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Contents
Preface....................................................... xv
1 Introduction . . • • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . • • . 1
llighlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Overview..................................................... 2
Foundations of Protective Engineering........................ ... . 3
Pathogenic causes and processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Naturally occurring protective mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Regional protective mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Distant protective mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Protective Engineering Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Molecular protective engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Enhancing protective impacts by protein administration
and gene transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Suppressing adverse gene expression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Gene editing-mediated control of gene expression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Cell-based protective engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Tissue-level protective engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
y
Yi Contents
T pline aiming to develop engineering strategies and technologies for inducing and
optimizing bio-protective processes and thereby facilitating recovery from injury
and disorders. The concept of protective engineering stems largely from the naturally
occurring protective mechanisms established against genetic defects and environmen-
tal insults through evolution. Although the natural protective mechanisms are critical
to the life of organisms, not all these mechanisms are optimized in promptness and
effectiveness, supporting the necessity of engineering-based modulations for enhanc-
ing protection.
Various protective engineering strategies, such as gene transfer, gene editing, gene
silencing, cell transplantation, and tissue reconstruction, have been designed and used
to induce and modify protective processes and correct natural deficiencies for thera-
peutic purposes in experimental and clinical research. To date, there is a large amount
of information about the naturally occurring protective mechanisms as well as protec-
tive engineering strategies in literature with an increasing clinical impact, prompting
the establishment of Protective Engineering as a discipline. This book is designed to
introduce to students and scientists the principles, foundations, and strategies of pro-
tective engineering by using cardiovascular disorders as models.
This book includes two parts-Foundations and Applications of Cardiovascular
Protective Engineering. The first part covers development of the cardiovascular sys-
tem, stem cells and regeneration, structure and function of the cardiovascular system,
signaling processes of cytokines and growth factors in cardiovascular disease, mecha-
nisms of disease, naturally occurring systems protective mechanisms, and general pro-
tective engineering strategies. These aspects are the bases of cardiovascular protective
engineering. The second part highlights application of protective engineering to several
prevalent cardiovascular disorders, including hypertension, atherosclerosis, arterial
aneurysms, coronary heart disease, cardiomyopathies, congenital heart disease, and
ischemic stroke. The author hopes that this book helps readers understand the concept
of cardiovascular protective engineering.
This book cannot be established without the support of the investigators who have
made contributions to the field of protective engineering. The author would like to
xv
xvi Preface
express sincere appreciation and gratitude to these investigators. The author would also like
to thank Dr. Y. C. Fung, who brought the author to the field of Bioengineering and taught him
how to become a teacher and a scientist.
ShuQ. Liu
July 31, 2019
Evanston, Illinois, USA
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Hlghllghts
• Cardiovascular engineering is a broad subject addressing the modulation of the
structure and function of the heart and blood vessels at the molecular, cellular,
tissue, and organ levels to prevent and treat cardiovascular disease. This book
focuses on Gardiovascu/ar Protective Engineering, an emerging discipline of car-
diovascular engineering, aiming to understand the naturally occurring protective
mechanisms against injury and disorders and developing engineering strategies
for inducing and optimizing protective processes, thereby facilitating recovery
from disease.
• The naturally occurring protective mechanisms are the foundation of protective
engineering. There are two types of protective mechanism-regional and distant
mechanisms, both activated in response to environmental insults and/or genetic
defects. The regional protective mechanisms are those occurring within the
disordered organ; whereas the distant protective mechanisms are those
activated in remote organs to protect the disordered organ from structural and
functional failure. Regional protective mechanisms include disorder-activated
expression and/or release of paracrine protective factors (e.g., adenosine,
growth factors, and cytokines), inflammatory responses, and resident stem cell
differentiation into functional cells. Distant protective mechanisms include
upregulation and secretion of endocrine protective proteins and mobilization of
distant cells to the disordered organ to discharge protective factors. Both
regional and distant mechanisms are collectively defined as systems protective
mechanisms.
• Protective engineering strategies can be developed and used to optimize and
induce protective processes at three levels with currently available technologies-
molecular, cellular, and tissue levels. Molecular protective engineering is to
induce and promote protective gene expression, suppress adverse gene
expression, and control signaling processes to facilitate recovery from injury and
disorders. Cell-based protective engineering is to provide needed cell types for
targeted delivery of protective factors and regeneration of functional cells.
Tissue-level protective engineering is to provide structural and functional
supports to an injured or disordered organ to facilitate recovery and prevent
organ failure.
