Aapda Mitra Book

A HANDBOOK FOR AAPDA MITRA
Aapda-Mitra Handbook
NDRF Academy, Nagpur

Edition: 2021 (First Edition)
Published by
National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Nagpur – 440001
Written & Compiled by
Instructors of National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur
Sources/reference
Authenticated Websites, Brady reference book and PEER instructor’s guide
National Disaster Response Force Academy

(Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India)
Civil Line, Temple Road Nagpur– 440001
National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur


DG’s FOREWORD
It is a matter of great pleasure and honour that National Disaster Response

Force Academy (NDRFA) has prepared a comprehensive handbook designed
specifically for the Aapda-mitra training modules. The handbook has been
prepared to enhance the understanding of various disasters in their area and
obtaining basic lifesaving techniques and skills included in National and
International training modules. These skills will further strengthen the capacity of
Aapda-mitra volunteers in assessing the community’s needs for first response to
any disasters in their area.
We all are aware of hazards and vulnerability profile of Country. Majority of

land and population in India are prone to multiple natural and human induced
disasters. Communities in these vulnerable areas are always at risk. The emphasis
laid on the disaster risk reduction and the disaster resilience of the communities
by the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction-SFDRR (2015 -2030), can
only be achieved through empowerment of the communities. Thus, the endeavour
is to share knowledge and train the community volunteers of the Aapda-mitra so
that they obtain necessary knowledge and skills to strengthen the capacity of
community through awareness thereby, reducing the risks of any disasters.
I am pleased to place on record my sincere appreciation to Shri Pankaj

Kumar, Commandant (Trg) and his team of instructors who have prepared this
Aapda-mitra handbook. This handbook has been prepared on various disasters
and skills and updates have been taken from various reliable websites, Brady
reference book and PEER Instructor’s guide. There was a need to prepare an
updated and comprehensive handbook for conducting different training modules
for the Aapda-mitra volunteers so as to standardise their training. I am sure this
handbook will be of immense value to Aapda-mitra volunteers in obtaining the
requisite knowledge and skills needed to make the community truly resilient for
any disaster risks.
(S N PRADHAN), IPS
(DIRECTOR GENERAL, NDRF)


PROLOGUE
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 outlines

seven clear targets and four priorities for action to prevent new, and reduce existing
disaster risks: (i) Understanding disaster risk; (ii) Strengthening disaster risk
governance to manage disaster risk; (iii) Investing in disaster reduction for
resilience and; (iv) Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to
"Build Back Better" in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
It aimed to achieve the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in

lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and
environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries. There
cannot be a sustained Disaster Risk Reduction without any meaningful
participation from the community itself. The community is the first responder in
any incident, more so, in case of disasters striking the area. A trained and aware
community would be in a position to help itself and the others in the Golden hour,
thereby minimising the casualties, in addition to reducing the impact of disasters
by incorporating mitigatory measures in advance.
It was with this backdrop, that NDMA took up the pilot project to train the
Community volunteers. With encouraging results from the project, now NDRF has
been given the responsibility to train the Aapda-mitra and equip them with the
basic knowledge and skills to assess their DRR needs and help themselves in the
times of need till the arrival of the specialist responders. Analysing this important
perspective, the handbook has put special emphasis on capacity building of
community volunteers through knowledge and skills in disaster preparedness.
This handbook is the outcome of participatory approach involving group of

expert instructors of NDRFA who made it trainee-centric by involving pictures and
diagrams for more clarity. This handbook contains all the details that are required
by trainers and trainees and will help in the preparing Aapda-mitra volunteers by
disseminating the knowledge about different disasters and various mitigatory
measures to reduce their risks. All efforts have been made to include each and
every concurrent details which may help the community to perform the role of the
first responder. I am sure that this handbook will serve its purpose well for which
it is prepared.


This handbook is written in simple language and concepts are explained with
suitable diagram and figures. I take this opportunity to express my deep
appreciation to the commitment of team of instructors who extended their willing
contributions, expertise and put in endless hours of work for preparing this
handbook.
While utmost care was taken with dedicated efforts in compiling this
handbook, there is always scope for improvement because of its dynamic nature.
Updates shall be incorporated in revised version. I hope this handbook will help
the volunteers as well as the NDRF instructors in their efforts and initiatives
towards building a disaster resilient society. Suggestions and comments are always
needed and will be welcomed.
Director


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am happy to acknowledge the support extended by team of instructors of

National Disaster Response Force Academy (NDRFA) in preparing this AAPDA
MITRA Handbook for the NDRF personnel and other stakeholders, I must place
on record my sincere appreciation of the special efforts made by all the instructors
of NDRF Academy who have contributed through knowledge-based technical
inputs to finally prepare the handbook. I must also express my sincere gratitude
to Sh. SK Pradhan, Commandant who sat through the extended sessions and
helped me in the review of entire content. He was instrumental in a thorough and
diligent proof reading of the draft that continued for days together. Their valuable
contributions and sincere efforts have eventually made it possible to conceptualize
and prepare the handbook for the Aapda-mitra volunteers.
The approach focuses on facilitating learning about the disasters and

understanding the required knowledge & skills by the volunteers. This handbook
is intended to serve as an essential material for standardising the training modules
for the Aapda-mitra in our pursuit to empower the communities in disaster risk
reduction, thereby making the country truly disaster resilient.
Finally, I am deeply indebted and would like to express my gratitude to the

Director General Shri S N Pradhan, IPS, Shri Amrendra Kumar Sengar, IPS,
Inspector General, Shri Manoj Kumar Yadav, DIG (Trg), and Shri Pranshu
Shrivastava, DC (Trg) of HQ, NDRF for their guidance, constructive criticism, and
valuable suggestions for finalising this Aapda-mitra handbook.
Commandant (Trg),


CONTENTS
Lesson
Topic Page No.
No.
1. Basic Concepts of Disaster Management 03-16
2. Disaster Preparedness 17-21
3. Earthquake 22-30
4. Landslide 31-34
5. Flood 35-44
6. Tsunami 45-52
7. Cyclone 53-57
8. Cloudburst 58-61
9. Thundering and Lightening 62-70
10. Drought 71-75

11. Heat Wave 76-89
12. Cold Wave 90-96
13. Basic Search and Rescue 97-104
14. Lifting and Stabilizing Load 105-111

15. Community Based First Aid 112-124
16. Control Bleeding and Wound Care 125-139
17. Musculoskeletal Injuries and Splinting 140-152
18. BLS and CPR 153-170
19. Lifting and Moving Patient 171-180
20. Snake Bite and Animal Bite 181-191
21. Rope Rescue Techniques and Improvise 192-204

22. Fire Safety 205-214
23. Forest fire 215-229
24. Chemical Emergencies 230-237
25. Biological Emergencies 238-241

26. Radiological & Nuclear Emergencies 242-247
National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur 1


LESSON - 01
BASIC CONCEPTS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
➢ Describe disaster management cycle

➢ Describe types of disaster.
➢ Describe DM policy framework
➢ Describe Institutional mechanism at national level
➢ Describe Incident response system
➢ Describe National Policy on Disaster Management
Introduction:
Disaster, as defined by the United Nations, is a serious disruption of the
functioning of a community or society, which involve widespread human,
material, economic or environmental impacts that exceed the ability of the
affected community or society to cope using its own resources.
Disaster management is how we deal with the human, material, economic or
environmental impacts of said disaster, it is the process of how we “prepare for,
respond to and learn from the effects of major failures”. Though often caused by
nature, disasters can have human origins. According to the International
Federation of Red Cross & Red Crescent Societies, a disaster occurs when a
hazard impacts on vulnerable people. The combination of hazards, vulnerability
and inability to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk results in
disaster.
The International Federation of Red Cross & Red Crescent Societies defines
disaster management as the organization and management of resources and
responsibilities for dealing with all the humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in
particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the impact of
disasters.

Disaster Management Cycle- A general term covering all aspects of planning and
responding to disasters, including both pre (prevention, mitigation and
preparedness) and post disaster (response, search and rescue, relief,
reconstruction and rehabilitation) activities. It may refer to the management of
both the risks and consequences of disasters.
Disaster Risk Assessment: -

Disaster risk assessment is a participatory process of evaluating the
Crisis Management
Risk Management
hazards that endanger communities, their vulnerabilities and capabilities.

Through hazard assessment, possibility of occurrence and the frequency,
scope and duration of various hazards can be determined.
Vulnerability assessment can determine which elements are at risk,
analyze the root causes of vulnerable conditions and Identifies the families and
groups most vulnerable to any given hazard. The assessment considers the
natural, geographic, economic, social, political, and psychological factors that
make some people particularly vulnerable to hazards while others are relatively
protected.
In the capacity assessment, the community's resources and response
strategy areas are evaluated. The aim of disaster risk assessment is to figure out
the disaster risks faced by the community and make it the basis for Disaster
risk reduction plan.

Disaster Risk Reduction- The reduction of disaster risk is the bedrock of

community–based disaster management. Disaster risk reduction includes all
measures, which reduce related loss of lives, property or assets by either
reducing the hazard or vulnerability of the elements at risk.
Type of Disasters: - Broadly Disaster is categorized into five sub groups:-
I. Water and Climate related disasters
II. Geologically related disasters.
III. Chemical, Industrial and Nuclear related disasters.
IV. Accident-related disasters.
V. Biologically related disasters.
I. WATER AND CLIMATE RELATED DISASTERS
1. Floods 5. Snow Avalanches

2. Cyclones 6. Droughts
3. Cloud Burst 7. Tsunami
4. Heat Wave and Cold Wave
II. GEOLOGICALLY RELATED DISASTERS

1. Landslides and Mudflows 3. Dam Failures/ Dam Bursts
2. Earthquakes 4. Mine Fires
III. CHEMICAL, INDUSTRIAL AND NUCLEAR DISASTERS

1. Chemical and Industrial Disasters
2. Nuclear Disasters
IV. ACCIDENT-RELATED DISASTERS

1. Forest Fires
2. Urban Fires
3. Mine Flooding
4. Oil Spill
5. Major Building Collapse
6. Serial Bomb Blasts
7. Festival related disasters
8. Electrical Disasters and Fires
9. Air, Road and Rail Accidents
10.Boat Capsizing
11.Village Fire

V. BIOLOGICALLY RELATED DISASTERS
1. Biological Disasters and Epidemics

2. Pest Attacks
3. Cattle Epidemics
4. Food Poisoning
NODAL MINISTRIES FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Natural Disasters Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA)
Drought Ministry of Agriculture.
Biological Disasters Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Chemical Disasters Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF).
Forest related Disasters MoEF.
Nuclear Disasters Department of Atomic Energy.
Air Accidents Ministry of Civil Aviation.
Railway Accidents Ministry of Railways.
INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM AT NATIONAL LEVEL

• In the event of a disaster of a
severe nature, National Crisis
Management Committee
headed by the Cabinet
Secretary gives policy
directions and guidelines to
the Management Group where
national/ international efforts
are required.
• NEC headed by the Home

Secretary reviews the
situation in Inter-Ministry/
Department meetings to
coordinate various emergency
response for the affected States.
• Union Cabinet may set up a Cabinet Committee/Task Force/Group of

Ministers (GoM) for effective coordination of relief measures in the wake of
calamities of severe nature.

INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM AT STATE LEVEL

• A State level Crisis
Management Committee
under the Chairmanship
of Chief Secretary is
responsible for emergency
management.
• The committee comprises

of concerned
functionaries in various
State Departments and
representatives of Central
Organizations located in
the State.
• State Relief Commissioner

/Secretary Disaster
Management is the Nodal
Officer for coordinating
the activities for relief operations in the event of natural disasters.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT 2005

• The Disaster Management Act was enacted on 23rd December, 2005.
• The Act provides for establishment of:
▪ NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority)
▪ SDMA (State Disaster Management Authority)
▪ DDMA (District Disaster Management Authority)
▪ Disaster Response Fund and Disaster Mitigation Fund at National, State
and District level.
▪ NIDM and NDRF.
• Provides penalties for obstruction, false claims, misappropriation etc.
• There shall be no discrimination on the grounds of sex, caste, community,
descent or religion in providing compensation and relief.
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (NDMA)

• National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) with Prime Minister as Ex-
officio Chairman, has a maximum of three members nominated by the Prime
Minister.
• The Authority may constitute an Advisory Committee consisting of experts
in the field of disaster management.

• The Authority shall be assisted in times of any disaster by a National

Executive Committee of Secretaries to be constituted by including 14
Secretaries/ Heads of different Ministries/ Departments with Chief of
Integrated Defence Staff Committee as Ex-officio member of the committee.
• The Authority shall lay down the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster
management.
• The National Executive Committee shall prepare a National Disaster
Management Plan in consultation with the State Governments.
• The National Plan include measures for
✓ Prevention and mitigation of disasters,
✓ Integration of mitigation measures in the plans,
✓ Preparedness and capacity building.
• NDMA shall recommend guidelines for the minimum standards of relief

provided to persons affected by disaster.
STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (SDMA)

SDMA with members to be nominated by the Chief Minister and the
Chairperson of the State Executive Committee. One of the members may be
designated as the Vice-Chairperson of the State Authority by the Chief Minister.
SDMA may constitute an Advisory Committee of experts, as and when necessary.
DISTRICT DISASTER MANAGEMENTAUTHORITY (DDMA)

Section 25 of the DM Act provides for constitution of DDMA for every
district of a state. The District Magistrate/ District Collector/Deputy
Commissioner heads the Authority as Chairperson besides an elected
representative of the local authority as Co-Chairperson except in the tribal areas
where the Chief Executive Member of the District Council of Autonomous District
is designated as Co-Chairperson.
Further in district, where Zila Parishad exist, its Chairperson shall be the
Co-Chairperson of DDMA. Other members of this authority include the CEO of
the District Authority, Superintendent of Police, Chief Medical Officer of the
District and other two district level officers are designated by the state
Government.
The District Authority is responsible for planning, coordination and

implementation of disaster management and to take such measures for disaster
management as provided in the guidelines. The District Authority also has the
power to examine the construction in any area in the district to enforce the safety
standards and also to arrange for relief measures and respond to the disaster at
the district level.

INCIDENT RESPONSE SYSTEM

• “Incident Response System is a standardized, on-scene, all-hazards
incident management concept that can be used for an incident or a
planned event to effectively accomplish stated objectives pertaining to an
incident.”
• IRS system provides a common response framework for multiple
organizations to quickly integrate and work together during disasters,
emergencies and planned events. IRS system promotes an orderly
response by ensuring clarity of roles and responsibilities, effective use of
resources and information management, as well as coordination of
participating departments/organizations. Incident Response System uses
facilities, equipments, personnel, procedure and communications
operating within a common organizational structure.
• It provides for the hierarchical and modular structure having unity of
Command with optimal span of control which believes in the unified
Command structure with predefined roles for each stakeholder leading to
responsibility and accountability of officials.
IRS Structure

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT (NIDM)

The Central Government constituted the National Center for Disaster Management
in the year 1995 which was then upgraded as National Institute of Disaster
Management (NIDM) on 16th of October 2003. After enactment of DM Act, it has
attained statutory status. Section 42 of Chapter VII of the Disaster Management
Act, 2005 entrusts the institute with numerous responsibilities, namely
• To develop training modules, undertake research and documentation in
disaster management,
• Organize training programmes, undertake and organize study courses,
conferences, lectures and seminars to promote and institutionalize disaster
management,
• Undertake and provide for publication of journals, research papers and
books.
• Plan and promote training and research in disaster management
• Start documentation, development of national level information base of
disaster management policies, prevention mechanisms and mitigation
measures
• Networking of resources (India Disaster Resource Network; IDRN)
NATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE FORCE (NDRF)

The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) was constituted under Section
44 of the DM Act, 2005 by up-gradation/conversion of eight standard battalions of
Central Para Military Forces i.e., two battalions each from Border Security Force
(BSF), Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)
and Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) to build them up as a specialist force to
respond to disaster or disaster like situations.
Now the total number of battalions has gone up to 16, with BSF and ITBP
contributing 04 Bns each, 03 Bns of CRPF, 02 Bns each from CISF and SSB and
01 Bn of AR. 12 Bns out of 16 are fully operational whereas four units are in

different stages of being operationalized. These new Bns (one each) are to be located
in the states of J & K, Himachal, Uttarakhand and NCT of Delhi.
Each NDRF battalion consists of 1149 personnel organized in 18 teams
comprising of 45 personnel, who are equipped and trained for rendering effective
response to any threatening disaster situation or disasters; both natural as well as
manmade.
180 teams out of the total 288 NDRF Teams in the country are trained to
respond to the Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) calamities
besides natural calamities.
National Disaster Response Force has been constituted for specialist response.
• The general superintendence and direction of the Force shall be vested in
and exercised by the National Authority.
• Command and supervision of the Force vests in an officer to be appointed by
the Central Government as the Director General of the NDRF.
• Each Specialist Response Team of 45 persons comprises of 04 SAR Sub
Teams 01 Medical Support Team 01 Technical Support Team and 01 Dog
Squad
• Each battalion is also equipped and trained for FWR and Under Water
Search.
Based on vulnerability profile of different regions of the country, these
specialist battalions have been presently stationed at the following locations as may
be seen from the map.

