Residual VSWR can age maximum and readjusting the sliding load for minimum
be determined using quarter-wavelength precision reference indicated output,a minimum VSWR ominis obtained.
air lines [27],[38]. One terminates the slotted line, as The minimum reflection coefficient IrminI can then be cal-
closely as possible, with a matched load and measures the culated from
impedance of the load with the slotted line. This will yield a
reflectioncoefficient rl equal to the sum of the residual
reflection coefficientof the slotted line r,, plus the reflection
coefficient of the load r,:
The residual reflection coefficient isthen

This result is plotted as point A in Fig. 6 on an expanded

Smith Chart. A section of reference air line, an oddmultiple
of a quarter-wavelength long, is then inserted between the
slotted line and the load. The insertion of the reference air
line causes the reflection coefficient of the load to be in-
verted on the Smith Chart. Theslotted line will now indicate
a reflection coefficient r2:
r22 rb- r,,
which isplotted as point B. Solving (16)and (17) for rbyields
where r, is the residual error in the slotted line. The devia-
tion of the center of the Smith Chart from C , midway be-
tween points A and B, is the residual VSWR of the slotted
line.
2) Sliding-Load Technique: This technique of deter-
mining residual VSWR involves the use ofa sliding load [39]
with low VSWR. Ideally, the slotted line should be termi-
nated with a load having no reflection. The reflection of any
discontinuity in the connectorof the load is lumped in with
the residual VSWR of the slotted line. Repeated VSWR
measurements are made at various positions of the sliding
load to determine the highest obtainable VSWR, omax.The
maximum reflectioncoefficient lrmaxlcan then be calcu-
lated from
The positive sign in (21) is chosen when the residual VSWR
of the slotted line is greater than that of the load; the nega-
tive sign is chosen when it is smaller. When the relative mag-
nitudes of the two VSWR’s are not known, the load VSWR
may be determined by one of the techniques described in
Section V-F.
3 ) The Nodal-Shift Method: The t h r d technique that can
be used for determining the residual VSWR of a slotted
line, but whichisespeciallyuseful for correcting errors
introduced by a coupling system, is the nodal-shift tech-
nique [@], [41]. The length of the slotted line is effectively
changed by attachmg a sliding short circuit or a different
length of short-circuited coaxial lines. Referring to Fig. 7,
if region I1 is terminated with either the sliding short circuit
or oneof the short-circuited coaxial lines, the voltage node
of the standing wave can be located on the slotted line
which is shown as region I. Electrical distances 8, and O2
are measured with respect to a reference plane. 8, - O2 is
shown in Fig. 8 as a function of the line extension. From
the nodal-shift curve, the residual-reflection coefficient of
the slotted line is calculated by
where D is the peak-to-peak amplitude. The corresponding
residual VSWR, oR,is then
918 OF PROCEEDINGS THE IEEE, JUNE 1967

VI I I
obtained by measuring with bridge tkchniques the capaci-
tance between the probe andthe center conductor. Such an
,Relative Voltages investigation is quite helpful in determining which section
of the line is most uniform for higher-frequency operation.
11
I
I 12
A similar experiment should be repeated at the RF operat-
ing frequencies. Any additional deviation that may result
Lossless from slotted-line losses will be observed. This check is ac-
Coupling Network Circuit complished by terminating the slotted line with a tunable
I I load and adjusting for minimum probe output variation.
I
I I I I Figure 10 shows a plot of the detected signal of the same
,
i
-41’ bend typical slotted line well matched at 4 GHz.Once such a plot
Region I Region I1
is made, a uniform portion of the slotted line should be
Fig. 7. Voltage standing-wave pattern on the two sides of the coupling selected for future impedance measurements. Even though
network due to the short circuit in region11.
the slope of the line will change with frequency, one can
definitely see the correlation between 1-kHz and 4-GHz
data.
2) Probe Loading of the Slotted Line: In the ideal situa-
tion, the probepenetrates the slotted line only very slightly
for minimum disturbance of the fields withm the slolted
line. In practice, however, one must have sufficient coupling
so that therequired energy is extracted from the slotted line
to operate the indicating system. It is recommended that
one begin with more than adequate probe insertion and note
the change in observed VSWR as the probe is gradually
withdrawn in small increments. When the change in VSWR
Relative Line Length (8,) has become negligible compared to the desired measure-
Fig. 8. Nodal-shft curve. ment accuracy, the probe has been sufficiently decoupled.
The effects of variation of probe coupling are much worse
7TD at the lower frequencies because of the decreased number of
1 + sin? half-wavelengths falling withm the linear portion of the
A . 2nD
slotted line.
The error caused by probe loading [6] has been esti-
mated for the case when the probe dimensions are small
where j, is the wavelength in the waveguide. Tischer im- compared with a wavelength and when the probe effect on
proved the original ndal-shift method by mechan- the slotted section is that of a shunt admittance. It is also
ical coupling between the probe and short circuit 121. assumed that the generator is nonreflecting. A simple equiv-
automatic method for obtaining data for the nodal-shift alent circuit, as shown in Fig. 11, is used to represent con-
curve was developed by Beatty [42]. ditions at a reference plane in the slotted section at the
probe position. Y i is the normalized admittance of the
C . Probe Efects load at the same plane. It is assumed that there are nolosses
in the slotted section. The expression for the line voltage at
1 ) Variation of Probe Coupling with Probe Position:This
the probeposition is
variation is the deviation from a “flat line” and, ideally, is
indicated by the variation in probe output as a function of 1
probe position when the slotted line is terminated in the
characteristic impedance of the slotted portionand is Vp = e
Yp + Y; -
-
e
excited by a nonreflecting source. This deviation is caused 1 I -
1 1 + Yp + Y/ (24)