1
2 Chapter One
Overview
Cardiovascular engineering is a broad subject addressing the modulation of the struc-
ture and function of the heart and blood vessels at the molecular, cellular, tissue, and
organ levels by using engineering strategies to prevent and treat cardiovascular dis-
ease. This book focuses on Cardiovascular Protective Engineering, an emerging discipline
of cardiovascular engineering, aiming to understand the naturally occurring protec-
tive mechanisms against cardiovascular disorders and developing engineering strat-
egies for optimizing and inducing protective processes, thereby facilitating recovery
from disorders. All organisms possess protective mechanisms against genetic defects
and environmental insults. These mechanisms develop during evolution at all struc-
tural levels-molecular, cellular, organ, and system levels (Liu et al., 2015; Liu, 2019).
Examples of molecular protective mechanisms include homologous recombination for
repairing double-strand DNA breaks induced by irradiation and chemical agents ijasin
and Rothstein, 2013; Cannan and Pederson, 2016) and protective gene expression in
response to injury (Liu et al., 2015; Llu, 2019). Cellular protective mechanisms include
cell proliferation and differentiation to prevent organ failure in injury and disorders
(Llu, 2007; Llu et al., 2015). At the organ and systems levels, inflammatory responses
are a representative example for preventing microorganism infections, stimulating cell
regeneration and extracellular matrix generation, and facilitating repairing processes
(Rock and Kono, 2008; Chen et al., 2018). However, naturally occurring protective
mechanisms are not all optimized in promptness and effectiveness. In selected cases,
injured cells and organs cannot be completely regenerated and repaired, resulting in
organ failure. For instance, lethal gene mutations occur, causing genetic disorders, in
spite of the presence of gene repair mechanisms; the expression of protective genes
often lags behind injury, missing the early period of optimal protection (Llu et al., 2015);
vital cells, such as the neuron and cardiomyocyte, possess a limited capacity of protec-
tion and are largely replaced with fibrotic tissue in the event of injury and death; and
inflammatory responses are generally over-activated to cause excessive extracellular
matrix production and fibrosis, imposing adverse effects on cell and organ functions
(Rock and Kono, 2008; Liu et al., 2015). Protective engineering is developed to correct
these natural deficiencies by inducing and optimizing protective processes, thereby
maximizing the capacity of protection.
Protective engineering is closely related to another bioengineering discipline--
regenerative engineering (Liu, 2007; Gardiner, 2018; Laurencin and Khan, 2018).
Protective engineering is to prevent cells from death in injury and disorders, whereas
regenerative engineering is to reproduce cells after cell death. In nature, protection and
regeneration are two continuous, collaborative mechanisms that prevent detrimental
consequences in harsh environments, ensuring the survival of disordered cells, organs,
and ultimately the entire organism. In a broader sense, regenerative engineering is
protective-to protect organs and the organism from death by reproducing cells and
tissues. Thus, regenerative engineering can be considered an integral part of protective
engineering. The ultimate goals of protective engineering are to alleviate cell injury,
support cell survival, promote and control cell regeneration, and restore the structure
and function of disordered organs to their natural forms. Protective engineering strate-
gies and technologies can be designed and used to achieve such goals. In this book, the
cardiovascular system is used to demonstrate the principles and applications of protec-
tive engineering.
Chapter One 3
Distant
protective
I"'-+ mechanisms +--
Kidney
Lung
~-~
' Spleen
Intestines
' Bone marrow
F11uR! 1.1 Naturally occurring systems protective mechanisms, including regional protective
mechanisms In the lschemlc heart and distant protective mechanisms from non·lnjured organs.
The outer oval shows the coverage of cytoklnes and endocrine factors released from the lschemlc
cardiac cells and activated leukocytes; the center vertical oval indicates the coverage of distant
protective mechanisms, involving endocrine factors and cells mobilized from distant organs: and
the top small oval indicates the coverage of regional protective mechanisms from the ischemic
heart. The thick arrows represent distant protective mechanisms from organs confirmed In
experimental tests, and the thin arrows indicate potential distant protective mechanisms from
organs that have not been experimentally confinned. (From Liu, 2019, by permission.)