STATE DISASTER RESPONSEFORCE (SDRF)

The states/UTs have also set up their own Specialist Response Force for
responding to disasters on the lines of National Disaster Response Force. The
Central Government is providing assistance for training of trainers.
The state governments have been also advised to utilize 10% of their State
Disaster Response Fund and Capacity Building Grant for the procurement of
search and rescue equipment and for training purposes of the Response Force.
CIVIL DEFENCE
Aims and Objectives of Civil Defence Act:
The Civil Defence Policy of the GoI until1962 was confined to making the
states and UTs conscious of the need for civil protection measures and to keep in
readiness civil protection plans for major cities and towns under the Emergency
Relief Organization (ERO) scheme. The legislation on Civil Defence (CD) known as
Civil Defence Act was enacted in 1968 which is in force throughout the country.
The Act defines CD and provides for the powers of Central Government to
make rules for CD, spelling out various actions to be taken for CD measures. It
further stipulates for constitution of CD corps, appointment of
members and officers, functions of members etc. The Act has since been amended
in 2010 to cater to the needs of disaster management so as to utilize the services
of Civil Defence volunteers effectively for enhancement of public participation in
disaster management related activities in the country.
The CD Organization is raised only in such areas and zones which are
considered vulnerable to enemy attacks. The revision and renewal of categorized
CD towns is done at regular intervals, with the level of perceived threat or external
aggression or hostile attacks by anti- national elements or terrorists to vital
installations.
COMPENDIUM OF INSTRUCTIONS ON CD – Deals very briefly with all
aspects of CD in India and includes references to important policy letters including
legal aspects. It was first published in February 1969. Subsequently, its scope was
enlarged by including the Master Plan of Civil Defence, Civil Defence Act 1968,
training courses conducted at NCDC, Nagpur, training syllabus of states.
ROLE OF CIVIL DEFENCE: During times of war and emergencies, the CD
organization has the vital role of guarding the hinterland, supporting the armed
forces, mobilizing the citizens and helping civil administration for saving life and
property, minimizing damage, maintaining continuity in production centers and
raising public morale. The concept of CD over the years has shifted from
management of damage from conventional weapons to also include threat

perceptions against nuclear weapons, biological and chemical warfare and

environmental disasters.
Three tier structure as given below has been created to formulate CD policy
and for coordinating and supervising measures to implement it.
• Civil Defence Advisory Committee under the Chairmanship of Union Home
Minister
• Civil Defence Committee under the Chairmanship of Home Secretary
• Civil Defence Joint Planning Staff Committee under the Chairmanship of
Director General Civil Defence.
ELIGIBILITY TO BECOME VOLUNTEERS:
a. A person who intends to apply for appointment to a Civil Defence Corps

must fulfill the following conditions: -
i. Be a citizen of India or Bhutan or of Nepal
ii. Have completed the age of 18 years provided that this age limit may be
relaxed at the discretion of the competent authority up to a maximum
of three years for any branch or category of the Corps.
iii. Have passed at least the primary standard, that is to say, the fourth
class; and this condition may be relaxed by the Controller at his
discretion.
b. A person shall not be entitled to be appointed to the Corps unless he is
found to be physically fit and mentally alert.
c. Any service in the National Volunteer Force and in the armed forces of the
Union shall be a special qualification
d. Such persons shall ordinarily serve in a voluntary and honorary capacity
and they are required to perform the duties assigned to them by order under
the Civil Defence Regulations, 1968 or under any other law for the time
being in force, for the protection of persons and property against hostile
attack
e. A candidate who has been accepted for appointment to the Corps shall be
formally enrolled in such manner as the Controller may, by order, determine
and at the time of enrollment shall make an oath or affirmation before such
officer as the Controller may, by order, appoint.
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF CIVIL DEFENCE (DGCD): DGCD was established

in 1962 with its headquarters at New Delhi in the Ministry of Home Affairs to
handle all policy and planning matters related to Civil Defence, Home Guards and
Fire Services including the functioning of National Fire Service College, Nagpur. An
IPS officer in the rank of Director General of Police heads the organization.

CIVIL DEFENCE SETUP IN THE STATES: The state government for the purpose
of coordinating the activities of the Controllers of Civil Defence within the state
appoints a Director of Civil Defence and also may constitute, for any area within
the state a body of a person to be called the Civil Defence Corps. Out of 225 towns
from 35 states notified as CD towns, currently the CD organizations have been
activated in only 130 towns.
Each town has nucleus of four Permanent Staff along with 400 CD
Volunteers for a two lakh population. It is expected that each state will have one
CD Training Institute with permanent strength of 36 personnel, five vehicles &
other equipments. The District Magistrate is designated as a Controller for CD
Towns. The present strength of CD volunteers is 5.72 lakhs, out of which 5.11
lakhs are already trained.
The target strength of CD volunteers has been fixed at 13 lakhs based on the
population of CD towns as per 2001 census.
In accordance with the directions issued by Hon’ble Home Minister, one-
member high powered committee was constituted on 7th February, 2006 under the
chairmanship of one of the members of NDMA to analyze the existing functions of
Civil Defence Organizations and suggest changes required to enlarge its role to
include Disaster Management.
CIVIL DEFENCE AT DISTRICT LEVEL: The state government may appoint a

person, not being in its opinion, below the rank of a District Magistrate to be known
as the “Controller”. Under certain conditions, the state government may also
appoint a Deputy Controller of Civil Defence in appropriate rank up to that of
Deputy Collector, but not inferior to that of a Sub-Divisional Magistrate.
FIRE SERVICES
Fire services are mandate of the Municipal Bodies as estimated in item 7 of

Schedule 12 under Article 243W of the constitution. The structure across is not
uniform. Presently Fire prevention and Fire Fighting Services are organized by the
concerned States and UTs. Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India, renders
technical advice to the States and UTs and Central Ministries on Fire Protection,
Fire Prevention and Fire Legislation.
Fire Services in Gujarat, Chhatisgarh, Punjab, Maharashtra, Himachal
Pradesh, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh excluding Indore are under the respective
concerned Municipal Corporations. In the remaining States it is under the Home
Department.
While some States have enacted their own Fire Act, some others have not. As
on today, there is no standardization with regard to the scaling of equipment, the
type of equipment, or the training of their manpower. In each state it has grown

according to the initiatives taken by the States and the funds provided for the Fire
Services.
The Airports Authority, Big Industrial Establishments, CISF and Armed
Forces, however also have their own Fire Services and many a times in case
of need, rush in aid to the local Fire Services. Notwithstanding the lack of being a
proper government department with a complete developmental plan; State Fire
Services have their own organizational structure, administrative setup, funding
mechanism, training facilities and equipments.
OBJECTIVES OF NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT
✓ Disaster management will adopt a holistic, proactive approach to prevention,

mitigation and preparedness.
✓ Each ministry/department of the central/state government will allocate
appropriate funds for specific plans/projects for addressing vulnerabilities
and disaster preparedness according to the plan.
✓ Where there is a list of projects, projects addressing mitigation will be given
priority. Mitigation measures shall be built into the on-going
schemes/programmes.
✓ Each project in a hazard prone area will have mitigation as an essential term
of reference. The project report will include a statement as to how the project
addresses vulnerability reduction
✓ It is emphasized that community participation and awareness generation,
especially the awareness of vulnerable groups and women, are necessary for
sustainable disaster risk reduction. This is an important part of the policy,
because the community is the first responder to the disaster, so unless the
community is empowered and able to manage the disaster, no external
support will bring the best results.
✓ There will be close interaction with the corporate sector, non-governmental
organizations and the media in the national efforts for disaster
prevention/vulnerability reduction.
✓ Institutional structures/appropriate chain of command will be built up and
appropriate training imparted to disaster managers at various levels to
ensure coordinated and quick response at all levels; and development of
inter-State arrangements for sharing of resources during emergencies.
✓ A culture of planning and preparedness is to be inculcated at all levels for
capacity building measures.
✓ Standard operating procedures and disaster management plans at state and
district levels as well as by relevant central government departments for
handling specific disasters will be laid down.
✓ Construction designs must correspond to the requirements as laid down in
relevant Indian Standards.

✓ All lifeline buildings in seismic zones III, IV & V – hospitals, railway stations,
airports/airport control towers, fire station buildings, bus stands, major
administrative centers will need to be evaluated and, if necessary, retro-
fitted.
✓ The existing relief codes in the States will be revised to develop them into
disaster management codes/manuals for institutionalizing the planning
process with particular attention to mitigation and preparedness.
CONCLUSION
The entire Disaster Management setup in the country has evolved over a period
of time with considered and well thought out structure that amalgamates the
existing administrative machinery and optimally incorporates all possible
stakeholders in a holistic and integrated approach evolved for management of
disasters with emphasis on building strategic partnerships at various levels.
*************************

LESSON – 02
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
Objectives
Upon the completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Describe disaster and Disaster Management.

• Describe importance of disaster preparedness.
• Describe Disaster preparedness for family.
• What to do when you are told to evacuate.
INTRODUCTION
What is Disaster – “A catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any

area, arising from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which
results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction
of property, or damage to, or degradation of environment and is of such a nature
or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected
area.” (DM Act 2005)
Situations created by environmental phenomena or man-made conflicts can
cause stress, personal injury, physical and serious economic damage. It has
serious negative impacts on people, goods, services and/or the environment,
beyond the capacity of effective communities to respond. It is important to note
that the disaster is caused by an event but till such time the event doesn’t impact
the population, it is not a disaster. For example, earthquakes are natural
phenomena. If it does not affect densely populated areas with weak buildings, it
will not cause disaster.
Disaster Management – is a general term covering all aspects of emergencies

and disasters, as well as response to emergencies and disasters, including pre and
post-event activities; incident risk and consequence management.
Disaster Recovery– is the planned and coordinated process of supporting

disaster affected communities in reconstruction of the environment,
physical infrastructure and restoration of emotional, social, economic and
physical welfare of the population.

Hazard – is a potential occurrence of a natural or man-made event/disaster

that has negative consequences.
Risk – is the probability that a disaster will occur for any particular hazard/s
and vulnerability.
Vulnerability - The susceptibility of people, buildings or systems to the hazard.
Why Disaster preparedness is important?
When Disasters strike an unprepared community, the damage can be

incredible. Ironically, many communities are often not prepared because
disasters do not occur very often. With no sense of immediate need, Community
Preparedness is rarely a priority. However, vulnerability reduction must
continue, and communities must be made ready for disaster impacts.
Community-based preparedness and planning allows us to manage the
potential hazards following a disaster event. Community Preparedness will
improve the ability of individuals and groups to reduce the effects of the hazard
impact and manage their resources until assistance is available.
Effective community response requires comprehensive planning and
coordination by everyone including the private sector, schools, volunteer groups,
and community organizations. Training and awareness can make individuals and
groups a key resource in the community, able to perform many emergency
functions immediately after a disaster.
“Local community will always be the First Responder to any

Natural Disaster”.
Disaster Preparedness Plan – Family

1. Know the natural or man-made hazards that could affect your
community, and seek advice on how to best prepare for or mitigate
these hazards.
2. Talk to your household about potential hazards or emergencies, how they
should respond to them, and what they would need to do if they had to
evacuate.
3. Plan how your household would stay in contact with each other if
separated. Identify two meeting places. One should be near your home
in case of a fire, and the other should be away from home- at a neighbor’s
or family member’s place, in case you cannot return home.
4. Choose a friend or relative who lives outside of your area for family
members to call and say they are alright.

5. Draw a floor plan of your home and mark escape routes from each room.
6. Emergency telephone numbers must be kept at a predesignated place
and teach children how and when to use them.
7. Make sure everyone in the household knows how to turn off gas, water
and electricity at the main switches. Consult with your local utility
companies if you have any questions.
8. Also, include neighbours, the elderly and disabled etc. with special
needs into your plan.
After a disaster
Keep the family together. While you look for housing and assistance,
you may want to leave your children with relatives or friends. Instead, keep
the family together as much as possible and make children a part of what you
are doing to get the family back on its feet. Children, get anxious, and they'll
worry that their parents/guardians won't return.
As an adult, we should walk in a manner that places us between the
traffic and the child. As much as possible, we should never expose our child
to the dangers of moving traffic, and never place children in the front seat of
vehicles (even outside emergency and disaster situations)
Encourage children to talk. Let children talk about the disaster and ask
questions as much as they want. Encourage children to describe what they're
feeling. Listen to what they say. If possible, include the entire family in the
discussion. It will relieve a lot of stress the disaster has generated in the
children.
Disaster preparedness Kit
One of the most important tools for

emergency preparedness is the Disaster
preparedness Kit. Listed below are the most
important items. Stock up today and replenish
the perishable items as necessary.
✓ Two-weeks supply of prescription

medicines (If on regular medication).
✓ Two-weeks supply of non-
perishable/special dietary foods.
✓ Drinking water in containers: (one Gallon Per person/per day for two
weeks).
✓ Flashlights and batteries for each member of the family.
✓ Portable radio and batteries.

✓ First aid book and kit including bandages, antiseptic, tape,

Compresses, non-aspirin pain reliever, anti-diarrhea medication.
✓ Plastic tarpaulin for roof/window repair, screens, hand tools, nails, etc.
✓ Water purification kit (tablets, bleach, chlorine [plain] and iodine).
✓ Infant necessities (medicine, sterile water, diapers, ready formula,
bottles).
✓ Clean-up supplies (mop, buckets, towels, disinfectant).
✓ Non-electric cane opener and
plastic trash bags.
✓ Paper towels and pre-
moisturized disposable clothes.
✓ Fire extinguisher.
✓ Complete set of clothes, shoes,
gloves, etc.
✓ Personal sanitary items.
✓ Important documents (stored in
water-tight plastic bags).
The Emergency Kit must be kept at a place which is readily accessible after a
disaster. A Kit kept inside the collapsed structure will be of no use if it cannot
be accessed.
Evacuation
If it is necessary to evacuate the community, local officials will provide

information to the public. To prepare for an emergency, you should have enough
water, food, clothes and emergency supplies for at least three days.
What to do when you are told to evacuate

If ordered to evacuate, you must do so immediately. Take note of those
emergency shelters that have been declared open. Listen to a battery-powered
radio and follow given instructions. If the danger is a chemical release
and you are instructed to evacuate, do so immediately with your family.
1. Gather water, food, clothing, emergency supplies, and important

documents.
2. Wear sturdy shoes and clothing that provide some protection, such as
long pants, long-sleeved shirts and a cap.
3. Secure your home. Close and lock all doors and windows. Unplug
appliances.

