 DOCUMENTATION IN ESSAYS

AND RESEARCH REPORTS

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DOCUMENTATION IN ESSAYS/RESEARCH REPORTS
 It is normal for academic essays/research reports
to include ideas, definitions, themes,
examples, allusions and topics from other
sources.

 These items from other sources are included in the

essay/report to show to the reader that the ideas
contained therein have backing from other giants
in the field under study.

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 CITATION
 While enjoying information from other sources, the writer
must acknowledge other sources to show that they are
not the writer’s original ideas.

 Part of being a good writer and an academician is being

able to acknowledge other sources used in your writing.

 Note: In academic arena, it is considered most improper,

even a crime (an offence) to make use of a source without
acknowledging it, or to cite as a source a work which was
not consulted. This crime is called PLAGIARISM.

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 CITATION
 This kind of information whether given within the text
(in-text citation)

 OR given at the end of essay/research report as

reference or bibliography, provides readers with full
information on sources consulted in the
essay/research report.

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Quotation in Academic Writing
 Quotation is the repetition of one’s ideas, opinions,
words or expressions.

 Quotations are common in academic writing just as

they are in speech works.
 They range from definitions, explanations of certain
aspects and examples.

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Conditions for Quoting
 When there is something interesting to
be emphasized.
 When there are striking words in the
original
 When there is the purpose of giving
clarification

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Rules for Quoting
 Avoid quoting for the sake of quoting; ensure that
the quoted material does actually add to,
illuminate, explain or illustrate the point you are
making, or that it highlights a problem/argument
that you are presenting.
 Avoid quoting too selectively to the point of
misinterpreting the original material.

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Rules for quoting cont…
 Quoted material should not be altered, even if it
contains spelling or other errors.

 Errors in the quoted material can be indicated by

inserting the word [sic] italicised and in square
brackets after the error.

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Types of Quotations
 There are two types of quotations
 Direct quotation
 Indirect quotation:

1. Direct Quotation (Verbatim)

 Direct quotation or verbatim involves repeating
exact words of the author or another writer.
 It means no alterations are made to the original
materials.
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Direct Quotation
Short quotation
 If your quotations are less than four lines long (which is
usually the case), place them in your text and enclose
them with quotation marks.
 Chris (2008) argues, “Tanzania is poor because most
people do not work hard the way people in Japan and
China do”.

 “Road construction in local communities should not

wait for the funds from the central government; people
can contribute both financially and in kind” (Aston,
2007).
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Long quotation
 Indented quotation is also known as block quotation.
Quotation marks are not enclosed in quotation marks.
Introduce the quotation with a complete sentence and a
colon (:).

 An example of indented/block quotation:

Representative bureaucracy, in which broad social
groups are represented and thus participate in the
decision-making process, has been advanced by some
critics as a means promoting greater efficiency
through social equity. The advantages of such a model
are cautiously described by Harry Krantz (1999).

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Long quotation
 The entire block quotation should
be indented one inch from the left margin.

 The first line of the excerpt should not be

further indented, unless you are quoting multiple
paragraphs—in which case the first line of
each quoted paragraph should be
further indented 0.25 inches.

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Indirect Quotation
2. Indirect Quotation (Paraphrasing)
 A paraphrase is indirect quotation in which a writer
puts someone’s ideas into his/her own worlds.
 It involves writing the original text in a modified way
either shorter or longer than the original.
 There are no new ideas added in the paraphrase, the
original tone or idea should be maintained.
 There is no use of quotation marks in paraphrasing.

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Indirect Quotation
Original text
 In both Kenya and Zambia, opposition parties contesting
for power had virtually no programme or manifesto
beyond the ousting of the incumbent head of state
(Stephen, 1994:121).
Paraphrase
 Opposition parties of Kenya and Zambia had no
programme or manifesto. They were simply
determined to remove from power the existing
government (Stephen, 1994:121).