by imperfections in the slotted line which may be the result

I T
Yp + Y;
of lateral or vertical variation of the probe position with
respect to the inner conductor, variation in the alignment It is also assumed that the probe output voltage Ib31 is
or dimensions of the inner and outer conductors, or sag in proportional to I V,l, so that (24) gives the probe response.
the inner conductor. While these mechanical errors are in- In the ideal situation, the probe admittance Yp=O, and
dependent of frequency, their effects on measured quan-
tities are not. The deviation must be measured to determine
the resulting uncertainty that will be present in the data
measured with a slotted line. A plot of the deviation in probe
coupling versus probe positionof a typical precision slotted where k is a constant. However, the probe admittance Y p
line measured at 1 kHz is shown in Fig. 9. The data were modifies the probe response so that the observed ratio of
JESCH AND JICKLING:IMPEDANCEMEASUREMENTS IN COAXIAL SYSTEMS 919

loo0 Hz DeviationScale
-}
- 0.25 %

Loud
End

Probe Position -
Fig. 9. Plot of the deviation in probe coupling of a typical precision slotted line measured at 1 kHz.

Probe Position -
Fig. 10. Plot of detected signal of same line shown in Fig. 9 which is now terminated by a tunable load.

2. = I average of the two ratios is denoted by r, the VSWR, oL,

of the load is approximately

Fig. 11. Simplified equivalent circuit of a slotted line for analysis

of probe loading effects. where a is the attenuation in nepers per unit length and 1 is
the distance from the terminal surface of the load to the
minimum position used in the measurement.
maximum to minimum no longer equals the VSWR, and the
distance of the first minimum no longer gives lCIL by calcula- E. Other Sources of Error
tion. (lCIL = 2/?lk71 and is the phase angle of the load reflec- Other sources of error include detector characteristics
tion coefficient.) deviating from the ideal, generator frequency and power
Calculated corrections for the effectof the probe ad- instability, and inability to determine the voltage minimum
mittance on measured VSWR and on the position of the of the standing-wave pattern accurately for the lower
voltage minimum and maximum can be found in Ginston VSWR ranges [46].
[l 1, on page 244. To apply these corrections, Y, must be
known. Fortunately, a value for this probe admittance can F. Measurement Techniques
be obtained by analysis of the response curve, since Y, is Proper choice of equipment and measurement techniques
difficult either to calculate or measure directly [43]. help to eliminate or reduce therandomand systematic
An analysis of the case when the generator is not matched errorsthatdegrade accuracy. Of the many techniques
to the slotted section has been made by Beatty [44]. He also available, several will be described. Each technique has its
gives an approach for the case when the probe dimensions own range of usefulness determined mainly by the magni-
are not small compared to a wavelength or cannot, forsome tude of the impedance to be measured and theaccuracy to be
other reason, be represented by a simple admittance shunted achieved.
across the waveguide [44]. For VSWR’s of 1.2 or less, a slotted-line output recording
system is recommended. Such a system graphically plots the
D . Line Losses standing-wave pattern, allowing one to view and choose
Measurements of hgher VSWR’s ( > 10) can be seriously the standing waves that have not been affected by variation
affected by line losses. In any slotted line, because of these in probe coupling of the slotted line. Figure 12 shows a
losses, the amplitude of the standing wave decreases toward slotted-line recording system. Another slotted-line re-
the generator end. Therefore, if ratios are taken of two ad- corder system is described by Sanderson [47].
jacent voltage maxima to the minimum located between If the detector requires frequent recalibration or if its
them, slightly different results will be obtained [45].If the square-law characteristics are not reliable, a method de-
920
x -r RECOROER
CARRIAGE
PEN
I
STAYOINC
NAVE
AMPLIFIER
PROBEAND
DETECTION
s w E r
1I
STAEALIZED
AND MATCHED -
I
I
I I
I
Terminotlon
I accuracy. The reflection coefficient r, is given by
I I
GENERATOR I I
I
I I
I I
I Uniform Slotted Section I
I I
I I
I
I I
Fig. 12. Slotted-line recorder system.
Loaded Line Shorted Line
Fig. 13. Relative probe response of a loaded and
short-circuited slotted line.
scribed by Winzemer [48] provides a way to determine the
VSWR independent of the detector response. For VSWR’s
between1.10 and 10, a useful approximate expressionis
given by
where A is the distance between probe positions having
equal responses for a short-circuited slotted line. This A is