4. Turn off the main water valve and electricity.
5. Let others know where you are going.
6. Leave early enough to avoid being trapped by severe weather.
7. Follow recommended evacuation routes. Do not take shortcuts they

may be blocked. Be alert for washed-out roads. Do not drive into flooded
areas. Stay away from fallen power lines.
8. Take your Disaster Supplies Kit with you!
9. Take important papers with you, including your driver's license, special
medical information, insurance policies, property inventories and
certificates etc.
*******************************************

LESSON - 03
EARTHQUAKE SAFETY
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson you will be able to know.
• Brief about earthquake

• State wise zone area
• Do’s & don’ts of earthquake
INTRODUCTION
Earthquakes are among the deadliest natural hazards. They strike without
warning and many of the earthquake zones coincide with areas of high population
density. When large earthquakes occur in such areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss of human lives and untold economic cost.
Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves. The seismograph

records the seismic waves generated by earthquakes, allowing the seismologists to
determine where and how deep a particular earthquake is. The seismic waves from
earthquakes can be used to map the deep interior of the Earth and provide
important clues about the internal structure of our planet.
What is an Earthquake?
An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden
release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Seismic waves are
produced when some form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released,
usually when masses of rock strain against one another, suddenly fracture and
slip. Earthquakes occur most often along geological faults where rock masses move
in relation to one another. The major fault lines of the world are located at the
fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up Earth’s crust.

Three Types of Faults
Strike-Slip Thrust
Normal
Intense vibrations, or seismic waves,
spread out from the initial point of
rupture, the focus (Hypocenter), like
ripples on a pond. These waves are what
makes the ground shake and can travel
large distances in all directions. Near the
focus, the waves can be very large, making
them extremely destructive.
The epicenter is the point on the land
surface that is directly above the focus.

State wise Zone area of earthquake
V 12% N.E States, J&K, H.P, Gujarat, Bihar, Uttaranchal, A&N
IV 18% J&K, HP, Uttaranchal, Bihar, Delhi, W. Bengal, Haryana, Punjab,

Sikkim, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Lakshadweep
III 26% Punjab, Haryana, Uttaranchal, Bihar, Bengal, Gujarat,

Rajasthan, M. P, Orissa, A. P, Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra

Intensities of Earthquakes in each Zone Zone
This zone is susceptible to earthquakes that can be felt by all and may II
frighten people enough to run outdoors. Dishes and glassware break,
books fall down, heavy furniture gets moved. Few instances of falling
plaster and some damage to buildings may also be observed. (Intensity: I
to VI)
III
In Zone III, earthquakes of higher intensity may be felt. Earthquakes that
frightens everyone, making it difficult for people to stand. Even people in
moving vehicles may feel such quakes. Structures/buildings of good design
and construction suffer minor damage, while poorly designed /built ones
suffer considerable damages. (Intensity: VI and VII)
IV
This zone is susceptible to strong earthquakes, which create panic all over,
moving even heavy furniture. Such earthquakes could cause moderate
damage in well-designed/built structures/buildings, while poorly built
structures suffer great damages. Other effects could be landslides on steep
slopes, cracks in ground. (Intensity: VIII)
This is the zone of maximum risk in the country and is susceptible to great
V
earthquakes. Quakes that can cause total panic and considerable damage
to life and property. Considerable damages happen even in specially
designed structures. Great damage occurs in buildings with partial or total
collapse, railway tracks bend and roadways get damaged, ground cracks,
underground pipes break. Landslide, rockfall and mud flow occurs. Large
waves are produced in sea water. Where intensity exceeds XI, total
destruction may be caused with changes in landscape that could even
change the courses of rivers. (Intensity: IX and above)

What to Do Before, During and After an Earthquake

There are many things you can do to help yourself in the event of an earthquake.
Generally, an earthquake is divided into three stages: before, during, and after.
Know what to do in each stage.
Before
• Make a family earthquake plan. Prepare yourself and your home by
completing the activities on this checklist.
• Decide how family members will meet each-other after separation.
• Choose an out-of-area friend or relative, whom separated family members

can contact after the quake to report their whereabouts and condition.
• Know the safe location in each room: under sturdy tables, desks, or against
inside walls.
• Know the dangerous location: windows, mirrors, hanging objects, fireplaces
and tall, unsecured furniture.
• Conduct practice drills. Keep yourself in a safe location.
• Keep a list of emergency phone numbers.
• Learn how to shut off gas, water and electricity in case the lines are damaged.
• Fix water heaters and electrical appliances properly to prevent them from
falling and causing rupture of the pipeline. Fix the heavy furniture,
cupboards, hanging plants, heavy pictures or mirrors.
• Store flammable or dangerous liquids in lower shelves of cabinets.
• Maintain emergency food, water and other supplies, including a flashlight, a
portable battery-operated radio, extra batteries, medicines, first aid kit and
clothing.

During
If indoors, stay there and take cover under a table, desk or other sturdy
furniture. Without listening or reading, simply by looking at the following
self-explanatory photos, you can learn more than in a thousand words about
how to protect yourself during a major earthquake…
• Remain where you are, until shaking stops. Think about your plan of action
first, then move.
• Keep yourself away from windows

and glass doors.
• Lie down, kneel or sit near the
corners of a reasonably structured
interior wall, away from windows,
brick fireplaces, glass walls, etc
• Protect your head and body from

falling or flying objects.
• Know exit routes if you are in a
commercial building. Take cover and
don't move until the shaking stops.

If outside, get into an open area away from trees, buildings, walls and power lines.
• Lie down or squat down to maintain balance.

• Get to the best available shelter if there is no open area available.
• If driving, stop safely as soon as possible. Stay inside your vehicle until the
shaking stops.
• Do not stop your vehicle under
overpasses or bridges.
• Stay below window level in your
vehicle.
• Turn off the engine and turn on the
radio. Follow emergency instructions.
• Stay in the vehicle if power lines have
fallen across it. Do not touch metal.
Wait for help.
• If you have to leave your vehicle, move
to an open area quickly.

After
✓ Check for injuries. Render first aid. Do not move seriously injured victims
unless they are in immediate danger.
✓ Do not use the telephone immediately unless there is a serious injury, fire or
other emergency.
✓ Check for other hazards and control them (fire, chemical spills, toxic fumes
and possible collapse).
✓ Check utilities (water, gas, electric). If there is damage, turn the utility off at
the source.
✓ Check building for cracks and damage, including roof, chimneys, and
foundation.
✓ Check food and water supplies.
✓ Never use matches, lighters or candles inside.
✓ Turn on the radio and listen for emergency broadcasts/announcements,
news reports and instructions. Cooperate with public safety officials.
✓ Do not use your vehicle unless there is an emergency. Keep the streets clear
for emergency vehicles.
✓ If damage to building is suspected, set up your shelter area away from
damage.
✓ Work with your neighbors for a quick recovery. Stay calm and extend a
helping hand to others.
✓ Be prepared for aftershocks.
✓ Plan for evacuation if necessary. Leave written messages for other family
members or searching teams.
✓ Use gloves, wear heavy shoes, and have adequate and appropriate clothing
available.

Basic Disaster Supplies Kit

To assemble your kit, store items in airtight plastic bags and put your entire
disaster supplies kit in one or two easy-to-carry containers such as plastic bins or
a duffel bag.
A basic emergency supply kit could include the following recommended items:
✓ Water (one gallon per person per day for two weeks, for drinking and
sanitation)
✓ Snack /food, high in calories (at least two weeks’ supply of non-perishable
food); Preferably, canned and packaged foods and cooking utensils,
including a manual can opener.
✓ First aid supplies, medications, and essential hygiene items, such as soap,
toothpaste, and toilet paper. A list of prescriptions, copies of medical
insurance cards, doctors’ names and contact information and Medical
consent forms for dependents.
✓ Emergency lighting—light sticks and (or) a working flashlight with extra
batteries and light bulbs (hand-powered flashlights are also available).
✓ Spare eyeglasses, personal hygiene supplies, and sturdy shoes
✓ A hand-cranked or battery-operated radio (and spare batteries).
✓ Extra batteries
✓ Whistle (to signal for help)
✓ Items to protect you from the elements, such as warm clothing, sturdy shoes,
extra socks, blankets, and perhaps even a tent.
✓ Heavy-duty plastic bags for waste and to serve other uses, such as tarps and
rain ponchos.
✓ Working gloves and protective goggles and Dust mask (to help filtering
contaminated air)
✓ Plastic sheet and duct tape (to make shelter)
✓ Wet Tissues, garbage bags and plastic ties (for personal sanitation)
✓ Wrench or pliers (to turn off utilities)
✓ Local maps
✓ Cell phone with chargers and a backup battery
✓ Pet food and pet restraints.
✓ Copies of vital documents, such as insurance policies and personal
identification.
✓ Emergency cash.
✓ List of emergency contact phone numbers
✓ Comfort items, such as games, crayons, writing materials, and teddy bears
(If children in the house need to be evacuated).
NOTE: Replace perishable items like water, food, medications, and batteries
on a regular basis.
***********************************

LESSON - 04
LANDSLIDES
Objectives
Upon completion of the lesson, you will be able to know.
➢ Natural causes of landslide

➢ Human activities that produce landslide
➢ Do’s and don’ts- Before landslide, During landslide & After landslide
➢ Signs of impending landslide
Introduction
A landslide is the rapid movement of
soil mass, mud and/or rocks
downhill due to the gravitational
pull. Landslides are very common
and occur in a variety of forms. Land
may topple off in a big chunk, or slip
down in bits. landslides may occur
gradually, but often they occur
suddenly.
NATURAL CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES:
Heavy and/or prolonged rain: -
Heavy and/or prolonged rain can

cause landslide. The effect of gravity is
more prominent on a steep slope or on
a hilly area. When rain falls, water
enters or infiltrates into the top soil
which makes the soil heavier therefore, more vulnerable to the gravitational
pull. When soil absorbs enough water that it is capable of holding, it is said

to be saturated. When saturated the soil is heaviest and most susceptible to

the effects of gravity. When large areas of soil become saturated on steep
slopes, the gravitational pull causes the top layers of the soil to slide downhill,
therefore resulting in a landslide.
Tremors and Shakes: -
An Earthquake is a tremor or movement in

the Earth’s crust. They are deadly and
unpredictable natural disaster and are the
leading reason for landslides or rockfalls
occurring worldwide. Loose soil, rocks and
boulders can easily be dislodged from hilly
areas and move downhill when the violent
shaking of the ground transpires. Landslides
are more likely to take place when the
earthquake is of higher magnitude.
Human activities that produce landslides:
1. Deforestation
2. Quarrying/ Rock Mining
3. Bad agricultural practices such as slash and burn agriculture
(Jhoom Cultivation)
Deforestation is the removal or

cutting down of trees and other types of
vegetation from the land. The firm roots of
the trees help to keep the soil in place, even
when it absorbs water, thus diminishing
the effects that gravity has on the soil.
When these trees are removed the exposed
soil when saturated, is left defenseless
against the gravitational pull. Soil
movement takes place more easily and
rapidly resulting in deadly landslides.
Quarrying or rock mining refers to the cutting away or excavation of

hilly or mountainous areas so that rocks and minerals can be extracted
from the land. Quarrying results in the land being denuded of trees and
vegetation. Without trees to hold the soil in place, soil movement occurs
easily and rapidly. At times the quarrying process involves blasting of the
rocks which further loosens the soil/ rock strata.

DOs AND DON’Ts OF LANDSLIDE
Before Landslide:
1. A soil assessment for your property should be conducted. Then you

would be able to determine the soil composition and how susceptible
it would be to ground movement and if landslide is a possibility.
2. Find out whether the area in which you live is prone to landslides.
Landslides usually occur in the same areas, so if a landslide has
occurred in your area, it would mean that the chances of another
landslide occurring in the future are high.
3. If you live in a high-risk area an evacuation plan should be prepared.
4. Plant trees and other types of vegetation that would help to stabilize
soil on the slopes of your property.
5. Look for changes to your surroundings that may signal the likelihood
of landslide, such as leaning fences or walls or cracks developing in
the house walls/ floor.
6. When driving along routes on hilly areas, drive with your windows
down and without music. This should be done so that you would
hear any unusual sounds such as the rumbling of rocks or the
cracking of trees, which are warning signs of the possibility of a
landslide.
7. Also, while driving along those areas, if you see an abnormal number
of leaves falling from trees, it could be the signal that a landslide is
about to occur.
During landslide:
1. If you are inside of a building, stay inside; don’t leave your home until
it is safe to do so.
2. If outdoors, try to get to the nearest high ground in the direction away
from the path of the landslide.
3. If you are near a river, be prepared to leave the area immediately if
there are signs that a landslide has occurred upstream as the
landslides may cause flashfloods. Don’t try to take your belongings,
just leave the area as fast as possible.
4. If driving, remain alert and look out for collapsed pavements, mud
and fallen rocks.
After Landslide:
1. Don’t go into or return to an area that just experienced a landslide

since there may be additional landslides. Return to the area only if it
is safe to do so.

2. Flooding may occur after a landslide if the rubble from the landslide
falls into a large mass of water in the streams/ lakes upstream.
3. Provide assistance to neighbours, children and the elderly.
4. Check your property for any structural damage.
5. Check for any damaged utility lines or ruptured water mains. Report
any damage that may have occurred to the relevant agency.
6. Replant the area immediately since soil erosion could be further
caused by loss of ground cover.
SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING LANDSLIDE:
1. Doors or windows stick or jam for

the first time;
2. New cracks appear in plaster, tile,
brick or foundations;
3. Outside walls or stairs begin
pulling away from the building;
4. Slowly developing, widening cracks
appear on the ground or on paved
areas such as streets or driveways;
5. Underground utility lines break;
6. Bulging ground appears at the base
of a slope;
7. Ground water seeps to the surface in new locations;
8. Fences, retaining walls, utility poles or trees tilt or move;
9. You hear a faint rumbling sound that increases in volume as the
landslide nears. The ground moves downward in one specific
direction under your feet.
10. If you are driving along a road, drive with your windows down and
with no music; this is done so that any unusual loud sounds of an
impending landslide could be heard.
11. Also look out for an unusual number of leaves from trees falling as
this could be an indication that a landslide is about to occur.
********************************

LESSON - 05
FLOOD
Objectives
➢ Natural causes of Floods.

➢ Types of floods.
➢ Safety precautions from flood.
➢ Floating Aids & Improvised rafts.
➢ Dos and don’ts during flood
➢ Life saving techniques from flood water
Introduction:
Flood is an overflow of water over a
large area that temporarily submerges
the landmass. Many rivers that flow
over flat land move within broad
floodplains. When heavy rainfall or
melting snow causes the river to swell
it overflows its banks. A vast expanse
of shallow water can rapidly cover the
adjacent floodplain and submerge the
surrounding areas. If there are human
or animal habitations located inside
the floodplain, the seasonal variations
in the water level will cause
destruction of property and loss of life
in that particular area.
In India disasters strike throughout the year but the floods cause major
damages during the monsoons every year. Most of the floods are usually
associated with tropical storms or depressions, active monsoon conditions and
break monsoon situations.