Chapter One 5
(
. ""\
IL6
~~
HepaUc cells Leukocytes
spleen (Swirski et al., 2009), and liver (Liu et al, 2011b, 2015), in experimental ischemic
myocardial injury. The mobilized cells are can e:ngraft to the .isc:hemic myocardium,
exerting cardioprotective actions. From the bone marrow, hematopoietic: stem cells and
endothelial progenito.rs can be mobilized in isc:hemic myocardial injury an!L once reach-
ing the ischemic: myocardium, can release c:ytokines and growth factors, reducing myo-
cardial infarction (Ripa et al., 2006; Fazel et al., 2008). Bone marrow-derived endothelial
proge:nito.r cells can dllfere:ntiate into endothelial cells, facilitating angiogenesis (Shintani
et al., 2001). Ischemic myocardial injury can also cause mobilization of splenic mo.nocytes
to the circu.latory system and ischemic myocardium to regulate inflammatory .responses
and promote recovery from i.schemic: myocardial injury (Sw.irski et al, 2009). Jn addi-
tion, the liver can mobilize cells to the c:U:culatory system in response to ischemic myo-
cardial injury (Liu et al, 2011b, 2015). Major cell types mobilized include hepatocytes
and biliary epithelial cells (Liu et al., 2011b, 2015). The mobilized hepatic cells can enter
the ischemic: myocardium, contributing to myocardial protection and repair by express-
ing and releasing cardioprotective proteins, as discussed previously (Fig. 1.2). With the
understanding of the distant protective mechanisms, protective engineering strategies
can be developed and used to modify non-injured organs to maximize the protective
impact, an approach. to avoid intervention-induced injury of the ischemic heart.
Molecular Cellular
Protein delivery
Fibroblasts
~
Gene transfer
I
0
Gene editing
~~
Esc~;esc,
Tissue
Guide RNA
RNA interference
F11uRE 1.3 Molecular, cellular, and tissue-level protective engineering strategies. The protein
structure presented in the Molecular column represents vascular endothelial growth factor
(RCSB PDB # 2VPF) (Muller et al., 1997). PAM: Protospacer adjacent motif. RISC: RNMnduced
sllenclng complex. slRNA: Small Interfering RNA.ESCs: Embryonic stem cells. IPSCs: Induced
pluripotsnt stem cells.
gene into the genome to replace a malfunctioned target gene, resulting in a permanent
replacement of the target gene. RNA interference is to temporarily suppress mRNA
translation to proteins. These strategies can be used to boost or suppress gene expres-
sion and cell activities, depending on the functions of the target genes and the nature of
the disorder. Fundamental engineering procedures include mRNA isolation from a cell
source, target gene identification by mRNA profiling, mRNA conversion into cDNAs,
establishment of recombinant genes, recombinant gene amplification, gene function
tests in vitro, gene modifications by gene transfer, gene editing, or RNA interference,
and gene function tests in vivo.
such as RNA sequencing (RNA-seq). A challenge for this approach, however, is the
cumbersome analysis of a large amount of information with a large number of injury-
altered genes from a gene profiling test. An important task is to identify the most effec-
tive genes that can be used for protective therapies. One practical approach is to classify
the upregulated or downregulated genes into functional categories, such as secreted
protective protein genes (for instance, growth factor and cytokine genes), receptor
genes, protein kinase genes, transcription factor genes, and others. The next step is to
screen the genes of a selected category by using functional assays in vitro or in vivo. For
in vitro assays, each selected gene can be introduced to cultured cells subjected to an
insult; and the protective impact is evaluated based on the rate of cell survival or death
under a given insult. The most effective protective genes can be selected by comparison
analyses between different genes. For in vivo assays, a disorder model such as ischemic
myocardial injury can be induced in an animal model, and a similar protocol can be
used to identify the most effective protective genes based on various measures, such
as the fraction of myocardial infarction, the rate of cardiac cell death, and the relative
activities of caspases 3, 8, and 9. Proteins encoded by the selected genes can also be used
for these tests with or without concurrent gene transfer.
Perspectives
Nature has established various mechanisms for cell protection and regeneration in
injury and disease; however, not all mechanisms are optimized in promptness and
effectiveness. Protective engineering is developed and used to induce and optimize
protective processes, thereby correcting natural deficiencies and maximizing the capac-
ity of protection. Various protective engineering strategies have been developed at
the molecular, cellular, and tissue levels and used in experimental and clinical inves-
tigations for protection against injury and disease; however, not many strategies have
exerted a significant clinical impact. The most effective, but not perfect, strategies are
those at the tissue level, including ventricular assist device placement, angioplasty, arte-
rial stenting, and arterial reconstruction for the cardiovascular system. Most molecular
and cell-level engineering strategies, although effective in experimental tests, have not
been successfully used in clinical investigations.
One potential obstacle for clinical applications is the lack of complete understanding
of the naturally occurring systems protective mechanisms (Llu et al., 2015; Liu, 2019).