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Citation in Academic Writing
Definitions of citation
o A citation is a reference to a work, such as a book
or a journal article. It provides the necessary
information needed to locate the work.
o It tells readers the source of information.
o A book citation provides: author, date, title,
publication place and publisher.
o An article citation provides: author, date, article
title, journal title, volume/issue and pages.
o Citations usually follow a particular format called a
style.
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Importance of Citation or Referencing
 Acknowledging other people’s ideas or words gives
credit to their contribution in your academic work.
 Avoiding committing an academic crime called
plagiarism.
 Citations give confidence to the readers.
 They support one’s arguments in academic writing.
 It makes readers prove and believe that the work is
well-researched.
 We cite to uphold intellectual honesty.

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Primary and Secondary Citation/Reference
Primary Citation/Reference
o The cited work contains ideas originating from the author
of that particular book/work.
o For example, if you quote a definition from a book written
by Alex, and Alex, the author of that book, is the one who
developed that definition then the citation for this book
becomes primary citation or reference.

o In short: Alex wrote a book; in that book he created a

definition on management. Once I cite that book, the
citation is primary. This is because Alex never quoted any
other author but he created the definition himself.
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Secondary Citation/Reference
 This is citation in which the writer quotes ideas of the
author who also quoted another author.

 Emmanuel quotes a definition of management from the

book written by John. But John also quoted that
definition from Miriam’s book when writing his book
on management in 1999.
 Citation for John’s book will be referred to as secondary
citation/reference. When presenting this citation you
shall write: Miriam as quoted by John (1999).

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 Citation Styles
 Citation of sources can be within the text or as
Footnotes/Endnotes.

In-Text Citation
 This is the citation where the name of the author, year
of publication and page numbers appear within the
text.
 In-text citation is also called parenthetical citation

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 Principles of In-Text Citation
 If the name starts at the beginning of the sentence,
then enclose the year and page within the brackets
and not the name.
 E.g. Juma (1997:23) argues that women can contribute
to prevalence of sexual harassment by the way they
comport themselves.

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In-Text Citation
 If the name of the author comes at the end of the
quoted material, then enclose everything, name of
author, year of publication and page number in the
brackets. Then separate the name from the year and
page numbers by comma.

 E.g. Corruption is a complex problem to be

eradicated from society; this is because even people
who are supposed to condemn corruption are also
corrupt (Luanda, 2003:45)

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Citation - One Author
o Reference in text (when the text as a whole needs
to be cited)
o Last name of author (year of publication)
o Rowling (2005) argues for the development of new curricula.

o Reference in text (when only part of the text, such as

an idea or a quote from a specific page, needs to be
cited)
o Last name (year of publication, page number)
o lRowling (2005, p.189)

oNo reference in text

o (Last name of author, year).
o The development of new curricula has been argued before
(Rowling, 2005).
More than One Author
oWhen a work has two authors, always cite both
authors.

o Reference in text
o Last names of authors separated by “and” (year of publication)
o Rowling and Cramer (2005) argue for the development of new
curricula.

oNo reference in text

o (Last names of authors separated by an ampersand, copyright
year).
o The development of new curricula has been argued before
(Rowling & Cramer, 2005).
Parenthetical Citations—More than One Author
o When a work has three or more authors, always cite all
the authors the first time the text is used.
o Thereafter, use the first author’s last name followed by
et al.

o Omit year upon third time citing source.

o Reference in text
o Last names of authors separated with and before final name,
(year of publication)
o Rowling, Dowling, Benis, George, and Cramer (2005) argue
for the development of new curricula.
o Rowling et al. (2005) argue . . .
o Rowling et al. argue . . .
Parenthetical Citations—More than One Author
o No reference in text
o (Lastnames of authors separated with an ampersand
before final name, copyright year)
o The development of new curricula has been argued
before (Rowling, Dowling, Benis, George, & Cramer,
2005).
o The development of new curricula has been argued
before (Rowling et al., 2005).
o The development of new curricula has been argued
before (Rowling et al.).
Works Without Author
o When a work is signed “Anonymous,” cite the word
“Anonymous.”
o (Anonymous, year)
o Statistics show a higher incidence of criminal activity during the
summer months (Anonymous, 2007, pp. 89-96).

o Italicize the title of a book or periodical.

o (Title of Book, or Title of Periodical, year, page number)
o Statistics show a higher incidence of criminal activity during
summer months (New Yorker, 2007, p. 97).