23 of the 35 states and union territories in the country are subject to

floods and 40 million hectares of land, roughly one-eighth of the country’s
geographical area, is prone to floods. However, the most vulnerable states of India
are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Punjab.
A) Types of flood: -
i. Aerial (Rainfall related) floods:

Due to continuous rainfall over a period of time, floods can occur on flat or
low-lying areas when the ground is saturated and water cannot runoff quickly
enough over the land either. In higher reaches in the mountains where the water
runoff is rapid, it usually results in flashfloods making the water overflow from the
flood plain which in turn inundate the surrounding low-lying areas and cause heavy
loss of both life and property. Floods can also occur if water falls on an impermeable
surface where the land lacks the seepage capability therefore low retention
capability.
ii. Riverine floods:

River flows may rise to flood levels at different rates from a few minutes to
several weeks, depending on the type of river and the source of the increased flow.
Slow rising floods most commonly occur in large rivers with large catchment areas
with broad floodplains whereas there are instances of flash floods in mountainous
areas with narrow valleys.
iii. Estuarine and coastal floods:

Flooding in estuaries is commonly caused by a combination of sea tides
and rainfall caused by winds and low atmospheric pressure. At times the water level
in the channels rises as there is a reverse river flow during high tides. Coastal
flooding can also be caused by the Tsunamis in the Sea.
iv. Catastrophic floods: -

Catastrophic flooding is generally associated with major infrastructure
failures such as the collapse of a dam/glacial lake outburst. They may also be
caused by damage to reservoirs or embankments sustained in an earthquake or
volcanic eruption.
B) Effects of Flooding:
Primary effects:

The primary effects of flooding include loss of life, damage to buildings and
other structures including bridges, sewerage systems, transport systems and
canals. Severe infrastructure damage includes disruption of power generation and
power transmission due to systemic failure.
Damage to road and transport infrastructure makes it difficult to mobilize

aid (like emergency health treatment, water and food supply) to the affected
population. A flood submerges farm land, making the land uncultivable and doesn’t
allow crops being planted or harvested.
Secondary effects:
Economic hardship is caused as there is disruption of the livelihoods. It takes
time to rebuild the damaged structures and systems which involves high costs.
Food shortages leading to price increase or a temporary decline in tourism are
common aftereffects of severe flooding.

C) Tropical cyclones:
Tropical cyclones generally form over the open seas and strike with
destructive power. The aftereffects of cyclones on the local weather may continue
for around two weeks or more; this often leads to flooding in the affected areas.
Because of its violent nature and its impact over an extensive area, a tropical
cyclone is often described as one of the most devastating of all-natural phenomena.
D) Safety precautions from flood:
PREPAREDNESS AGAINST FLOOD: -
✓ Do not construct houses etc. in the floodplain of a river.

✓ Raised community shelters, evacuation routes and other infrastructures like
tube wells and toilets above the flood level make it accessible and usable
during flood situation.
✓ Disseminate flood awareness in the Community through meetings and
training.
✓ Develop mitigation measures such as
constructing ring bunds (Protective
walls) around the village.
✓ Enough early warning systems even at
the Community level to warn about the
rising water levels.
✓ Develop Community Teams to help
others in time of floods.
BEFORE FLOOD
To prepare for a flood you should: -

 Always keep an emergency kit along with enough supplies of reserve food
and water ready.
 Knowledge about the alarm signals is a must. Knowledge about Special
evacuation zones and routes during the emergency crises is also a
prerequisite.
 Avoid living in an area at risk from flooding, keep up to date with the
protective measures and keep in mind the past flood scenarios like level,
speed of water etc.
 Switch off utilities (electricity, gas etc.) Implement immediate protective
measures.
 Keep calm, do not panic. Issue warning to the neighbors and give priority to
helping the handicapped, children and elderly immediately.

 Keep informed of the danger by listening to the radio.

 Earmark only those items which are of absolute necessity.
DURING FLOOD: -
 Take emergency kit (First Aid, Torch light flood, water, blanket and transistor
and spare batteries) with you.
 Once you have reached the Shelter, try to keep calm and be together with
the family members
 On receiving flood warning, immediately move to higher and safer area such
as community shelters/ raised platforms.
 Always boil water or put water purifying tablets before drinking it.
 Stay updated on flood situation at regular intervals through battery operated
radio or Ham radio.
 Stay away from the electrical poles and wires.
 Do not cross flooded areas on foot or vehicles.
 Do not allow children to go near flood water or even walk as it makes them
vulnerable to snakebites and health problems.
 If traveling in the vehicle, immediately, turn around and move to safer place.
 Do not spread rumors.
AFTER FLOOD: -
✓ Help the injured. Bring your first aid kit.

✓ Stay away from designated disaster areas unless authorities ask for
volunteers
✓ Listen to the radio and follow the instructions of those in charge of the rescue
operations.
✓ Be careful before entering your home. Check the strength of walls, floor,
broken windowpanes and other dangerous debris).
✓ If drinking water has been contaminated, use bottled water or boil the
contaminated water. Bring water to a rolling boil for at least one minute. At
altitudes above 5,000 feet (1,000 meters), boil water for three minutes.
✓ Wear rubber boots when the water level is higher above the floor.
✓ Remove the remaining mud and earth and discard contaminated furniture,
domestic appliances, clothes and beddings.
✓ Consider your family's health and safety needs:
o Wash hands frequently with soap and clean water if you come in
contact with floodwaters.
o Throw away food that has come in contact with floodwaters.
o Listen for news reports to learn whether the community's water supply
is safe to drink.

o Listen to news reports for information about where to get assistance

for housing, clothing and food.
o Seek necessary medical care at the nearest medical facility.
EMERGENCY ITEMS
✓ Radio and Torch with battery.
✓ Candle and water proof match box.
✓ Clean drinking water and eatables.
✓ Medicines for common cold, dysentery, headaches, fever.
✓ Good quality shoes and rubber gloves.
✓ Waterproof bag for camping, cloths and valuables.
✓ Plastic bucket or can for drinking water. Water purification tablets.
✓ Emergencies telephone numbers and addresses.
Floating aids/Improvised Rafts:
Floods always bring unforeseen situations and create complicated problems.

For safer evacuation boats etc. may not be readily available. Improvised rafts should
be made out of locally available material. So, we should have knowledge of making
and using improvised raft.

Some of the following types of improvised rafts used:
1. Kerosene Tin Raft:-
This is made out of empty Kerosene Jerricans

and small pieces of bamboo, lashed together. This can
help transport casualties and supplies.
2. The Charpoy Raft: -
A Wooden framed Charpoy is wrapped up in

tarpaulin and lashed firmly. This can transport two
sitting causalities.
3. Bamboo Raft: -
Ordinary bamboo poles lashed together with each other

can make a bamboo raft.
4. Barrel Raft: -
It is made of one or two Barrels lashed together with

bamboo to make raft.
5. Banana Tree Raft: - It is made of developed banana

trees cut to suitable pieces and joined together by
bamboo to make a raft.

6. Tube Raft: - It is made of Air tight tube. It can be used

as swimming aid.
7. Water Bottle Raft: - It is made of empty 01 ltr water

bottle with sealed mouths. 10 to 12 bottles are lashed
together to make a life jacket.
8. Thermocol Life Jacket: - It is made of thermocol

and cloth. It can help a person in swimming during
flood.
4. Life Saving Techniques: -
(i) Dry Rescue: -
a) Reach Method: -It is most effective and safe for the rescuer, should always
be considered first in any emergency. Lie down with chest on the ground
to increase stability and try to reach closer to drowning person. You can
used rope or stick to increase your reach.

b) Throw Method: - In this method buoyant aids like tube etc. is used to
rescue drowning person. Lifebuoys are thrown towards a drowning person
for rescue.
c) Wade (Walk in the water): - In this method rescuer goes nearer to the
person in distress and enable a reach or throw rescue to be attempted.
However, the flow or the current must be evaluated first, before attempting
such rescue, else the rescuers may be swept away by the water currents.
(ii) Wet Rescue

1. Contact rescue
2. Wrist Tow.
3. Support Tow.
4. Armpit Tow.
5. Head Tow.
6. Vice Grip Tow.
Always remember the drowning person may draw the rescuer in and both may
drown, so if not trained to rescue by the following methods, do not try them.

Contact Rescue Wrist Tow
Support Tow Armpit Tow
Head Tow Vice Grip Tow
Points to remember while rescuing drowning person:

✓ Throw a rope, stick to drowning person.
✓ Try to rescue by swimming, only if trained to rescue.
✓ Establish a clear airway after bringing the victim out of water.
✓ Mouth to mouth resuscitation may be required.
✓ Position person in recovery position.
✓ Remove wet cloth.
✓ Keep the patient warm.
✓ Dispatch to nearest hospital.
********************

LESSON - 06
TSUNAMI
Objectives
➢ Describe of Tsunami.
➢ Causes of tsunami.
➢ What happens when it hits land?
➢ Warnings and predictions of Tsunami.
➢ What to do before, during & after Tsunami.
Introduction:
Tsunami or 'harbour wave', is a series of waves in a water body caused by

the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including
detonations, landslides, glacier calving, meteorite impacts and other disturbances)
above or below water, all have the potential to generate a tsunami. Unlike normal
ocean waves, which are generated by wind or tides, which in turn are generated by
the gravitational pull of the Moon and the sun, a tsunami is generated by the
displacement of water.

Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea

waves because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breaking
waves, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide. Tsunamis
generally consist of a series of waves, with periods ranging from minutes to hours,
arriving in a so-called " wave train".
Wave heights of tens of meters can be generated by large events. Although
the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be
enormous, and they can affect entire ocean basins. The 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history, with at least
2,30,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean.
Causes:
These awe-inspiring waves are typically caused by large, undersea
earthquake at tectonic plate boundaries. When the ocean floor at a plate boundary
rises or falls suddenly, it displaces the water above it and launches the rolling
waves that will become a tsunami.
Most tsunamis (about 80 percent) occur within the Pacific Ocean’s “Ring of
Fire,” a geologically active area where tectonic shifts make volcanoes and
earthquakes common. Tsunamis may also be caused by underwater landslides or
volcanic eruptions. They may even be launched by the impact of a large meteorite
plunging into an ocean.
Tsunamis race across the sea at up to 500 miles (805 kilometers) an hour—
about as fast as a jet airplane. At that pace, they can cross the entire expanse of
the Pacific Ocean in less than a day. And their long wavelengths mean they lose
very little energy along the way.
What happens when it hits land?
Sometimes a tsunami’s trough, the lowest point beneath the wave’s crest
reaches shore first. When it does, it produces a vacuum effect that sucks coastal
water seaward and exposes harbor and sea floors. This retreating of sea water is
an important warning sign of an impending tsunami, because the wave’s crest and
its underlying enormous volume of water will typically hit the shore later.
Recognizing this phenomenon can save lives.
A tsunami is usually composed of a series of waves, called a wave train, so

its destructive force may be compounded as successive waves reach the shore.
Tsunamis do not appear on shore as massive breaking waves but instead resemble
a quickly surging tide that inundates the coastal areas.

People experiencing a tsunami should remember that the danger may not
have passed with the first wave and should await official word that it is safe to
return to vulnerable locations. The best defense against any tsunami is early
warning that allows people to seek higher ground.
Warnings and Predictions
The Pacific Tsunami Warning System, a coalition of 26 nations headquartered in

Hawaii, maintains a web of seismic equipment and water level gauges to identify
tsunamis at sea. Similarly, the INCOIS (Indian National Center for Ocean
Information Services) maintains a network of Ocean Observation systems (OON)
to protect coastal areas of the country by issuing warnings about the Storm Surges
and High waves to the fishermen and coastal population at large.

A tsunami cannot be precisely predicted, even if the magnitude and location

of an earthquake is known. Geologists, Oceanographers and Seismologists analyze
each earthquake and based on many factors, may or may not issue a tsunami
warning. However, there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and
automated systems can provide warnings in time, immediately after an earthquake
to save lives. One of the most successful systems uses bottom pressure sensors,
attached to buoys, which constantly monitor the pressure of the overlying water
column.
Regions with a high tsunami risk typically use tsunami warning systems to
warn the population before the wave reaches land. Computer models can predict
tsunami arrival, usually within minutes of the arrival time. Bottom pressure
sensors can relay information in real time. Based on these pressure readings and
other seismic information and the seafloor's shape (bathymetry) and coastal
topography, the models estimate the amplitude and surge height of the
approaching tsunami.
Response in a Tsunami situation: General Dos and Don’ts

What to do: Before a Tsunami
The following are things you can do to protect yourself, your family and your
property from the effects of a tsunami:
▪ To begin preparing, you should build an emergency kit and make a family
communications plan.
▪ Know the height of your street above sea level and the distance of your street
from the coast or other high-risk waters. Evacuation orders may be based on
these numbers.
▪ If you are a tourist, familiarize yourself with local tsunami evacuation
protocols. You may be able to safely evacuate to the third floor and higher in
reinforced concrete hotel structures.
▪ If an earthquake occurs and you are in a coastal area, turn on your radio to
learn if there is a tsunami warning.
▪ Know your community's warning systems and disaster plans, including
evacuation routes.
▪ If the school evacuation plan requires you to pick your children up from
school or from another location. Be aware telephone lines during a tsunami
watch or warning may be overloaded and routes to and from schools may be
jammed.
▪ Talk to everyone in your household about what to do if a tsunami occurs.
Create and practice an evacuation plan for your family. Familiarity may save
your life. Be able to follow your escape route at night and during inclement
weather. You should be able to reach your safe location on foot within 15
minutes. Practicing your plan makes the appropriate response more of a
reaction, requiring less thinking during an actual emergency.
What to do: During a Tsunami
▪ Follow the evacuation order issued by authorities and evacuate immediately.

Take your animals with you.
▪ Move inland to higher ground immediately. Pick areas 100 feet (30 meters)
above sea level or go as far as 2 miles (3 kilometers) inland, away from the
coastline. If you cannot get this high or far, go as high or far as you can.
Every foot inland or upward may make a difference.
▪ Stay away from the beach. Never go down to the beach to watch a tsunami
come in. If you can see the wave you are too close to escape it. CAUTION - If
there is noticeable recession in water away from the shoreline this is nature's
tsunami warning and it should be heeded. You should move away
immediately.
▪ Save yourself - not your possessions.

▪ Remember to help your neighbors who may require special assistance -

infants, elderly people, and individuals with special needs.
What to do: After a Tsunami
▪ Return home only after local officials tell you it is safe. A tsunami is a series
of waves that may continue for hours. Do not assume that after one wave the
danger is over. The next wave may be larger than the first one.
▪ Avoid disaster areas. Your presence might interfere with emergency response
operations and put you at further risk from the residual effects of floods.
▪ Stay away from debris in the water; it may pose a safety hazard to people or
pets.
▪ Check yourself for injuries and get first aid as needed before helping injured
or trapped persons.
▪ If someone needs to be rescued, call professionals with the right equipment
to help. Many people have been killed or injured trying to rescue others.
▪ Help people who require special assistance-infants, elderly people, those
without transportation, people with special needs and large families who may
need additional help in an emergency situation.
▪ Continue using Radio or tuning to a Coast Guard station or a local radio or
television station for the latest updates.
▪ Stay out of any building that has water around it. Tsunami water can cause
floors to crack or walls to collapse. Examine walls, floors, doors, staircases,
and windows to make sure that the building is not in danger of collapsing.
Inspect foundations for cracks or other damage.
▪ To avoid injury, wear protective clothing and be cautious when cleaning up.
Wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and sturdy shoes. The most common
injury following a disaster is lacerative injuries in the feet.
▪ The Tsunami may have damaged roads, bridges, or other places that may be
unsafe.
▪ Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently
overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be kept free for emergency
calls to get through.
▪ Look for fire hazards. Under the earthquake action there may be broken or
leaking gas lines, and under the tsunami flooded electrical circuits, or
submerged furnaces or electrical appliances. Flammable or explosive
materials may have come from upstream. Fire is the most frequent hazard
following floods.
▪ Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or hear a blowing or hissing noise, open
a window and get everyone outside quickly. Turn off the gas using the outside
main valve if you can, and call the gas company from a neighbour’s home. If

you turn off the gas for any reason, it must be turned back on by a
professional.
▪ Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings.
Battery-powered lighting is the safest and easiest to use, and it does not
present a fire hazard for the user, occupants, or building. DO NOT USE
CANDLES.
▪ Look for electrical system damage. If you see sparks or broken or frayed
wires, or if you smell burning insulation, turn off the electricity at the main
fuse box or circuit breaker. If you have to step in water to get to the fuse box
or circuit breaker, call an electrician first for advice. Electrical equipment
should be checked and dried before being returned to service.
▪ Check for damage to sewage and water lines. If you suspect sewage lines are
damaged under the quake, avoid using the toilets and call a plumber.
▪ If water pipes are damaged, contact the water company and avoid using
water from the tap. You can obtain safe water from undamaged water heaters
or by melting ice cubes that were made before the tsunami hit. Turn off the
main water valve before draining water from these sources. Use tap water
only if local health officials advise it is safe.
▪ Watch out for wild animals, especially poisonous snakes that may have come
into buildings with the water. Use a stick to poke through debris. Tsunami
floodwater flushes snakes and animals out of their homes.
▪ Take pictures of the damage, both of the building and its contents, for
insurance claims. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.
▪ Shovel mud before it solidifies.
▪ Check food supplies.
▪ Any food that has come in contact with floodwater may be contaminated and
should be thrown out.
▪ Expect aftershocks. If the earthquake is of large magnitude (magnitude 8 to
9+ on the Richter scale) with its epicentre nearby, some aftershocks could be
as large as magnitude 7+ and capable of generating another tsunami.
▪ Watch your animals closely. Keep all your animals under your direct control.
Hazardous materials abound in flooded areas. Your pets may be able to
escape from your home or through a broken fence. Pets may become
disoriented, particularly because flooding usually affects scent markers that
normally allow them to find their homes. The behaviour of pets may change
dramatically after any disruption, becoming aggressive or defensive, so be
aware of their well-being and take measures to protect them from hazards,
including displaced wild animals, and to ensure the safety of other people
and animals.