Most clinical treatment strategies are not designed based on the natural mechanisms of
protection (Hausenloy et al., 2017; Reusch, 2017; Davidson et al., 2019). Whereas time-
dependent multiple protective molecules and cell types are required for the natural form
of protection (Llu et al., 2012; Llu, 2019), a single "protective agent'' targeting a selected
molecule or pathogenic process is commonly used in clinical tests, a potential problem
for the failure of most protective clinical trials (Davidson et al., 2019; Hausenloy et al.,
2017; Reusch, 2017). This point is supported by the observation that the activation of
multiple protective factors by a preconditioning injury represents the most effective and
reproducible treatment strategy for protection against a subsequent injury (Llu et al.,
2015; Hausenloy et al., 2017; Reusch, 2017; Davidson et al., 2019). However, a list of
12 Chapter One
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PART 1
Foundations of Cardiovascular
Protective Engineering
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CHAPTER 2
Development of the Heart,
Blood Vessels, and
Blood cells
Hlghllghts
• Protective engineering strategies can be established based on the naturally
occurring protective mechanisms that evolve during embryogenesis and somatic
growth involving developmental processes. Cell regeneration, an integral part of
protective mechanisms, shares common regulatory processes with embryonic
cell generation. Thus, it is essential to understand developmental biology.
• A human individual develops through several processes-ovum fertilization,
embryonic cell cleavage, blastocyst formation, gastrulation, and organ formation
and maturation, and parturition. The blastocyst inner cell mass contains
embryonic stem cells that can be isolated, expanded in vitro, and transplanted
into injured or disordered organs to regenerate functional cells with the cell type
controlled by environmental factors. Gastrulation is a process generating three
germ layers-ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm; structures giving rise to
distinct cell types and organ systems.
• The heart, blood vessels, and blood cells develop from the mesoderm. The
mesoderm can also give rise to the skeletal muscle, bone, cartilage, and
connective tissue. The ectoderm is the origin of the central and peripheral nerve
system, skin, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hair, and nails. The endoderm gives rise
to the lung, liver, stomach, intestines, kidney, and urinary bladder.
• Cardiac cells develop from two types of cardiogenic cell-the primary and
secondary heart field cardiogenic cells. The primary heart field cells give rise to
cardiac cell lineages that form the left and right ventricles, left and right atria, as
well as the atrioventricular canals. The secondary heart field cells contribute to
the formation of the inflow region (veins}, outflow tract (arteries}, as well as all
other cardiac structures except for the left ventricle.
• The heart forms via several major stages-creation of the cardiac crescent at
about two weeks from fertilization, formation of the heart tube at about three
weeks, heart looping at about four weeks, and establishment of the four cardiac
17
18 Part One
chambers at about eight weeks. Cyclic cardiac contractile activities occur in the
heart-tube stage.
• Vascular and blood cells develop from hemangioblasts simultaneously with
cardiac development. Hemangioblasts give rise to angioblasts and hematopoietic
stem cells. The former develops into vascular cells, including endothelial cells,
smooth muscle cells, and fibroblasts; whereas the latter form blood cells,
including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
• Vascular development begins with capillary formation in the blood island from
endothelial cells during the early embryonic stage. While the majority of
capillaries are connected into networks, selected capillaries are expanded into
small arteries and veins by recruiting progenitor cells that give rise to smooth
muscle cells and fibroblasts. Selected small arteries and veins develop into
larger arteries and veins, respectively.
• Blood cell generation is a process continuing through the entire lifespan,
beginning in the blood island during the early embryonic stage. The blood-
generating site moves from the blood island to the aorta-gonad-mesonephroi
when blood vessels form in blood islands, moves to the liver when the
aorta-gonad-mesonephroi degenerate, and eventually settles in the bone marrow
during the late embryonic stage. The bone marrow is the permanent site of
hematopoiesis in adults.
Overview
Protective engineering strategies can be designed largely based on the naturally occur-
ring protective mechanisms that evolve in response to genetic defects and environ-
mental insults. As these natural mechanisms are established during embryogenesis
and somatic growth involving developmental processes, it is essential to understand
developmental biology. Furthermore, regenerative engineering, an integral part of pro-
tective engineering, is based on the natural mechanisms of cell regeneration in injury
and disease. Cell regeneration shares common regulatory mechanisms with embryonic
cell generation. We can learn cell regenerative control mechanisms from the generation
processes of embryonic cells and structures. For these reasons, the book starts with the
concept of cardiovascular development in humans.