measured at the original indicated level of the voltage
miriirnum of the load as shown in Fig. 13. Other less simple
expressions are described by Winzemer when the loaded
voltage minimum is not available or a short circuit cannot
be used.
For measurements of VSWRover ten, the “width-of-
minimum” methodis widely used[11. The VSWR is given by
where A is the measured distance between power points
that are twice the amplitude of the minimum (3.01 dB
above minimum). The assumption of square-law response
of a crystal detector is usually adequate for this measure-
ment if the probe signal is lessthan one millivolt, approxi-
mately. As discussed previously, unless line losses are cor-
rected they can seriously affect the accuracy to which the
VSWR can be measured.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JUNE 1967
A calibrated RF attenuator placed between the source
and slotted line isthe basis for anaccurate method for mea-
suring medium and large VSWR’s that is also independent
of the detector characteristics. The maximum-to-minimum
voltage ratio canbe measured directly in terms of the differ-
ential attenuator settings. A possible limitation is that more
power output than is available from some sources may be
PROBE needed in order to obtain the desired sensitivity.
POSITION Thequarter-wave technique [27], employing precision
POTENTIOMETER
reference air-spaced coaxial lines in conjunction with the
Winzemer, “width-of-minimum,”direct-recording, or other
VSWR measurement methods,yields the highest attainable
r, = l-1 - rz
2
where r, is the measured reflectioncoefficientwhen the
unknown termination is attached directly to the measure-
ment end of the slotteddine, and r, is the measured reflec-
tion coefficient when an odd multiple of a quarter-wave-
length line section is inserted between the measurement end
and the unknown termination.
The fixed-probe method of measuring small VSWR’s of
sliding loads is convenient and accurate. A slotted line is
terminated in the sliding load and the probe is fixed in an
arbitrary position. The maximum and minimum voltages
are noted on a VSWR amplifier as the load is moved in its
waveguide. The ratioof these voltages accurately yields the
VSWR of the load despite the presence of residual VSWR.
The coupled sliding-load technique is also an accurate
method for measuring small reflections [30]. The load is
coupled mechanically to the slotted-line probe so that the
two move together. The residual VSWR, which is caused
by the reflection from the junction of the two lines, may be
adjusted for a minimumby a slide-screw tuner. Subsequent
measurements made with the slotted line at the same fre-
quency indicate VSWR with respect to the reference air
line. This methodappearscapableofmaking absolute
impedancemeasurements ona lowVSWR termination
to a estimated error in reflection coefficient of 0.0012.
Anothertechnique that has beenused formeasuring
VSWRis the Tischer Modified Nodal-Shift Method [ 2 ] .
Since mechanical coupling is used between the slotted-line
probe and the sliding termination which is a short circuit,
the methodis related to the coupledsliding-load technique.
Once the VSWR has been measured by one of the above
methods, the complex impedanceof an unknown load can
be determined, using a Smith Chart or (6) and (7), if the
relative position of a voltage minimum with respect to a
plane of reference is obtained.
The measurement of VSWR to an uncertainty of 0.1 to
1 percent and phase of reflectioncoefficient magnitude
from 0.1 degree to approximately 1 degree up to 8 GHz is
possible when employing precision reference air-line tech-
niques.
JESCH AND JICKLING:IMPEDANCEMEASUREMENTS IN COAXIAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 14. Timedomain reflectometer.
VI. TIME-DOMAIN
AND FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
REFLECTOMETERS
A . Time-Domain Reflectometer Systems
A good example of the present trend in RF measure-
ments toward automation of techniques and rapid assem-
bly of data covering a wide radio spectrum is shown in the
recent development of a laboratorytimedomain reflectom-
eter (TDR) [49], diagramed in Fig. 14. Essentially, the
TDR is a miniature closedcircuit radarset with an oscillo-
scope sampling the leading edge of both incident waves
and anyreflected wavesat the bridging tee. Pulse techniques
have long been used for the investigation of transmission-
line discontinuities where the time scale has permitted
measurements with microsecond pulses and megahertz
bandwidths. In a laboratory system, where reflections may
be separated by inches, nanosecond pulse generators and
gigahertz sampling equipment are needed. The develop-
ment of step-function generators with 30-ps rise times and