What volunteers will do?
Volunteer projects are as varied as you might imagine. Generally, volunteer

experiences fall into four main arenas:
▪ Community Development - placements might be in projects like, building

a school, setting up a water treatment facility, Setting up Tsunami Shelters,
cleaning the streets or planting trees.
▪ Education - teacher placement or acting as a teaching assistant in a local
school or an adult education program.
▪ Eco-Environmental work- placements might be in wildlife reserves or
national parks, monitoring endangered species, or working in a reforestation
project.
▪ Social Welfare- working with under-privileged children, women's
cooperative, or in a hospital or orphanage.
▪ Marshalling of population to the shelters or safe areas- Traffic
management, Warning dissemination, Maintaining essential supplies to the
shelters etc.
**********************************

LESSON - 07
CYCLONE
Objectives
➢ What is Cyclone.
➢ Causes of Cyclone.
➢ What happens on landfall.
➢ Warnings and Predictions of Cyclone.
➢ DOs and DON’Ts in Cyclone.
CYCLONE
It is a largescale air mass that rotates

around a strong centre of low atmospheric
pressure counter clockwise in the Northern
hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
hemisphere as viewed from the above.
Cyclones can be the most intense storms
on Earth. The swirling air rises and cools,
creating clouds and precipitation.
There are two types of cyclones:

middle latitude (mid-latitude) cyclones and
tropical cyclones. Mid-latitude cyclones are
the main cause of winter storms in the
middle latitudes. Tropical cyclones are also
known as hurricanes.
Tropical cyclones have many names.

They are called hurricanes in the North
Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans,
typhoons in the western Pacific Ocean, tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean, and
Willi Willi’s in the waters near Australia.
An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone. An anticyclone’s winds rotate

clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere around a center of high pressure. Air comes

in from above and sinks to the ground. High pressure centres generally have fair
weather.
On average around 2 to 4 tropical cyclones impact India every year, while

most of these tropical cyclones impact the east coast of Indian states of West
Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
The West Coast of India is less prone to cyclones with one cyclone out of 2 to
4 hits the west coast with majority of them attacking the state of Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Goa and Kerala.
CAUSES OF CYCLONES
The warm seas create a large humid air mass. The warm air rises and forms
a low-pressure cell, known as a tropical depression. Thunderstorms materialize
around the tropical depression. If the temperature reaches or exceeds 28 degrees
C (82 degrees F) the air begins to rotate around the low pressure (counter-clockwise
in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere).
As the air rises, water vapor condenses, releasing energy from latent heat. If
wind shear is low, the storm builds into a hurricane within two to three days.
Hurricanes are huge with high winds. The exception is the relatively calm eye of
the storm (Centre of the storm) where air is rising upward. Rainfall can be as high
as 2.5 cm (1″) per hour, resulting in about 20 billion metric tons of water released
daily in a hurricane. The release of latent heat generates enormous amounts of
energy. Hurricanes can also generate tornadoes.
Hurricanes may cover 800 km (500 miles) in one day. Damage from
hurricanes comes from the high winds, rainfall, and storm surge. Storm surge
occurs as the storm’s low pressure centre comes onto land, causing the sea level
to rise unusually high. A storm surge is often made worse by the hurricane’s high
winds blowing seawater across the ocean onto the shoreline. Flooding can be
devastating, especially along low-lying coastlines.
A Landfall is the intersection of the centre of a tropical cyclone with a

coastline. In other words, landfall is when the eye of the cyclone moves to land after
being on the water. This does not mean that cyclone has ‘hit the land’ or arrived.
The cyclone arrives hours before the landfall bringing rainfall and dust storms.
A landfall often carries heavy winds, lashing rains, increasing sea level that
can pose threat to people living in the neighbouring region.

Hurricane or cyclone can start losing its energy and speed after hitting the
land as they don’t get energy from the warm ocean water. However, that doesn't
happen so quickly.
Necessary actions:
The actions that need to be taken in the event of a cyclone threat can broadly be
divided into:
• Immediately before the cyclone season
• When cyclone alerts and warnings are communicated
• When evacuations are advised
• When the cyclone has crossed the coast
BEFORE THE CYCLONE SEASON:
• Check the house; secure loose tiles and carry out repairs of doors and
windows
• Remove dead branches or dying trees close to the house; anchor removable
objects such as lumber piles, loose tin sheets, loose bricks, garbage cans,
sign-boards etc. which can fly in strong winds
• Keep some wooden boards ready so that glass windows can be covered, if
required
• Keep a hurricane lantern filled with kerosene, battery operated torches and
enough dry cells
• Demolish dilapidated buildings
• Keep some extra batteries for transistors
• Keep some dry non-perishable food ready for use in emergency
WHEN CYCLONE ALERTS AND WARNINGS ARE COMMUNICATED:

• Listen to the radio (All India Radio stations give weather warnings).
• Keep monitoring the warnings. This will help you prepare for a cyclone
emergency.
• Pass the information to others.
• Ignore rumours and do not spread them; this will help to avoid panic
situations.
• Believe in the official information
• When a cyclone alert has been given for your area, continue normal working
but stay alert to the radio warnings.
• When your area is under cyclone warning get away from low-lying beaches
or other low-lying areas close to the coast
• Leave early before your way to high ground or shelter gets flooded
• Do not delay and run the risk of being marooned

• If your house is securely built on high ground, take shelter in the safe part
of the house. However, if asked to evacuate do not hesitate to leave the place.
• Board up glass windows or put storm shutters in place.
• Provide strong suitable support for outside doors.
• If you do not have wooden boards handy, paste paper strips on glasses to
prevent splinters. However, this may not avoid breaking windows.
• Get extra food, which can be eaten without cooking. Store extra drinking
water in suitably covered vessels.
• If you have to evacuate the house move your valuable articles to upper floors
to minimize flood damage.
• Ensure that your hurricane lantern, torches or other emergency lights are in
working condition and keep them handy.
• Small and loose things, which can fly in strong winds, should be stored safely
in a room.
• Be sure that a window and door can be opened only on the side opposite to
the one facing the wind.
• Make provision for children and adults requiring special diet.
• If the centre of the cyclone is passing directly over your house there will be a
lull in the wind and rain lasting for half an hour or so. During this time do
not go out; because immediately after that, storm will resume.
• Switch off the electrical mains in your house.
• Remain calm.
WHEN EVACUATION IS ORDERED:

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• Pack essentials for yourself and your family to last a few days. These should
include medicines, special food for babies and children or elders.
• Head for the proper shelter or evacuation points indicated for your area.
• Do not worry about your property
• At the shelter follow instructions of the person in charge.
• Remain in the shelter until you are informed to leave
POST-CYCLONE MEASURES:
• You should remain in the shelter until informed that you can return to your
home.
• You must get inoculated against diseases immediately.
• Strictly avoid any loose and dangling wires from lamp posts.
• Drive only if necessary.
• Clear debris from your premises immediately.
• Report the correct losses to appropriate authorities.

Four Stage Warning:

The cyclone warnings are issued to state government officials in four stages.
The First Stage warning known as "PRE-CYCLONE WATCH" issued 72 hours in
advance contains early warning about the development of a cyclonic disturbance
in the Indian Ocean. The cyclonic Disturbance intensifies into a tropical cyclone
and the coastal belt experience adverse weather. This early warning bulletin is
issued by the IMD and is addressed to the Senior officers of the Government of
India and the Chief Secretaries of concerned maritime states.
Different colour codes as mentioned below are used for different stages of the
cyclone warning bulletins as desired by the National Disaster Management
Authority.
Stage of warning Color code
Cyclone Alert
Yellow
Cyclone Warning Orange
Post landfall out look Red
Coastal Bulletins for Indian coastal areas covering up to 75 km from the

coastline and sea area bulletins for the sea areas beyond 75 km. The special
warnings are issued for fishermen four times a day in normal weather and once in
every three hours in case of disturbed weather.
The general public, the coastal residents and fishermen are warned through
State Government officials and broadcast of warnings through All India Radio and
National Television (Doordarshan) telecast programmes.
***************************************

LESSON -08
CLOUDBURST
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to know.
➢ Why and how does it happen?

➢ Terrifying effect of cloudburst
➢ Preventive & precautionary measures of cloudburst
➢ Climate change cause cloudburst
➢ Cloudburst Mitigation and Reason
➢ Do’s and don’ts of cloudburst
Introduction
Cloudburst is a natural and

common phenomenon in the Himalayas,
especially in Garhwal and Kumaon
region of Uttarakhand. Cloudburst and
associated disasters affect thousands of
people every year and cause loss of life,
property, livelihood and environment.
A sudden, downpour over limited

area constitutes a cloudburst if it rains
over a 100 mm in an hour concentrated
in an area just a few square kilometers. They are called cloudbursts
because we earlier believed that clouds were a solid mass of water that
burst over an area.

WHY AND HOW DOES IT HAPPEN

1. Cloudbursts occur because the warm air current from the ground
below the clouds rushes up and carries the moisture up with it.
2. The rain fails to fall down in a steady shower. This results in
excessive condensation in the clouds as new drops form and old
drops are pushed back into it by the updraft. Then the air current
slows down and the clouds can't hold the rain drops anymore.
3. The resulting violent downpour can dump as much as 70,000
tonnes of water over an acre of land.
4. In India, a cloudburst mostly occurs in the mountains where the low
monsoon clouds are stopped by the high mountains. But it may also
happen elsewhere.
CLOUDBURST INCIDENT
Cloudburst incidents over many areas of Himalaya often go
unnoticed due to the absence of meteorological observatories. Many a
times these come to notice only when these are accompanied by losses
and casualties. In the absence of losses these can only be identified on
the basis of inundation occurring along streams. The drainages and the
streams have been observed to be overwhelmed by debris flow during
these incidents. Slope failures and bank erosion are common during this
phenomenon which may result in sedimentation in the open areas and
create flood condition in the water channels.
TERRIFYING EFFECTS OF THE CLOUDBURST

1. Flash floods
2. Road closures
3. Major energy outage
4. Crops wipeout
5. Landslides
6. Accidents
7. Drowning
8. Damage to property
9. Death of the livestock
10. Immense pressure on the nearby dams

PREVENTIVE & PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES OF CLOUDBURST
Preventive measures of cloudburst:

There is no way you could
prevent this, but you can be
warned to evacuate to the safer
higher areas. Cloudburst can
cause flash floods in an instant
without people realizing the
speed at which it could happen.
The water and associated mass of
rubble would be so fast that it
cannot give you much time to
think and take necessary action.
Climate change cause cloudburst

Climate change has also been linked to the cloudburst just as any other
natural disaster. The intensity and frequency of these disasters have gone
up. Incidents of cloudburst in Jammu Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand are becoming more frequent.
Cloudburst Mitigation
✓ Always construct houses at height away from the water channels,
don’t fall for the river view.
✓ Even in areas where the slopes are gentle, try to make out the natural
flow of water and choose a site for construction which is significantly
away from the lowest point.
✓ Cloudburst in the upper reaches can trigger the flashfloods along the
water channels. Therefore, anyone venturing near the rivers in the
mountainous area must be alert for any changes in the water colour
and flow.
✓ Mountain ridges are more prone to landslides triggered due to
cloudburst.
✓ Water level of the river increases quickly the nearby houses.

DOs & DON’Ts OF CLOUD BURST IS ALMOST SAME AS FLOOD
Dos
• Move all inhabitants and pets to safe locations.
• Always keep an area/ shelter at suitable height marked for
evacuation in case of warning for very heavy rainfall.
• Be alert for any rumbling sound heard coming from the mountain
side especially when the area is witnessing heavy rainfall.
• Use a radio and local media for news updates.
• Help neighbors if possible.
• Sturdy work boots and gloves can help.
• Strong ropes and a well-equipped First Aid Kit can greatly enhance
rescue efforts.
• Always carry Emergency kit with sufficient food supplies while
evacuating to higher areas.
Don’ts
• Don’t wait till last moment for evacuation.
• Don’t move directly towards the valley downwards.
• Don’t let your urge for curiosity overtake your safety.
• Evacuate immediately and don’t wait to salvage the belongings.
• Don’t eat or drink anything exposed, they are likely to be
contaminated.
• Don’t use potentially contaminated water for food preparations.
• Don’t leave doors and windows unlocked when leaving your property
due to high incidences of looting.
**********************

LESSON -09
THUNDERING & LIGHTNING
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to know…
• Lightning vs thundering/thunderstorm
• Facts About thunderstorm
• What to do before thunderstorm
• What to do during & after thundering/thunderstorm.
• Protection from a thundering/thunderstorm or Lightning?
• Lightning safety tips inside/outside the home.
INTRODUCTION
Thunderstorm is a violent short-lived
weather disturbance that is almost
always associated with lightning,
thunder, dense clouds, heavy rain or
hail, and strong gusty winds.
Thunderstorms arise when layers of
warm, moist air rise in a large, swift
updraft to cooler regions of the
atmosphere. Then the moisture
contained in the updraft condenses to
form towering cumulonimbus clouds
and, eventually, precipitation. Columns of cooled air then sink earthward, striking
the ground with strong downdrafts and horizontal winds. At the same time,
electrical charges accumulate on cloud particles (water droplets and ice). Lightning
discharges occur when the accumulated electric charge becomes sufficiently large.
Lightning heats the air it passes through so intensely and quickly that shock waves
are produced; these shock waves are heard as claps and rolls of thunder. On
occasion, severe thunderstorms are accompanied by swirling whirlpools of air that
become concentrated and powerful enough to form tornadoes.

Lightning vs thundering/thunderstorm
As a thundering
/thunderstorm grows, electrical
charges build up within the cloud.
The ground below is oppositely
charged. The attraction between
positive and negative charges quickly
grows strong enough to overcome the
air's resistance to electrical flow. The
downward flow of electrical charge
meets the opposite charge of the
ground at 15 to 50 meters above
ground level which results in a
blinding bright flash of lightning.
When a streak of lightning flashes across the sky, you often hear a crack
of thunder several seconds later. We hear thunder because lightning heats the
air to more than 43,000 degrees, causing the air to quickly expand. The air then
quickly cools after the flash, which causes it to contract. This quick expansion
and contraction of air around the lightning starts air molecules moving back and
forth, making sound waves, which we hear as thunder.
Layers of warm and cool air bend sound waves; sometimes keeping you
from hearing thunder that created only a few miles from you and at other times
allowing you to hear far-away thunder. Thunder rumbles because we hear sound
waves from different parts of a jagged lightning stroke. Thunder from the top of
the stroke takes longer to reach us than thunder created near the ground.
Facts About Thundering/thunderstorms

✓ They may occur singly, in clusters, or in lines.
✓ Thundering/thunderstorm typically produce heavy rain for a brief period,
anywhere from 30 minutes to an hour.
✓ Warm, humid conditions are highly favorable for
thundering/thunderstorm development.
✓ About 10 percent of thundering/thunderstorm are classified as severe—
one that produces hail at least three-quarters of an inch in diameter, has
winds of about 58 miles per hour or higher.
Avoid the following:
• Natural lightning conductors such as a tall, isolated tree in an open area.
• Hilltops, open fields, the beach, or a boat on the water.