o In most other cases, use double quote marks around the

title, followed by publication year, page number
o (“Article title or Chapter title,” year, page number)
o Statistics show a higher incidence of criminal activity during
summer months (“Study Results,” 2007, p. 77).
Groups as Authors
o Corporations, associations, government agencies, research
groups, etc. are usually listed each time they are used in text, unless
an abbreviation makes the group easily recognizable.
o Reference in the text
o First time mentioned: Full name (year).
o National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) reports…(2002).
o Subsequent mentions: abbreviation (year).
o NBS reports…(2002).

o Not referenced in text

o First time mentioned (full name, year)
o (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2002).
o Subsequent mentions (abbreviation, year)
o (NBS, 2002).

o If the name is not easily recognizable by an abbreviation, such as

the University of Iowa, the group must be spelled out each time it
is mentioned.
Parenthetical Citations—Classical Works
o When using classical works such as the Greeks, Romans, or
the Bible, a reference entry is not required. You must only
identify the version and lines used.
o 1 Cor. 13:1 (Revised Standard Edition)
o When using very old works where the date is not
applicable, list the year of the translation you used.
o Reference in text
 Aristotle argues . . . (trans. 1922).
o Not referenced in text
o The ethos, pathos, and logos . . . (Aristotle, trans. 1922).

o If a text does not have a date, cite the author’s name

followed by “n.d.”
o Reference in text (n.d.)
 Julius Caesar argued . . . (n.d.).
o Not referenced in text
o The Trojan horse . . . (Caesar, n.d.).
Foot-Noting/End-Noting
This involves writing reference information
at the bottom of the page of the book,
paper or any other document. The footnote
details express the raised number found in
the text.

In foot noting, foot notes are numbered

either continuously or start afresh on each
page. Footnotes can refer to the source,
provide explanation or details etc.

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Foot note
 E.g. According to Martias1 it is not good for
Tanzanians to keep on blaming up to this time the
colonialists. They have had enough time2 to settle and
plan for their economic development. What I think
Tanzanians should look at, is their internal
weaknesses3. There are some countries which were
colonized for a longer time than Tanzania but they are
more developed than Tanzania4.
 1. Martias, S. (2004:89)
 2. A period of forty seven years since independence.
 3. Corruption, laziness, overpopulation, poor policies, low technology poor
leadership etc.
 4. Msonde, L.(1999:67)

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End Note
End- Noting
 Providing reference information or details at the end
of the whole work such as an essay, article or book.
End notes can also appear at the end of each chapter.

 End notes are similar to footnotes in terms of

functions or objectives but they differ in terms of
location.

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Types of Foot-Notes/End-Notes
 There are different types of foot notes. They
include: source foot notes/end notes; cross-
reference foot notes/end notes; and explanatory
foot notes/end notes.

 Source Foot notes/End notes: These are details

that point to or indicate the source of information
that one used in writing his/her work.

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Types of Foot-Notes/End-Notes
 Cross-reference foot noting/End notes: This is
information that directs the reader to another
section or part within the work; book, article,
paper, etc. e.g. (see page 6; see figure 10; see
section A, etc.).

 Explanatory Foot notes/End notes: This is

information used to explain, discuss, give
additional details, give examples etc.

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Reasons for Foot notes/End notes
Scholars use foot notes and/or end notes for a variety of
reasons including:
 To make it clear to the reader which views are yours
and which are the views of other writers;
 To allow you to acknowledge your intellectual debts to
others if you decide to accept their views or
information;
 To direct the reader by the most efficient signposts to
the place where the information you have provided
can be checked and verified or where further useful
information is.
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  Foot notes/end notes are usually used in order to avoid
interruption of information flow in the text.

 The numbers in superscript within the text which are

later referred to in the footnotes or endnotes are called
footnote numbers or endnote numbers.

 Footnotes/endnotes are arranged serial number and

not alphabetically like bibliography.