""~·\ T
Inner
cell
Mesoderm
'
Blastocyst
Fertilization formation Gastrulation Fetus formation
1week 2 weeks 8 weeks
The blastocyst further develops into a three-layered structure defined as gastrula, com-
posed of the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm at about two weeks. The process
of gastrula formation is referred to as gastrulation. During the organ formation stage,
the ectoderm develops into the brain, spinal cord, ganglia, peripheral nerves, and
the epidermal layer of the skin, ears, nose, and teeth. The mesoderm gives rise to the
heart, blood vessels, blood cells, soft connective tissues, skeletal muscles, bones, and
cartilages. The endoderm develops into the lung, gastrointestinal tract, liver, pancreas,
and urinary bladder. During the organ formation and fetal stages, tissues and organs
develop rapidly and gain size and functionality. By the time of parturition, most tissues
and organs are ready to function.
follicular cells, which provide soluble factors and mechanical protection to the ovum.
When a female individual reaches maturity, ova develop from oocytes (developing ova)
through meiosis, a process starting at -13 years of age and ending at the age of -50.
About 400 eggs can be produced through the lifespan (Liu, 2007).
Fertilization involves several processes, including chemotactic attraction of sperm
cells to an ovum, penetration of a sperm cell through the exterior layers of the ovum,
sperm fusion into the ovum, and integration of two gamete nuclei. Sperm cells can be
attracted to an ovum in the oviduct by chemical gradient-directed cell movement, a
process known as chemotaxis. Ova are capable of expressing and releasing the sperm-
attracting protein resact that interacts with cognate receptors in sperm cells, causing
directed movement of sperm cells toward an ovum. This process is species-dependent-
sperm cells can only move to the ovum of the same species because of the specificity of
chemotactic molecules (Liu, 2007).
Upon the interaction of sperm cells with the exterior layer of an ovum, the acro-
somal vesicle of the sperm is activated. A sperm cell can go through the follicular cell
layer of the ovum and release proteolytic enzymes when reaching the zona pellucida.
The enzymes are responsible for degrading the zona pellucida, allowing the sperm
approaching the ovum membrane. A zona pellucida protein known as zona protein
3 (ZP3) controls acrosomal vesicle exocytosis by activating the sperm membrane G
protein-coupled receptor galactosyltransferase-1. This process stimulates a signaling
process, causing calcium release into and elevation in the cytosol. Calcium in turn acti-
vates processes that cause acrosomal vesicle exocytosis, regulating sperm union with
an ovum. As all the regulatory ligands and receptors are animal species-specific, the
sperm-ovum union occurs only in the same species (Llu, 2007).
A sperm cell, when passing through the zona pellucida, can attach to the ovum
membrane, inducing membrane fusion of both cells, introducing the sperm contents
into the ovum. This process is controlled by several proteins, including CD9 and Izumo
protein. CD9 contributes to the regulation of sperm-ovum membrane fusion. Genetic
modifications of the CD9 gene result in impairment of the sperm-ovum interaction,
potentially causing infertility. Introduction of wild-type CD9 mRNA into ova with CD9
gene deficiency reverses the infertility. Izumo protein is responsible for regulating the
sperm-ovum membrane fusion. When the lzumo gene is deficient in the mouse, sperm
cells, while capable of growing to maturity and going across the zona pellucida, are not
able to fuse into an ovum (Liu, 2007).
Once sperm-ovum union occurs, the ovum becomes resistant to interactions with
other sperm cells. This activity is controlled by short- and long-term mechanisms. The
short-term mechanisms involve cell membrane potentials. A sperm cell can fuse into
an ovum at the normal resting membrane potential. The resting membrane potential
of ova is about -90 m V, a level allowing sperm-ovum interactions and union. Sperm-
ovum membrane fusion triggers rapid ovum cell membrane depolarization, reversing
the membrane potential to about 20 m V by opening the sodium channels and inducing
sodium flux into the ovum. The positive membrane potential prevents other sperm
cells from interaction with the ovum. Depolarization is a short process lasting about
a minute. The long-term preventive process is controlled by sperm-ovum interaction
proteins. The ovum is equipped with proteolytic enzyme-containing granules. Sperm-
ovum fusion causes calcium release and cytosolic calcium elevation, stimulating enzyme
release from the ovum granules into the zona pellucida. The released enzymes cleave
Chapter Two 21
Cleavage
Cleavage is zygote division accomplished by karyokinesis (mitotic nucleus division)
and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division). Karyokinesis occurs immediately after sperm-
ovum union followed by cytokinesis, generating two nucleated cells defined as blasto-
meres. These blastomeres divide further in a symmetrical manner to form morula-a
solid ball-like structure containing blastomeres. Occasionally, asymmetric cleavage
may occur, but it is not well understood how the cleavage pattern is controlled. Early
embryonic cleavage is regulated by a protein known as mitosis-promoting factor
(MPF), which is activated in response to sperm-ovum union. The level of MPF changes
periodically during embryonic mitosis-increasing during the M phase and decreasing
during the S phase. Blastomere divisions are controlled by cyclic changes in the level of
MPF (Liu, 2007).