• Isolated sheds or other small structures in open areas.

• Anything metal—tractors, farm equipment, motorcycles, golf carts, golf
clubs, and bicycles.
What to Do During Thundering/thunderstorm
If you are: Then:

In a forest Seek shelter in a low area under a thick growth of small
trees.
In an open area Go to a low place such as a ravine or valley. Be alert for
flash floods.
On open water Approach the land and find shelter immediately.
Anywhere you feel your Squat low to the ground on the balls of your feet (On
hair stand on end (which your toes). Place your hands over your ears and your
indicates that lightning head between your knees. Make yourself the smallest
is about to strike) target possible and minimize your contact to the ground.
DO NOT lie flat on the ground.
OUTDOOR SAFETY TIPS
The best defense is to avoid

lightning. Here are some
outdoor safety tips that can help
you avoid being struck:
Dos
• Be aware: - Check the
weather forecast before
participating in outdoor
activities. If the forecast
calls for thunderstorms,
postpone your trip or
activity, or make sure
adequate safe shelter is
readily available.

• Go indoors
Remember the phrase, “When thunder roars, go indoors.” Find a safe,
enclosed shelter when you hear thunder. Safe shelters include homes,
offices, shopping centers, and hard-top vehicles with the windows rolled
up.
• Seek shelter immediately even if caught out in the open
If you are caught in an open area, act quickly to find adequate

shelter.
• The most important action is to remove yourself from danger. Crouching
or getting low to the ground can reduce your chances of being struck, but
does not remove you from danger.
• Remove dead or rotting trees and branches that could fall and cause injury
or damage during a severe thundering/thunderstorm.
If you are caught outside with no safe shelter nearby, the following
actions may reduce your risk:
▪ Immediately get off elevated areas such as hills, mountain ridges, or peaks.
▪ Never lie flat on the ground. Crouch down in a ball-like position with
your head tucked and hands over your ears so that you are down low
with minimal contact with the ground.
▪ Never shelter under an isolated tree.
▪ Never use a cliff or rocky overhang for shelter.
▪ Immediately get out of and away from ponds, lakes, and other bodies
of water.
▪ Stay away from objects that conduct electricity (barbed wire fences,
power lines, windmills, etc.).
• If you are in a group during a thunderstorm, separate from each
other. This will reduce the number of injuries if lightning strikes the
ground.
Don’t
• Don’t stay in open vehicles, structures, and spaces
During a thunderstorm, avoid open vehicles such as convertibles,
motorcycles, and golf carts. Be sure to avoid open structures such as
porches, gazebos, baseball dugouts, and sports arenas. Stay away from
open spaces such as golf courses, parks, playgrounds, ponds, lakes,
swimming pools, and beaches.
• Don’t stay near tall structures
Do NOT lie on concrete floors during a thunderstorm. Also, avoid leaning
on concrete walls. Lightning can travel through any metal wires or bars
in concrete walls or flooring.

INDOOR SAFETY TIPS
Even though your home is a safe shelter during a lightning storm, you may still
be at risk. About one-third of lightning-strike injuries occur indoors. Here are some
tips to keep safe and reduce your risk of being struck by lightning while indoors.
• Install Lightening conductors in your building and regularly check their

serviceability.
• Avoid water
Do NOT bathe, shower, wash dishes, or have any other contact with water
during a thunderstorm because lightning can travel through a building’s
plumbing.
• Avoid electronic equipment
Do NOT use your computers, laptops, game systems, washers, dryers, stoves, or
anything connected to an electrical outlet. Lightning can travel through electrical
systems, radio and television reception systems, and any metal wires or bars in
concrete walls or flooring. Equip your home with whole-house surge protectors
to protect your appliances.
• Avoid corded phones
Corded phones are NOT safe to use during a thunderstorm. Do NOT use them.
However, it is safe to use cordless or cellular phones during a storm.
• Avoid windows, doors, porches, and concrete
Do NOT lie on concrete floors during a thunderstorm. Also, avoid leaning on
concrete walls. Lightning can travel through any metal wires or bars in concrete
walls or flooring.

LIGHTNING: Precautions
If you are caught in a lightning storm while camping, climbing, or hiking, it is

often difficult to find a protected place. However, you can avoid lightning injuries by
taking certain precautions during outdoor recreation:
• Check the forecast. Before hiking or climbing in the mountains, always check
the weather forecast. Thunderstorms with lightning in the mountains occur
most often during the summer months in the late afternoon or evening.
• When thunder roars, go indoors. The beginning and the end of a storm are
the most dangerous times. Even if you see blue sky, you may still be in danger.
• Do not carry metal. Do not carry any metal objects (e.g., skis, ski-poles,
antennas, ice-axes). Your chances of a direct hit are higher when you are
carrying a conductor above shoulder level.
• Avoid metal. Avoid metal objects. You are more likely to be burned if you are
in contact with metal which is struck by lightning.
Safety Tips
Remember these six safety tips when you are hiking or climbing during a storm.
1. Separate from other members of the group to reduce the number of people
injured by ground currents and side flashes between persons.
2. Find refuge immediately, and do not continue to hike or climb for at least
30 minutes after a storm.
3. Stay away from water and wet items (Including fences and poles) because they
can conduct electricity.
4. If you are in the mountains, stay away from ridges, summits, single trees,
power lines, and ski lifts.
5. If you are in the forest, stay near lower trees.
6. If you are caught in an open area, Do NOT lie down. Lightning causes
electric currents along the top of the ground that can be deadly over 100
feet away. Running may help reduce the threat from ground current as it
limits the time both feet are on the ground at any one time.
PETS AND LIVESTOCK
Your pets cannot protect themselves; it is your responsibility to help protect them.
To help protect your pet from lightning:
• Don’t leave your pet outdoors.

Do NOT leave your pet outdoors or chained to a tree during a lightning storm.
Doghouses are NOT safe shelters; bring your pet inside.
• Remove any metal collars, leashes, or harnesses and replace with plastic.

INJURIES DUE TO LIGHTNING

Lightning can cause injuries in several ways:
• Direct strike: Victims may sustain a direct strike, which is fatal.

• Contact injury: This occurs when lightning strikes an object, such as a car
or metal pole, that the victim is touching.
• Side flash: This occurs when lightning splashes or bounces off an object,
such as a tree or person, onto the victim.
• Ground current: This occurs when lightning strikes the ground near
a victim and the ground current passes from the strike point through
the ground and into the victim.
• Streamer: When the air is charged with electricity during a lightning storm,
bursts of energy or streamers can come upward from objects near the
ground. Sometimes these streamers travel upwards through people, causing
harm to the victims.
• Blast injury: The lightning’s blast effect, thunder, may cause either primary
injury, such as ruptured eardrums, or secondary injury, such as blunt
trauma when the victim falls or is thrown.
What to do After a Thundering/thunderstorm

Call 112/108 for assistance as soon as possible.
The following should be checked when you attempt to give aid to a victim of
lightning:
• Breathing - if breathing has stopped, begin mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
• Heartbeat - if the heart has stopped, administer CPR.
• If the victim has a pulse and is breathing, look for other possible injuries.
Check for burns where the lightning entered and left the body. Also be alert
for nervous system damage, broken bones, and loss of hearing and eyesight.
Thunder is nature's warning

A typical 100-million-volt lightning flash can heat the air to more than
40,000°F, which causes it to expand and then contract as it cools. This creates
sound waves: thunder. Even if you don't see the lightning, thunder means it's
there, perhaps hidden by thick clouds. In fact, if you can hear the thunder, the
lightning is probably within 10 miles.
A good lightning safety rule is:
• If you hear it, fear it.

• If you see it, flee it.

To estimate how far away the lightning is, use the "flash-to-bang" method.
If you see a lightning flash, begin counting: "one thousand one, one thousand two,
one thousand three," (or however you estimate seconds) until thunder is heard.
Since the speed of light is about 186,300 miles per second, lightning is seen the
instant it flashes. But sound travels about one mile in five seconds. If you hear
the thunder 10 seconds after seeing the lightning, the lightning is about two miles
away. It is considered that when the flash-to-bang time is 10 to 15 seconds --
meaning the lightning is two to three miles away.
Safety Steps
1. Follow the 30/30 rule. Count the seconds after a lightning flash. If you
hear thunder within 30 seconds, seek safe shelter. Do not go outside again
until 30 minutes after the last lightning strike. More than half of lightning-
related deaths happen after the thunderstorm has passed. The danger
exists whenever thunderstorms are in the area, even when clear skies are
directly overhead.
2. Only use safe shelters. Full-size buildings, such as houses or businesses,

work best. Stay away from sheds or open shelters (picnic awnings or
baseball dugouts). Hard-top cars, vans, and trucks work well, but not golf
carts, soft- top convertibles (even with the top up), bicycles, or motorcycles.
Whether in a building or a car, keep all windows and doors closed.
3. While inside, avoid anything that conducts electricity and is plugged

into a wall socket -- phones, electrical outlets, lights, desktop computers,
televisions, stereos, and water faucets (metal plumbing conducts
electricity) are just some of the items to avoid. Portable devices such as
wireless phones (stay away from the base station that's plugged into the
wall), flashlights, unplugged laptop computers, and personal MP3 players
are fine. Avoid metal door or window frames.
4. If you're caught outside, go inside immediately. No safe options exist

outside. Run to your car or a safe building as soon as you hear thunder.
5. Lightning can and does strike in the same place twice -- hundreds of
times, really. Conditions that draw lightning aren't likely to change. If
lightning strikes close to you, do not assume you are safe until the storm
passes

6. If you are struck by lightning, call 112/108 immediately. If you see

someone struck by lightning, call 112/108 and treat any injuries as
appropriate. Follow the same basic first aid steps as for any other victim.
Expect to see burns, and if the victim is not breathing, begin CPR
immediately. There's no reason to avoid treating the victim; victims are not
charged with electricity and are completely safe to touch.
7. Establish a lightning arrestor: -

A lightning arrester (alternative spelling lightning
arrestor) (also called lightning diverter) is a device
used on electric power systems and telecommunication
systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the
system from the damaging effects of lightning.
Prevention is the KEY.
********************************

LESSON -10
DROUGHT
Objectives
➢ About the Drought.

➢ Indoor water conservation before and during drought.
➢ Outdoor water conservation before and during drought.
Introduction
Drought is lack or insufficiency of
rain for an extended period that causes a
considerable hydrologic (water) imbalance
and, consequently, water shortages, crop
damage, streamflow reduction, and
depletion of groundwater and soil
moisture. It occurs when evaporation and
transpiration (the movement of water in
the soil through plants into the air) exceed
precipitation for a considerable period.
Drought is the most serious physical
hazard to agriculture in nearly every part
of the world.
A drought is a period of drier-than-normal conditions that results in water-
related problems. Precipitation (rain or snow) falls in uneven patterns across the
country. The amount of precipitation at a particular location varies from year to
year, but over a period of years, the average amount is fairly constant.
Studies based on dendrochronology, or tree rings dating, confirm that
drought affected by global warming goes back to 1900. Drought is a recurring
feature of the climate in most parts of the world. However, these regular droughts
have become more extreme and more unpredictable due to climate change.

A prolonged period of relatively dry weather leading to drought is a widely

recognized climate anomaly. Drought can be devastating as water supplies dry up,
crops fail to grow, animals die, and malnutrition and ill
health becomes widespread. The environmental effects of drought, includes
salinization of soil and groundwater decline, increased pollution of freshwater
ecosystems and regional extinction of animal species.
Drought in India
Western, Eastern & Central parts of India (Vidarbha region of Maharashtra,
Rajasthan and certain portions of Bihar, Odisha, UP, MP etc.) are more vulnerable
from drought. Many more casualties occur in summer season especially in
Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. Not only human but also the animals and
vegetations are badly affected due to drought. Govt issues guidelines, advisory and

precautionary measures time to time related with temperature. Indian

Meteorological Department issues weather forecasting and advice to concerned
state/district to take precautionary measures.
In India around 68 percent of the country is prone to droughts of varying

degrees. Of the entire area, 35 percent receives rainfall between 750 mm and 1125
mm which is considered drought prone while 33 percent which receives rainfall
less than 750 mm is considered to be chronically drought prone.
Indoor Water Conservation Before and during Drought

The best way to prepare for a drought is to conserve water. Make
conservation of water, a part of your daily life.
• Never throw water down the drain when there may be another use for it.
For example, use it to water your indoor plants or garden.
• Fix dripping faucets. One drop per second wastes about 2,700 gallons of
water a year.
• Check all plumbing for leaks and get them repaired by a plumber.
• Retrofit all household faucets by installing aerators with flow restrictors.
• Install a water-softening system where the minerals in the water would
damage your pipes.
• Choose appliances that are more energy and water efficient.
• Consider purchasing a low-volume toilet cistern that uses less water
compared to older models.
• Install a Cistern displacement device to cut down on the amount of water
needed to flush. Place a one-gallon plastic bottle of water into the tank to
displace water. Make sure it does not interfere with the operating parts.
• Replace your showerhead with an ultra-low-flow version.
Outdoor Water Conservation Before and during Drought

• Check your water pump periodically. If the automatic pump turns on and
off on its own while water is not being used, tank may be leaking.
• Native plants and/or drought- tolerant grasses, ground
covers, shrubs and trees may be planted. These plants won't
need much watering. Group plants together based on similar
water needs.
• Don't buy water toys that require a constant stream of water.
• Don't install ornamental water features (such as fountains) unless they use
re-circulated water.
• Consider rainwater harvesting where practical.
• Position sprinklers so that water lands on the lawn and shrubs and not on
paved areas.
• Check sprinkler systems and timing devices regularly to be sure they

operate properly.
• Drought-resistant plants may be used in the lawn. Reduce or eliminate
lawn areas that are not used frequently.
• Don't over-fertilize your lawn. Applying fertilizer increases the need for
water.
• Choose a water-efficient irrigation system such as drip irrigation for
your trees, shrubs and flowers.
• Use mulch around trees and plants to retain moisture in the soil. Mulch
also helps control weeds that compete with plants for water.
• Invest in a weather-based irrigation controller—or a smart controller.
These devices will automatically adjust the watering time and frequency
based on soil moisture, rain, wind, and evaporation and transpiration
rates.
• Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily. Dispose of tissues, insects and
other similar waste in the trash rather than the toilet.
• Take short showers instead of baths. Turn on the water only to get wet
and lather and then again to rinse off.
• Avoid letting the water run while brushing your teeth, washing your face
or shaving.
• Operate automatic dishwashers only when they are fully loaded. Use the
"light wash" feature to use less water.
• Handwash dishes by filling two containers—one with soapy water and the
other with rinse water containing a small amount of chlorine bleach.
• Clean vegetables in a pan filled with water rather than running water from
the tap.
• Store drinking water in the refrigerator. Do not let the tap run while you
are waiting for water to cool.
• Operate clothes’ washers only when they are fully loaded or set the water
level for the size of your load.

• Use a commercial car wash that recycles water.