sampling oscilloscopes with 12-GHz bandwidths now meets
this need.
Small discontinuities separated by less than a centimeter
can now be resolved in a transmission-line system. They
are not only located physically, but each discontinuity,
capacitive, inductive, or resistive, can be identified and
quantitatively measured if desired. Where tuners can be
inserted, the discontinuities may be removed directly one
by one starting at the generator end. Shunt capacitance is
added directly at the site of the discontinuity to eliminate
the effects of series inductance, and conductor or dielectric
material is removed to counteract shuntcapacitance.
Since multiple reflections in a narrowband system pre-
vent meaningful study with the TDR, it is more often used
as a qualitative tool for the rapid adjustment of a wide-
band system. A quantitative measurement of capacitance
can be performed by duplicating, with an adjustable cali-
brated capacitance probe in a uniform transmission-line
section, the oscilloscope response to an unknown capaci-
tance. And by careful comparison to line standards of
incremental characteristic impedance, the impedance of
92 1
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM UNDER TEST
transmission lines and terminations may be measured to
0.1 percent or better.
B. Frequency-Domain Reflectometers
Frequencydomain reflectometer techniques using auxil-
iary tuners [50] offer an accurate and sensitive means of
measuring reflectioncoefficients. These techniques, origi-
nally developed in rectangular waveguide, can be applied
to coaxial systems. An all-coaxial reflectometer has been
designed and constructed to operate in the frequency range
of 1 4 GHz [51]. A reflectometer method for measure-
ments of coaxial components is also described by Spinney
[52]. A hybrid reflectometer constructed of rectangular
waveguide except for the coaxial precision waveguide and
sliding loads has been used for coaxial measurements. The
problems in setting up a coaxial system using reflectometer
techniques were described by Beatty and Anson [29]. One
such systemwasused for evaluating the laboratory and
general precision coaxial connectors [51]. The VSWRof
coaxial connectors has also been accurately measured by
employing reflectometer swept-frequency techniques [53].
The evolution of the tuned reflectometer is outlined and
recent techniques discussed in an article by Beatty, “Im-
pedance Measurements and Standards for Uniconductor
Waveguide,” in this issue [7]. A detailed explanation of
reflectometer techniques and applications is given by
Beatty [44].
VII. FUTURE TRENDS
New measurement systems need to be designed that offer
h g h measurement accuracies and relative ease of opera-
tion, but still have enough system flexibility to make pos-
sible a wide frequency-range coverage. There are other
areas where techniques and instrumentation are not keep-
ing pace with the state-of-the-art. For example, the electri-
cal length of precision lengths of coaxial air lines, used as
absolute standards, can be calculated quite precisely from
mechanical data, but cannot be measured to a high degree
of accuracy, especially at the higher frequencies. A special
922
reflectometer system has been proposed that would have
the capabilities of measuring these air-line lengths and the
phase angle of other coaxial impedance standards to an
uncertainty of 0.1 degree or less, but the cost of this system,
for a wide frequency coverage, would almost prohibit its
use for other than exacting standards work.
In the past several years, systems employing swept-fre-
quency techniques have become quite popular in the mea-
surement field. These are described by Ely [54], in “Swept-
Frequency Techniques,”in this issue. These systemsenable
one to obtain component and system measurements over
a wide frequency range in a relative short period of time.
Much can be done to improve the accuracies of these sys-
tems by the design of appropriate broadband standards
and by development of better measurement techniques.
With the increased use of all coaxial components in the
past several years, interest has been steadily growing in the
field of miniature coaxial components employing connec-
tors of the 3.5-mm and smaller sizes. A joint industry-NBS
committee has been formed to study connectors that would
permit optimum performance over a range of frequencies
compatible with miniature line sizes up to 40 GHz.
Because of these new trends, the whole coaxial impedance
field demands the development of improvedstandards,
measurement techniques, and instrumentation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Helpful discussions with R. W.Beatty are gratefully
acknowledged, in addition to suggestions from A. J. Estin
and R. C. Powell.