Formation of blastocyst
The blastocyst is an early embryonic structure developed from the morula within about
a week following fertilization. This structure consists of the inner cell mass and tro-
phoblast. The inner cell mass is composed of about 30 cells defined as embryonic stem
cells, which give rise to all specified functional cells. The trophoblast is a single layer
of cells that encloses the inner cell mass and develops into the chorion and the pla-
centa that support and protect the embryo. The formation of the blastocyst is consid-
ered a milestone of embryogenesis as the embryonic stem cells of the inner cell mass
are the origin of all cells, tissues, and organs of an individual. During the short life of
the blastocyst, about one week, the embryonic stem cells of the inner cell mass undergo
dynamic asymmetrical differentiation, generating specified stem cells for the formation
of distinct organ systems (Liu, 2007). It is interesting to note that the inner cell mass
22 Part One
embryonic stem cells all appear identical in morphology during the blastocyst stage
and are capable of differentiating to structurally and functionally distinct cells within
several days. It remains poorly understood how such a process occurs and what signal-
ing mechanisms are involved.
Gastrulatlon
Gastrulation is a process by which the inner cell mass of the blastocyst grows into three
distinct layers-the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm within about two weeks
from fertilization (Fig. 2.2). These layers eventually give rise to specified organ sys-
tems. Several intermediate structures develop during gastrulation. The inner cell mass
first gives rise to epiblast and hypoblast. The former develops into the embryonic epi-
blast and amniotic ectoderm, and the latter develops into extraembryonic endoderm.
The embryonic epiblast is the primitive form of the three germ layers. It gives rise to
the embryonic ectoderm and primitive streak, a short-lived structure that is rapidly
transformed into embryonic endoderm and mesoderm. The amniotic ectoderm from
the epiblast forms the amnion, a membrane enclosing the embryo. The extraembryonic
endoderm from the hypoblast develops into the yolk sac, which contains nutrients for
embryo growth. The trophoblast is the origin of the extraembryonic chorion and pla-
centa that are located outside the amnion (Liu, 2007).
The epiblast-derived ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm give rise to specified
tissues and organs during the remaining embryonic period. The ectoderm develops
into an intermediate structure consisting of the surface ectoderm, neural crest, and
neural tube. The surface ectoderm is the origin of the epidermis, nails, hair, sebaceous
glands, mucous membrane of the mouth and anus, tooth enamel, lens and cornea,
and anterior pituitary. The neural crest develops into the peripheral ganglia, Schwann
cells, and sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, adrenal medulla, melanocytes,
and tooth dentine. The neural tube gives rise to the brain, spinal cord, retina, and inner
ear (Liu, 2007).
The mesoderm is the origin of the heart, blood vessels, blood cells, skeletal muscle,
bone, cartilage, connective tissue, lymphatic system, kidney, and gonads. From the
beginning of gastrulation, the mesoderm develops into a structure with four distinct
regions--the notochord, paraxial mesoderm, intermediate mesoderm, and lateral
plate mesoderm. The notochord is a transient structure mediating the formation of the
neural tube, determining the anterior-posterior axis of the embryo, and contributing
A B Mesoderm
Trophoblast Ectoderm Endoderm
F111uRE 2.2 Embryonic blastocyst {A) and germ layers--ectoderm, mesodenm, and endoderm (B).
Chapter Two 23
to the formation of the endodermal primitive gut. The paraxial mesoderm is orga-
nized into two parallel columns along the lateral sides of the neural tube and is the
origin of the somites (segmented blocks). These somites give rise to dermis, skeletal
muscle, ribs, and vertebrae. The intermediate mesoderm participates in the forma-
tion of the kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra, and reproductive system. The lateral plate
mesoderm consists of the somatic mesoderm and splanchnic mesoderm. The somatic
mesoderm is adjacent to the ectoderm and the splanchnic mesoderm is next to the
endoderm. These mesodermal structures develop into the heart, blood vessels, and
blood cells. There is a gap between the somatic and splanchnic mesoderm layers,
which is defined as the coelom-the origin of the pleural, pericardia!, and peritoneal
cavities (Liu, 2007).