• If you wash your own car, use a shut-off nozzle that can be adjusted down
to a fine spray on your hose.
• Avoid over watering your lawn and water only when needed.
• A heavy rain eliminates the need for watering for up to two weeks. Most of
the year, lawns only need one inch of water per week.
• Check the soil moisture levels
with a soil probe, spade or large
screwdriver. You don't need to
water if the soil is still moist. If
your grass springs back when
you step on it, it doesn't need
water yet.
• If your lawn does require
watering, do so early in the
morning or later in the evening,
when temperatures are cooler.
• Water in several short sessions rather than one long one, in order for your
lawn to better absorb moisture and avoid runoff.
• Use a broom or blower instead of a hose to clean leaves and other debris
from your driveway or sidewalk.
• Avoid leaving sprinklers or hoses unattended. A garden hose can pour out
600 gallons or more in only a few hours.
• In extreme drought, allow lawns to die in favor of preserving trees and large
shrubs.
***********************************

LESSON - 11
HEAT WAVE
Objectives
• Risk mitigation for heat wave
• Protection from heat wave
• Heat wave do’s & don’ts
• Tips for treatment of a person affected by sunstroke
• Need for acclimatization for heat wave.
Introduction
Heat wave occurs
during the peak summer
season when a system of
high atmospheric pressure
moves into an area and lasts
for two or more days. In
such a high-pressure
system, air from upper
levels of atmosphere is
pulled toward the ground,
where it becomes
compressed and increases
the temperature. Heatwaves
can be dangerous, causing
illnesses such as heat
cramps and heat stroke
which may even lead to
death. The increase in air
temperature also affects the
oceans, weather patterns,
snow, plants and animals.

The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the

following criteria for Heat Waves:
• Heat Wave need not be considered till maximum temperature of a station
reaches at least 40°C for Plains and 30°C for Hilly regions.
• When actual maximum temperature remains 45°C or more irrespective of
normal maximum temperature, heat waves should be declared.
Heat Waves in India

Eastern, Central
and Western parts
of India (UP, Bihar,
Odisha,
Jharkhand
Vidarbha reason of
Maharashtra, MP
and Rajasthan
etc.) are more
vulnerable from
heat wave. In
summer season
temperature raises
to more than 45
degree centigrade
which adversely
affects the
population. Not
only human but
also animal and
vegetation are
badly affected due
to the heat wave.
Government also
issues guidelines,
advisory and
precautionary
measures time to
time. The IMD also
issues weather
forecasting and advise to concern state/district to take precautionary measure
according to condition.

Risk Mitigation
The hazard of heat waves can be minimized by:
• Early warning system and inter-agency coordination –Temperature
forecasts and heat alerts sent as bulk messages on mobile phones by the
nodal agencies.
• Medical up-gradation and administrative measures –Heat treatment
wings must be created in hospitals and an advisory on how to prevent
• exposure and other heatwave related injuries must be circulated in schools,
offices and public at large.
• Public Awareness and community outreach – Raising public awareness
messages on how to protect against extreme heat-wave situations must be
done through electronic, print as well as social media, and IEC materials.
• Collaboration with NGOs and civil society organizations – Building
temporary shelters, wherever necessary, improving water delivery systems
in public areas and other innovative measures to reduce body temperature
must be implemented.
• Assessing the impact –Feedback for reviewing and updating the plan for
Heat Wave disaster risk reduction must be made a regular feature in
Government actions as this can help in preparing early prevention plans in
accordance with the developing situation.
Health Impact of Heat Waves

The health impact of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps,
heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke.
The signs and symptoms are as follows:
• Heat Cramps: Edema (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally

accompanied by fever below 39°C i.e.,102°F.
• Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea,
vomiting, muscle cramps and sweating.
• Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40°C i.e., 104°F or more along with
delirium, seizures or coma. This is a potentially fatal condition.
PROTECTION FROM HEAT WAVE

IMPACT OF HEATWAVE
HEALTH
Extreme temperature events have profound - even fatal - impacts on human
health. Rapid rise in heat gains due to exposure to hotter than average conditions
compromise the body's ability to regulate temperature and can result in a surge
of illnesses.

Physical
Dehydration & Cardiovascular & Children & elderly

Heat Strokes respiratory disorders are at higher risk
During a heatwave, there is a significant increase in stress, anxiety, and depression

that may trigger or exacerbate mental, behavioural, and cognitive disorders.
Mental
Lack of Rise in Increased alcohol

concentration & domestic abuse and drug abuse
focus impacting and violence
performance
Financial Impact
Energy
Temperature rise leads to an increase in need for space cooling. The power
demand in urban areas during summers peak with "cooling load" due to the use
of air conditioners, coolers and fans contributing to maximum consumption of
electricity.

Extreme temperatures exacerbate the demand for mechanical cooling and air-
conditioners, leading to increased electrical consumption impacting the average
expenditure for a household.
Resilience strategies against HEATWAVE for Home

Building orientation and design can improve the impacts of heat waves, urban
heat islands and local air pollution. Thermal comfort in buildings through low-
energy consuming means complement each other in making comfortable living
a reality.
Cool roof
Cool wall
Cooling solution for exiting home
Places Methods/ Techniques

Bamboo/Thatch Screening, Green Lime Concrete, Inverted Earthen Pots,
Cool Roof Net, Shading Roof, Paint Gravel, Extruded Polystyrene (XPS Sheets) ,
Roof Heat Insulation, Tiles Hollow Modified Bitumen, Cellulose Fibre,
Concrete, Tiles Broken China Mosaic, Thermo Crete, Mist Cooling
Mud Phuska System
Cool Wall Paints & Finishes
HD HOT & DRY WH WARM & HUMID CM COMPOSITE
TE TEMPERATE CL COOL
Bamboo, Thatch & Palm Leaves Roof Screen Thatch/palm leaves
Bamboo
Climatic Zone
Existing frame

Green Net Shading

Green net
Metal Frame
Climatic Zone
Existing roof
Roof mist cooling Mist Nozzle
Plumbing Pipe
Climatic Zone
Existing Roof
Cool roof paint
2nd Coat of Roof Paint

Climatic Zone 1st Coat of Roof Paint
Base primer
Existing Roof
Gravel roof Gravels/Pebbles

Aggregate
2nd coat Bitumen
1st coat Bitumen

Climatic Zone
Existing Roof

Modified Bitumen Membrane

2nd layer bitumen sheet
1st layer bitumen sheet
Base primer
Climatic Zone
Existing Roof
Thermoplastic membrane Thermoplastic membrane
Adhesive coating
Climatic Zone
Existing Roof
Heat insulation tiles

Heat insulation tiles
Cement mortar
Water proofing layer

Climatic Zone
Existing Roof
Hollow Terracotta/ Concrete Tiles
Hollow Concrete/
Climatic Zone
Cement mortar Terracotta Tiles
Waterproofing layer
Existing Roof

Inverted Earthen Pots

IPS/Tile finish
Cement Mortar
Climatic Zone
Inverted earthen pot
Waterproofing layer
Existing Roof
Mud Phuska
Finished with
Bricks Tiles cement grout
Climatic Zone
Compacted mud
Waterproofing layer
Existing Roof
Thermocrete Insulation
IPS/Tile flooring
finish
Thermocrete layer
Climatic Zone
Waterproofing layer
Existing Roof

Extrude Polystyrene (XPS Sheets)
Cement concrete
Climatic Zone Waterproofing layer Floor finish
HDPE Sheet
XPS Sheet
Waterproofing layer
Existing Roof
Cellulose Fiber
Climatic Zone
IPS Tile floor finish
Cellulose Crete
Waterproofing layer
Existing Roof
Paints and Finishes
Paint and wall finishes have an important role on solar absorption and thermal
emittance of the façade. Wall color and texture can help to reduce temperatures
by reducing solar heat gain.
Paint Cavity
Texture
Colour Texture Cladding

Light colored exterior Textured surface treatment Curtain walls and dry-
walls reflects the solar increases the surface area stone cladding reduces
radiations thereby of the wall and reduces the direct heat gain of the
reducing the heat gain heat gain. walls by creating a cavity
between two surfaces.

COOLING SOLUTIONS FOR NEW HOMES
Planning & orientation Site orientation
Fenestrations & shading Cross ventilation

Exterior shading device
Landscaping Terrace garden
Vertical green/Creepers
Planning & Orientation

Orientation of the building plays a crucial role with respect to solar exposure
and wind direction. Orientation affects the heat gain through building envelope
and thus the cooling demand of the building.
Summer Winter
Fenestrations & Shading
Fenestrations
Properly oriented doors and windows when open provide natural cross
ventilation. More cooling can be obtained if air is forced to take the longer
path between inlet and outlet.
Shading
Shading devices are an effective means of cutting down on solar heat
gain into the building and thereby reducing the external surface temperatures
of the envelope which can easily reach up to 10% higher than ambient
temperatures in hot climates.

Exterior shading devices can be provided in a variety of materials and designs,

including sunshades, awnings, louvres, bamboo screens, 'jaali'.
Different types of over hangings
Pergolas/Trellis Reflected light Operable shutters

Balcony
Different types of shades
Louvers
Operable Louvers Window screen
Façade screen
Different types of window

shadings
Awning
Rolling louvered
shutter
Venetian Awning
Landscaping
Shading with trees (along with
evaporation) can reduce the ambient
temperature near outer walls by 2ºC to
5ºC. Landscaping helps shade south,
east or west facing windows from
summer heat gain.

Terrace gardens
Terrace gardens reduce overall heat absorption of buildings and insulate the
building against heat & cold. They provide shade by breaking the solar
radiations, improves air quality and cools the surrounding air.
Vertical Green & Creepers
Vertical green has a multi-functional character. It
provides shade, improves air quality, reduces
building and internal temperatures by 2ºC to 8ºC.
Vertical green
Pergola & Trellis

Pergola not only defines a space but
most important they provide shade
there by reducing the direct impact
of solar radiations resulting in heat
gain and improving thermal comfort
Pergola Trellis & Creepers
HEAT WAVE: DO’S & DON’T’S

To minimize the impact during the heat wave and to prevent serious ailment
or death because of heat stroke, you can take the following measures:
▪ Avoid going out in the sun, especially between 12.00 noon and 3.00 p.m.
▪ Drink sufficient water and as often as possible, even if not thirsty.
▪ Wear lightweight, light- colored, loose, and porous cotton clothes.
▪ Use protective goggles, umbrella/hat, shoes or slippers while going out in

the sun.
▪ Avoid strenuous activities when the outside temperature is high. Avoid
working outside between 12 noon and 3 p.m.
▪ While travelling, carry water with you.
▪ Avoid alcohol, tea, coffee and carbonated soft drinks, which dehydrates
the body.
▪ Avoid high-protein food and do not eat stale food.
▪ If you work outside, use a hat or an umbrella and also use a damp cloth
on your head, neck, face and limbs
▪ Do not leave children or pets in parked vehicles

▪ If you have dizziness, illness or feel like fainting, see a doctor immediately.
▪ Use ORS, homemade drinks like lassi, torani (rice water), lemon water,
buttermilk, etc. which helps to re-hydrate the body.
▪ Keep animals in shade and give them plenty of water to drink.
▪ Keep your home cool, use curtains, shutters, sunshade and open windows
at only during night.
▪ Use fans, damp clothing and take bath in cold water frequently.
ADVISIORY ON HEAT WAVE

The National Disaster Management Authority has issued advisory on what to
do and what not to do in a heat wave affected area. They are as follows:
DO’S
• Drink enough water and whenever possible, even if not thirsty. It is
necessary to stay hydrated in these conditions.
• Schedule strenuous jobs to cooler times of the day.
• Increase the frequency and length of rest, when involved in outdoor
activities.
• Pregnant workers and workers with a medical condition should be given
additional attention and leave if necessary.
• Planting trees and or even smaller plants will reduce the surface and air
temperatures by providing shade and cooling around your house.
DON’T
• Do not leave children or pets in parked vehicles. The metallic bodies of
these vehicles will super heat the vehicles resulting in dehydration and at
times even death.
• Avoid going out in the afternoons, especially around 12.00 noon and 3.00
p.m.
• Do not wear dark, heavy or tight clothing. Wearing loose clothing is
advisable as it allows the body to exhale more easily.
• Do not engage in physically demanding activities when the outside
temperature is high.
• Do not cook during peak hours. But should you choose to, open doors and
windows to ventilate the cooking area adequately.
• Drinks like tea, alcohol, coffee and aerated drinks, will dehydrate your
body faster. So they must be avoided
• Avoid food items high in proteins and completely avoid eating stale food.

Tips for treatment of a person affected by a sunstroke:

▪ Let the person lie in a cool place, under a shade. Wipe her/him with a
wet cloth/wash the body frequently. Pour normal temperature water on
the head. The main thing is to bring down the body temperature.
▪ Give the person ORS to drink or lemon sarbat/ torani or whatever is
useful to rehydrate the body.
▪ Take the person immediately to the nearest health centre. The patient
needs immediate hospitalization, as heat strokes could be fatal.
EMERGENCY KIT
▪ Water bottle
▪ Umbrella/ Hat or Cap / Head Cover
▪ Hand Towel
▪ Hand Fan
▪ Electrolyte / Glucose / Oral Rehydration
Acclimation to heat wave:

People at risk are those who have come from a cooler climate to a hot
climate. You may have such a person(s) visiting your family during the heat
wave season. They should not move in open area for a period of one week till
the body is acclimatized to heat and should drink plenty of water.
Acclimatization is achieved by gradual exposure to the hot environment.
****************************

LESSON – 12
COLD WAVE
Objectives

• What is cold wave.
• Injuries caused by cold wave.
• Signs and symptoms of frost bite and deep cold injuries.
• Cold wave do’s & don’ts.
• Pre hospital treatment of hypothermia and frostbite.
Introduction
A cold wave is a type of
weather phenomenon that is
differentiated by cooling of the
air, over a large area. It can also
be a longer period of excessively
cold weather, which may be
accompanied by high winds that
cause excessive wind chills,
leading to weather that seems
even colder than actually it is. It
is marked by a drop of average
temperature well below averages
for a particular region, with effects on human population, crops and services.
The plains of North India regularly experience Cold Wave and Cold Day
conditions during winter every year. It is a severe weather phenomenon which
may even cause loss of life and crops.
Cold Wave temperatures: Cold Wave is considered prevalent when

minimum temperature of a station is 100C or less for plains and 0°C or less
for Hilly regions.

1. Development of cold waves:

• A cold wave forms when cold air in larger volume shifts from one region to
another.
• Cold waves so created can also be accompanied by extreme wind. This type
of phenomenon is called as winter storm.
2. Effects:
• Hypothermia and frostbite are caused due to extreme and especially
unexpected cold. This condition could result in tissue damage and organ
failure and thus required to be addressed medically.
• They can cause death and injury to livestock and wildlife. If a cold wave is
accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be
unable to get adequate food and may die of starvation or hypothermia.
3. Injury due to cold weather

When a person is exposed to extreme cold temperatures it may result in
a decrease in body temperature, and thus generates cold generated medical
issues.
• Frostbite
• Frost nip
• Chilblains
• Hypothermia
Allied Injuries
– Dehydration
– Snow Blindness

Exposure to excessive cold can cause mainly two types of

emergencies: -
112
i. Hypothermia:
• Mild hypothermia
• Severe Hypothermia
Mild Hypothermia:
Signs and Symptoms:
 Sluggish pupils  Drowsiness
 Uncontrollable shivering  Loss of vision
 Chills  Rapid breathing, slow pulse

Severe Hypothermia:
Signs and Symptoms:
 Rigid extremities  Extremely slow pulse rate
 Extremely slow breathing  Absence of shivering
 Unresponsiveness  Fixed and dilated pupils
Pre hospital treatment for Hypothermia:
Use universal precautions as per protocol, secure the

scene and alert EMS.
 Conduct initial assessment and
physical examination of the affected
person.
 Maintain open airway and administer oxygen
if needed
 Remove the patient from the cold
environment.
 Remove any wet clothing and cover patient
with a blanket.
 Keep the patient dry
 If the patient is alert, offer warm liquids (Non-stimulant) slowly.
 Constantly assess vital signs.

ii. Frostbite or local cold injuries:

 Usually the toes, fingers, face, nose and ears are at greater risks.
Frostbite or local cold injuries:
Pre hospital treatment for Frostbite and deep cold injuries:
Use universal precautions, secure the scene and alert EMS
 Remove the patient from the cold environment.