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Pinpoint Reference
Pinpoint Reference in Writing
 Pinpoint reference refers to reference to a specific
location of information in the work.
 These references include page numbers, sections or
sections. It is commonly used in legal writing. For
example:
 Anneth (2004:3): This citation provides the number of
the page which is 3. So page 3 is a pinpoint reference.
 Banking Act 1959 (Cth) S5: S5/§5 means section 5. S5
therefore is a pinpoint reference.
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 References Vs Bibliography
References: A list of specific
works that you used in your work.
References usually come at the
end of a text (essay or research
report) and should contain only
those works cited within the text.
So, use the term ‘References’ to
cover works cited.
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Bibliography
 Bibliography: Lists of works for background or for further
reading, these may be books which you read as part of your
research, but which were not actually cited in your work.
OR
 A Bibliography is any list of references at the end of a
text, whether cited or not. It includes texts you made use
of, not only texts you referred to in your paper, but your
own additional background reading, and any other articles
you think the reader might need as background reading.

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Writing references - APA
Books:
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of publication
 Title of the book (underlined or italicised)
 Number of edition
 Place of publication
 Name of publisher.

Martin, J. (2004). Management Accounting (4th ed). New

York: Prentice Hall.

Lugano, S. and Chan, S. (1999). Effective Business

Comunication. Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam Printers.

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Articles in Journals
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of Publication
 Title of the article in quotation marks
 Title of journal underlined or italicised
 Number of volume, and issue
 Page number (s)

Salim, S. (2008). “Sexual Harassment in Higher Learning

Institutions”. Uongozi Journal. Vol.7, No.11. pp. 12-34.

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Article From Newspapers
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of Publication
 Title of the article in quotation marks
 Title of newspaper underlined or italicised
 Number of issue
 Page number (s)

Ihucha, A. (November 10, 2008). “Namanga to receive

Power from Kenya”. The Guardian, No.4359,. p.2.

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Unpublished Papers
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of presentation
 Title in quotation marks
 Where it was presented.

Mwakisambwe, K. (2003). “Language Teaching

Pedagogy”. Paper presented at the Workshop on
Higher Education in Tanzania at Tumaini University.

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Unpublished Dissertation/Thesis
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of report submission
 Title in quotation marks
 ‘Unpublished MA/PhD Dissertation’
 Where it was submitted/presented

 Hamida, O. (2010). “The Use of Technology in

Teaching and Learning: The Case of UDSMs”.
Unpublished M.A. Education Dissertation, University
of Dar es salaam.

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Government Publications
 Country’s name
 Year of publication
 Title of publication
 Place of publication
 Name of publisher

 United Republic of Tanzania. (2003). Economic

Revival Programme. Dar es salaam: Government
Printer.

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Electronic sources
 Name of author/editor/organisation/institution,
 Year of publication
 Title
 Location of server, if known or
 Publisher/maintainer of site (if known)
 Website.

 Sheri, B. and Alison, R. (2007). Active Teaching

Strategies. Retrieved on August 12th ,2017. From
http://www.baker.edu/departments/etl/training
resources.cfm.
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Guidelines for references/ Bibliography Writing in APA Style
 Arrange all entries in alphabetical order. Use
surnames, author’s first name or initials.
 If there are two authors, then provide both names.
 Where there are more than two authors, write the first
author, followed by the word et al.
 Where no name of author exists, use the editor’s name
and indicate in brackets with (Ed or Eds)
 Likewise, the name of the organisation or country can
be used in place of the name of the author, such as
Mzumbe, UDSM, Tanzania, URT etc.
 Entries in reference/bibliography are not numbered.
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Guidelines for references/Bibliography Writing in APA Style
 Titles for books, journals or newspapers are underlined if
you are writing using a typewriter. But if you are using a
computer, the titles are italicized.
 Titles for articles and unpublished materials are enclosed
in quotation marks
 For books which have been re-edited, use abbreviation
(ed.), like 4th ed.
 Place of publications come first followed by name of
publisher, separated by colon.
 Avoid using the names of countries as places of
publication.
 Use towns/cities e.g. London, Dar es Salaam, Tokyo, New
York, etc. But not Tanzania, England, the USA etc.

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Guidelines for references/Bibliography Writing in APA Style

 Where there is no place of publication or

publisher, use abbreviation (n.p.)
 Use (n.d.) to indicate that there is no date of
publication.
 To indicate one page, use “p.”; and many pages use
“pp.”
 To indicate one section use “s” and for many
sections use “ss”

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