The endoderm is the layer that gives rise to the epithelial cell-based structures of
the lung, airways, gastrointestinal tract, liver, and pancreas. The respiratory, digestive,
and hepatic systems develop from an early endodermal structure known as primitive
gut. In the human, the primitive gut forms at about 16 days following the concep-
tion and is composed of three parts during the early stage: the foregut, midgut, and
hindgut. At about 22 days, the liver bud forms from the foregut and is the presump-
tive structure for the formation of the liver. At about 28 days, the anterior end of the
foregut forms the oral opening, which is the presumptive structure of the mouth. The
foregut also gives rise to the pharynx, esophagus, thyroid bud, lung bud, and stomach
at about the same time. The midgut and hindgut are the presumptive structures for
the formation of the small and large intestines. The endodermal cells also regulate the
formation of mesoderm-derived tissues and organs by secreting soluble mediating
factors (Liu, 2007).
The liver develops from the liver bud that sprouts from the foregut of the endoder-
mal primitive gut. The liver bud grows into the surrounding mesodermal tissue, which
produces and releases regulatory factors to stimulate liver bud cell differentiation into
hepatocytes and ductular epithelial cells. Mesoderm-derived vascular endothelial cells
proliferate and migrate into the primitive liver, forming the hepatic vascular system,
an essential process for liver development. The removal of vascular endothelial cells
results in the failure of liver formation. Gallbladder, an affiliated structure of the liver,
develops from the hepatic drainage duct (Liu, 2007).
The pulmonary system develops from the lung rudiment sprouted from the fore-
gut. The lung rudiment first grows into the trachea, which bifurcates into the left and
right bronchi, subsequently establishing the left and right lungs. During the lung
development, endodenn-derived epithelial cells work together with mesodermal cells
to form an integrated respiratory and circulatory system, establishing the structural
basis for gas exchange. It is interesting to note that, when embryonic tracheal epithe-
lial cells are cultured in the absence of mesodermal cells, the epithelial cells will not
develop into airway structures. In contrast, airway-like structures develop when lung
epithelial cells are cultured in the presence of mesodermal cells. Thus, mesodennal
cells play a role in regulating the differentiation of endoderm-derived pulmonary
epithelial cells. Regional differences in the structure and function of the mesodermal
cells may determine the specification of pulmonary cells and control lung formation.
During the embryonic stage, although the pulmonary system is established, it is not
functional for gas exchange. The embryo and fetus obtain oxygen and remove carbon
dioxide via the placenta. The lung initiates the gas exchange function immediately after
birth (Liu, 2007).
24 Part One
IV
Cardiac crescent Cardiac tube Cardiac loop Cardiac chambers
2 weeks 3weeks 4 weeks Sweeks
F1auRE 2.3 The four stages of heart development. AS: Aortic sac; RA: Right atrium; LA: Left
atrium; RV: Right ventricle; LV: Left ventricle; SV: Superior vena cava; IV: Inferior vena cava;
AO: Aorta; PA: Pulmonary artery.
Chapter Two 25
at site 296 due to G-to-A transition on nucleotide 886), causes impairment of GATA4
interaction with T-box protein-5 (Tbx5, 518 amino acids, -58 kDa), a transcription factor
involved in the regulation of cardiac development (Garg et al., 2003). Such impairment
negatively influences GATA4 binding to target genes responsible for cardiac develop-
ment. These GATA4 mutation-induced changes often result in cardiac septal defects
(Garg et al., 2003). Another type of GATA4 gene mutation, E359del or glutamic acid
deletion at site 359, results in the loss of GATA4 transcription function, causing cardiac
septal defects (Garg et al., 2003).