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[15] I. A. Harris and R. E. Spinney, “The realization of high-frequency
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JUNE 1967
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A. E. SanderSon, “A new high-precision method for the measure-
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Standardization of Precision Coaxial Connectors
BRUNO 0. WEINSCHEL,
A bstract-Previous work m precisioncoaxial coonectorsfor airlines and
improvement of coaxial cable conoectors is reviewed. The current philos-
ophies and resulting Standards of the United States of America Standards
Imtitpte’s StIbcommittee a U . 2 and the Instituteof Electrical and Elec-
tronics bgineed Subawmittee 011 Precision Coaxial Connectors are dis-
cussed. Techoiqws for improvedVSWR measurements neededin the develop
ment of precision coaxial coawctors are described. Applications,develop
meat plans, and oresolved problem are mentiowd.
INTRODUCTION
s OME WORK onprecision coaxial connectors forvery
accurate power and impedance measurements was
published as early as 1953 by Harris [ l l ] and Woods
[20]. The British Air Inspection Directorate improved the
precision of coaxial measurements up to200 MHz by use of
the Woods connector, abeadless fitting for a3/4 inch ID air
line. Powell et al. reported in 1958 on its use at the U. S .
National Bureau of Standards [60]. Lagon in 1961 [23]
described a precision 14 mmconnector with bead.
Prior to this, Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute’s work for
the U. S . Navy resulted in Griemsman’s 1947 and 1956
handbooks of design data on general purpose coaxial con-
nectors for flexible cables [8], [12]. This excellent designin-
formation was not utilized, however, possibly because U. s.
military specifications emphasized mechanical details over
electrical performance. The RF behavior of such connec-
tors was discussed in 1954 by Selby et al.[l ] andcriticized in
Manuscript received February 15, 1967; revised March 3, 1967.
The author is with Weinschel Engineering Company, Inc., Gaithers-
burg, Md.
923
ratio on transmission lines independently of the detector character-
istics,” Proc. IRE,vol. 38, pp. 275-279, March 1950.
[49] B. M. Oliver. “Time domain reflectometry,” Hewiett-Packard J.,
vol. 15, February 1964.
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niques,” IRE Trans. Microware Theoryand Techniques, vol. MTT-7,
pp. 351-355, July 1959.
[51] W. E. Little and J. P. Wakefield, “Measurement of precision coaxial
connectors using reflectometer techniques,” IEEE Internat’l Conr.
Rec.. pt. 11. pp. 89-97, March 1965.
[52] R. E. Spinney. ”A precision reflectometer method for measurements
on coaxial components at ultra-high frequencies,” Proc. IEE
(London),vol. 110, pp. 521-522, March 1963.
[53] F. Jayne,“Improved reflectometer test for coaxial connectors,”
Microbt*at.es.vol. 4, p. 34, September 1965.
[54] P. C. Ely, Jr., “Swept-frequency techniques,” this issue.
[55] C. B. Watts, Jr.. and A. Alford, “An automati: impedance plotter
based on a hybrid-like network with a very wide frequency range.”
IRE Nat’l Conr. Rer., pt. 5, pp. 146-150, 1957.
FELLOW, IEEE
1961by Sweet and Lebowitz [2] who, using Griemsman’s
VSWR curves for cable connectors, called attention to the
poor performance of Type N, BNC, C, and HN connectors
and to the continued lack of improvement in connector
specificationsas well as in measurement of VSWR in coaxial
systems. Weill et al. [3] summarized the reasons:
At present most military specifications for connectors are of the
‘design type’. These specifications consist of detail drawings for all
the component parts of the connectors. They allow no flexibility in
design, thereby precluding any improvement in connector char-
acteristics . . . the performance of many coaxial components is often
limited by the connector. In caseswhere improved versions of
coaxial components are available, the connectors used deviate from
the military designs.
These conditions tended to stifle the application of in-
genuity to connector design and to the development of test
methods for connectors.
Meanwhile, manufacturers of test instruments not sub-
ject to such restrictions were designing improved connec-
tors for their slotted lines to mate with the general purpose
military cable connectors. In Germany, Ebisch at Siemens
described in 1959 a slotted line with an improved Type “N”
connector [13]. Kraus in 1960 [14] and 1961 [24] disclosed
improved beads for the Rohde and Schwarz sexless semipre-
cision Decifixconnectors, and Huber andNeubauer in 1963
[26] described the improved VSWR performance of Decifix
connectors for air lines of 21 mm and 7 mm ID.
While there was a need for precision coaxial connectors to