While the primary heart field cardiogenic cells are known to generate functional
cells in most cardiac compartments, these cardiogenic cells have been poorly character-
ized and their downstream cell lineages have not been clearly identified. In contrast,
there is considerable information about the developmental lineages of the secondary
heart field, containing multipotent cardiogenic cells characterized by the expression
of the LIM-homeodomain transcription factor Isletl (Isll), an insulin gene enhancing
protein (Cai, 2003; Laugwitz et al., 2005). These cardiogenic cells can develop into vari-
ous cell lineages, including Isll +/TNT+ (troponin T), Isll +/ smMHC+ (smooth muscle
myosin heavy chain), and Isll + /HCN4+ (hyperpolarization activated cyclic nucleotide-
gated eation channel 4) progenitor cells. The Isll +/TNT+ progenitor cells can give rise
to cardiomyocytes, the Isll+I smMHC+ cells develop into smooth muscle cells, whereas
the Isll+/HCN4+ progenitor cells form conduction system cells (Cai, 2003; Laugwitz
et al., 2005). The expression of the muscular marker TNT is indicative of the specifica-
tion of cardiogenic cells to cardiomyocyte progenitors. Similarly, the expression of the
smooth muscle marker smMHC and the conduction cell marker HCN4 indicates the
differentiation of cardiogenic cells to smooth muscle and conductive cell progenitors,
respectively.
regulated, the transcription factor GATA4-based signaling pathways play a critical role.
GATA4 is known to regulate the migration and morphogenesis of the mesodermal pre-
cardiogenic cells, processes critical to the formation of the heart tube. In homozygous
GATA4 null mice, the primitive myocardial tube can no longer be established during
embryogenesis (Molkentin et al., 1997). When the GATA4 gene is knocked out (GATA4-1-)
in mice, the embryo dies from 8.5 to 10.5 days post coitum (Kuo et al., 1997). GATA4-
deficient embryos exhibit a lack of the linear myocardial tube and pericardia! cavity. In
these embryos, although cardiogenic cells are able to form cardiomyocytes expressing
contractile proteins, cardiomyocytes are not able to form a heart tube (Kuo et al., 1997).
These observations suggest that GATA4 is a critical transcription factor for regulating
the morphogenesis of the heart tube.
An important process for cardiac development is heart looping, by which the lin-
ear heart tube undergoes rightward bending and twisting, forming a C-shaped cardiac
loop at about four weeks (Manner 2000). This process results in a change in the left-right
symmetrical heart tube into a left-right asymmetrical structure suitable for establishing
the four cardiac chambers (Fig. 2.3). Prior to heart looping, the primitive cardiac tube is
positioned in the anterior-posterior direction with the outflow tract/ventricular region
at the anterior pole and the inflow tract/ atrial region at the posterior pole. During heart
looping, the posterior atrial region bends rightward and gradually moves to the top of
the ventricular region. Following heart looping, the heart tube develops into a structure
with several distinct regions, including the primitive atrium, left ventricle, and right
ventricle. The primitive atrium is connected at the top to the inflow region (sinus veno-
sus), which eventually gives rise to the vena cava and pulmonary veins. The primitive
right ventricle is connected to the outflow tract (aortic sac), which develops eventually
to the aortic root and pulmonary trunk. Between these structures, there are four rings,
including the sinoatrial ring, the atrioventricular ring or canal, the primary ring or fold,
and ventriculoarterial ring.
Heart looping is regulated by complex signaling pathways. Whereas the exact sig-
naling and biomechanical mechanisms for heart looping remain to be investigated, it
has been hypothesized that location-dependent differential cell proliferation, migration,
and death, along with non-uniformly developed biomechanical factors, such as intersti-
tial pressure and myocardial tension, may contribute to the asymmetrical morphogenic
process of heart looping (Taber et al., 1995; Manner 2000). Asymmetrical expression
and activities of signaling molecules may contribute to the regulation of heart loop-
ing. As demonstrated in investigations by using the chick model system, the signaling
molecules activin-(3B, activin receptor, and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) 4 are
asymmetrically expressed in the early embryonic structures, Hensen's node, and peri-
nodal area, thus playing a role in regulating asymmetrical heart looping (Levin et al.,
1995). Activin-[3B and activin receptor are predominantly expressed in the right side of
the Hensen's node. Activin-f3B (15.2 kDa), a TGFf3 protein superfamily member, forms
a homodimer (activin BB) with another activin-(3B or a heterodimer (activin AB) with
activin-f3A by a single covalent disulfide bond, and acts on its receptors to regulate car-
diac development (Schmelzer et al., 1990). Activated activin-[38 inhibits the expression
of sonic hedgehog (462 amino acids, -50 kDa), a morphogen expressed symmetrically
around the Hensen's node. This action restrains sonic hedgehog expression to the left
side of the Hensen's node (Hoyle et al., 1992; Levin et al., 1995). Sonic hedgehog partici-
pates in the regulation of cell activities during heart looping, inducing left-side expres-
sion of the Nodal gene in the lateral plate mesoderm, from which the heart develops.
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*****
4 asunto-osaketta
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