 Do not allow the patient to walk on a frozen limb.
 Protect the frozen area from further injury and re-freezing.
 Dry the affected area and apply a clean bandage
 Place dressings between the fingers if they are affected.
 If superficial, cover and keep warm.
 If deep, apply dry, sterile dressings.
Late or Deep Cold Injury:
Later stages of frostbite are called as late or deep-cold injuries. In this

condition, the skin may appear to be very waxy and may be firm to the touch.
As freezing continues, it becomes mottled and blotchy. Finally, the area
becomes swollen, blistered and white.
Signs and Symptoms:
 The surface of the skin will feel frozen in the affected area and the layers of
skin below the surface will feel hard to touch.
 Blotches in the skin (spotted). White color appears first, then greyish yellow
and finally greyish blue.

4. Cold Weather Injury Prevention Tips:
Principles to maintain body heat
➢ Do not allow frequent temperature shocks

➢ Cover head and neck, 80% of heat loss.
➢ Use synthetic fibres, natural fibres in order to retain moisture.
➢ Do not remain immobile for long in cold areas. If you have to go out in
the cold then rest only at a shelter.
5. Cold Weather Survival Kit
Waterproof matches and fire starter

(e.g. Candle, magnesium match,
lighter).
• Signalling devices (e.g. Torch /

Mirror and whistle).
• Pressure bandage, cold-climate
lip balm, sunglasses.
• Compass.
• Multi-purpose Knife.

• Water container (metal for heating).

• Small amount of high energy food
• Foil survival blanket.
6. Immediate Care:
✓ Firstly, cover the victim with warm

blankets. The victim should be taken
inside the house. Room heaters
should be put on.
✓ Warm broth and soup must be given.
✓ Hot bath can also be given.
✓ Soak the victim’s feet in warm water.
Make him drink warm, non-alcoholic
beverages.
✓ Chemical heat packs can be applied on
the neck and armpits of the victim.
Warm the victim, slowly as rapid
warming may lead to serious heart
problems. If the victim is not
recovering, call for the emergency
medical services.
✓ Make the victim take rest.
✓ Do not allow the victim to walk.
7. Preparation for cold wave:
❖ People can store water, food and other necessary items before a cold
wave.
❖ The crops that are vulnerable can be sprayed with water.
This procedure protects the plants from freezing.
❖ Smudge pots can be used.
❖ The hospitals can prepare for the admission of victims affected by cold
wave.
❖ Wear clothes that make you feel warm.
❖ Dress in layers if going outside.
❖ Store candles, flashlights, portable fuel and matches for wood used in fire
places or stoves.
********

Lesson - 13
BASIC SEARCH AND RESCUE
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to….

• Common causes of structural collapse.
• Search and locate
Introduction
Collapsed Structure Search

and Rescue (CSSR) is an operation
to conduct safe search and rescue
operations at structural collapse
incidents caused due to failure of
reinforced and unreinforced
masonry or concrete.
Common causes of Structural Collapse:
• Ground instability (mud slides, sink holes).

• Fire accident
• Vehicle impact.
• Structural characteristics (age, materials, methods and design).
• Extreme weather: Rain/flood waters, snow accumulation,
tornadoes and wind storms.
• Explosions (bombs, utilities, fireworks etc.).
• Earthquake/Volcanic activity (excess volcanic ash deposits).

SEARCH AND LOCATE-

A set of techniques and procedures by which the presence of live victims in a
void space within the collapsed Structure is established.
Basic Equipment Required for Physical Searches
• Complete set of personal protective equipment and emergency medical kit.

• Minimum personal supplies required to function unassisted for at least 12
hours:
– Drinking water
– Food
– Proper clothing
• Basic tools
• Portable radios(walkie-talkie), if available.
• Building and work site marking supplies
– Paint
– Chalk
– Flags
– Cones
– Marking / scene tapes
• Warning and alert devices
• Reconnaissance and vision
– Binoculars
– Photo Camera
– Flashlight
• Search diagrams, pencils, color pens, clipboards
• Improvised Technical search equipment
• Additional materials
– Hazardous Materials Response Guide
STEPS FOR SEARCHING AND LOCATING
1. Compile and analyze available information.

2. Secure the scene by marking the area with the help of cones and
marking/scene tapes.
3. Inspect and evaluate the structure for stability and look for any
possibility of victims trapped inside the rubble.
4. Rescue victims with easy access on or near the surface.
5. Create a diagram of the structure.

6. Select the area to be searched.

7. Select a search method.
8. Confirm the presence and location of potential victims with the
resources and equipment available.
9. Initiate pre-hospital treatment of the victim immediately if located.
SEARCH MODALITIES
Hasty Search
This type of search is conducted very quickly in order to detect
the presence of survivors on the surface or easily accessible void
spaces. Hasty search accomplishes the following:
– Rapid detection of victims
– Scene assessment (Information gathered aids in sizing-up of the
rescue problem)
– Sets priorities regarding the evacuation procedure to be adopted.
Extensive/ Grid Search
This type of search is conducted in a very methodical/technical

manner to pinpoint the exact location of victims. An extensive or grid
search accomplishes the following:
– A thorough, systematic search
– Redundancy checks
– Allows for use of alternate search resources and methods
SEARCH METHODS
Physical Search
Physical search operations do not require specialist or unique,

expensive equipment. They only require the sense and some
established procedures.
Physical Void Search
In most incidents, by the time specialist rescue teams arrive, a basic

physical search is done by neighbors, passers-by or first responders.
Trained “Aapda mitra” can be instrumental in such type of search with
the help of local resources.

Advantages of physical void search

• Readily available resource.
• Capable of quickly covering large areas.
• Does not require specialists or special technical electronic
equipment. Volunteers can be quickly trained to support the effort.
• Visual sighting provides conclusive verification of the exact
location, position and condition of found victims.
• Positive findings do not require secondary verification.
Disadvantages of physical void search
• Generally only surface and readily accessible victims will be located.

• Tactics is most effective during daylight hours.
• Proximity required may be dangerous to search personnel.
• Results of this search tactics are not conclusive that all victims have
been located.
Possible location of void spaces in typical collapse patterns
V-shape collapse Pancake Collapse
Lean-to collapse. Cantilever collapse.

Hailing Search Method Procedure
Going ‘around the collapsed structure in clockwise or anti-clockwise

direction,’ each searcher calls out loudly or with a megaphone, “If you can
hear me call out for help or knock five times on something.” In Hindi
“agar koi meri awaz sun raha hai to madad ke liye pukare anyatha kisi
thos vastu se thos vastu par paanch baar prahaar karen”
All searchers then listen and point in the direction of any potential
response to the instructions. If more than one searcher hears the sound,
the direction in which they point will triangulate on the source of the
sound. This must be noted on the personal notes which each rescuer
makes. A rough sketch of the area and the direction of the source of the
sound must also be marked on the sketch.
In addition to hailing, searchers may also knock with something

solid (usually metallic) over the debris in order to elicit a response.
12 o'clock (North)
6 o'clock
Advantages of the hailing search method:

• Readily available resource. Capable of quickly covering large areas.
• Does not require specialists or unique electronic
equipment. Volunteers can be quickly trained to support the effort.
• May triangulate on victim location.
• It can be employed day or night from positions of relative safety.
• This procedure is enhanced with the use of megaphones and
electronic listening devices.

Disadvantages of the hailing search method:
• Effectiveness diminishes over time as the victims' condition

deteriorates.
• Victims must be capable of making recognizable sounds.
• Often the sounds made by the victims buried in collapsed
• Structures do not reach outside and therefore may not be heard by
the searchers.
• Result of this search tactics are not conclusive that all victims have
been located.
• Additional search tactics may be required to pinpoint the exact
location of survivors.
Physical Search Patterns for Multiple Rooms
The basic instruction for searching multiple rooms is “go right, stay
right.”
Figure: “Go right, stay right” method for multiple room search.
After entering the structure, turn to the right, stay in contact with
the right wall, either visually or physically, until the entire accessible
area has been searched and the team returns to the starting point. If
the search team needs to exit and cannot remember the direction they
entered, simply turn around and stay in contact with the same wall,
either physically or visually, keeping it on your left.

Large Open Areas (Line Search)
Use the line search method in auditoriums, cafeterias, and offices

with multiple partitions.
1. Spread search team members in a straight line across the open
area, 3 to 4 meters apart.
2. Slowly walk through the entire rubble area to the other side.
4m 4m 4m 4m
Figure: Line search method
• Team members on the ends of the line search perimeter rooms using
the go right-stay right method.
• The procedure may be repeated in the opposite direction.
Canine Search
This type of search is carried out by specialized canine teams
having specialized dogs and their handlers. It is the best way to locate
trapped victims in a large area in shortest possible time.
Victim Management
The following concepts and procedures should be applied, the

moment search is initiated until the last victim is found.
1. Precautions during a search
• Never make inappropriate comments that victim should not hear.
Always assume someone is listening to you.
• The victim is in the worst possible position and fighting to stay alive,
and you can enhance their chances of survival by being positive
about the possibility of extricating them.
• You may be the first person the victim is able to communicate with;
therefore, it is important to project a sense of confidence and hope.

2. Steps for initial contact with

a located victim
• Identify and overcome
language barriers
• Identify yourself as a rescuer,
projecting confidence and
calmness in your voice and
the choice of words.
• Obtain the following
information:
– Name
– Adult or child (approximate
age)
– Type and extent of injury
– Hydration status
– Warmth
– Duration of confinement
IMPROVISED SEARCH EQUIPMENT
Acoustic detection
– Stethoscope
– Recorder with microphone mounted on a pole
Visual detection
– Telescopic mirror with illumination
– Common video camera
Sound transmission
– Loudspeaker mounted on an extension, with microphone
– Portable radios
**********************************************

LESSON - 14
LIFTING AND STABILIZING LOAD
Objectives

• Describe the Methods of lifting a load
• Define a Lever, its three components and the three classes of a
lever.
• List two types of Cribbing used to stabilize a load.
• List the steps to Roll a load using pipes.
Introduction
Long ago man learned that work done by machines is easier than
work done with muscle power. In some cases, heavy equipment
cannot be used because the movement or operation of that
equipment may further endanger the victim by causing further
collapse.
Basic tools can be used to create tremendous mechanical
advantage to lift large load safely. Those same loads can be moved with
relative ease by reducing friction between the load and the surface that
it is to be moved across.
1. Before Lifting or Moving a Load

The following factors must be examined before lifting or moving a load:
• Weight of the load
• Consequences when the load is moved (what will happen)
• Selection of the method for lifting or moving the load
2. Methods for Lifting Loads

2.1 The Lever
The lever is the simple method for lifting a load. A lever is a
rigid bar, either straight or bent, that is free to move on affixed point
called a fulcrum.
The lever by itself is a simple machine. It can also be a
component part of more complicated machinery. The lever has many

uses. Some of the common examples of levers are the shovel, crow
bar, pliers, hammer, scissors, and wrench. Essentially, a lever
consists of a rigid bar capable of rotating around appoint of support.
This rotation point is known as the fulcrum or the axis.
The fulcrum is the object or place that supports the load when
a lever is used to move another object.
Applications of levers:
A. To move a load that is too heavy to move by hand
B. Pulling/ hauling
C. Raising
There are three components that make-up a lever:
• Fulcrum,
• Load,
• Force.
Three Classes of Levers

Class One Lever: The fulcrum is placed between the force and the
load, which provides the greatest mechanical advantage when lifting
a load vertically. You can increase the mechanical advantage by
using a longer lever.
Figure: Example of Class one lever
This is the most useful and efficient lever for moving objects
horizontally. It is the greatest mechanical advantage. A load is located
at one end of the lever and the lifting force is placed at the other end
with a fulcrum located between the two. Crow bar and pry bars are
examples of first-class lever. They are the most useful for lifting objects
vertically.

Class Two Lever: The load is placed between the force and the
fulcrum
Figure: Examples of Class two lever
Second class lever is the most useful and efficient lever. It consists
of a fulcrum at one end, a load in the middle, and a force on the
other end. Wheel barrows are a type of second-class lever. This type
of lever is useful for moving objects horizontally.
Class Three Lever: The force is placed between the load and the
fulcrum. This type of lever is used when force may be sacrificed for
distance, and reduces mechanical advantage.
It places a load on one end, the fulcrum on the opposite end,

and the force in the middle. Shovels and brooms are types of third-
class levers.
Examples:
The Come-Along
The come along provides mechanical advantage for lifting
and pulling using a lever and gear ratcheting system. It consists of
an anchor hook on one end and another hook attached to are trac
table chain or steel cable.

Figure: Various uses of the come-along.
Hydraulic Jacks/Rams
These devices are operated with a lever to apply force to a ram.
Hydraulic jacks are used primarily for
lifting heavy loads. Though, they usually
have only as short reach, they are
extremely powerful – a hand-operated
bottle jack can lift as much as 50tons. It is
important to keep the hydraulic jacks table
to the ground. The jack is not designed to
handle lateral loads.
3. Using Cribbing to Stabilize Loads

3.1 Cribbing:
During rescue operations, any time a load is lifted, a method
for temporary support is needed to ensure the safety of the
rescuer and the trapped persons. One quick, simple method of
temporary support is known as “cribbing.”
The construction of as table platform using, wood pieces,
which is used to stabilize and support loads. Cribbing is
constructed of small-sized wood pieces arranged as a column to
support the weight of an object. Shims are used to fill in small
spaces and secure the object in its position as it is being lifted.
Shims a real so used to change the angle of thrust in order to

achieve optimum contact with uneven or sloping surfaces.

Failure of a wood cribbing system is slow and noisy as the wood
fibers are crushed. This usually provide sample warning of
impending failure for rescuers.
The requirements for improvised cribbing are:
A. The material must be flat on both surfaces
B. The material must be able to with stand the weight of the object
being supported.
Examples include: Furniture, bricks, concrete blocks, tires, and
rims.
3.2 Types of Cribbing

BOX: Built with wood blocks in a square configuration, using
two Parallel blocks per layer. Layers are set at 90 degrees to each
other with the ends of the wood blocks overlapping each other by
10 cm. The box crib has an open center.
Box Cribbing Capacity
10cm x 10cm beams:11,000 kilos
15cm x 15cm beams:27,000 kilos
PLATFORM (cross-tie): Built with wood blocks in solid layers of three

or more wood pieces each. Layers are set 90 degrees to each other.
Little or no space is left between the wood pieces. The ends of the wood
pieces must also overlap each other by10cm.
Platform Cribbing Capacity
10 cm x 10cm beams= 48,000kilos
3.3 General Guidelines for Cribbing

The first layer should be solid to fully distribute the load,
especially on softer surfaces, such as soil and asphalt.

Height limit: The general rule is to limit cribbing to three times the
width of the pieces of wood being used for cribbing (3:1 height-to-width
ratio).
For example, if the pieces of wood are one meter wide from one side of
the first crib to the outer side of the last crib (across), the cribbing
should not exceed three meters in height.
Always overlap corners by approximately 10cm. This prevents
splitting off corner so find individual pieces, which can affect overall
stability. The load bearing capacity of wood depends on the type and
quality of wood.
Keep the following cribbing guide lines in mind:
▪ Multi member lay-up of 10cm by10cm to 20cm-by-20cm

lumber in two or three member per layer configuration.
▪ Capacity is determined by perpendicular to grain load on sum
of all bearing surfaces.
▪ Stability is dependent of height to width of crib and should not
exceed 3to1.
-Need to overlap corners a minimum of10cm to guard against
splitting off corners of individual pieces that can negatively
impact over all stability.
▪ Cribbing used by contractors (or in short-term emergencies) often

rely only on the friction between bearings for lateral strength, not
sufficient for aftershocks.
▪ Individual pieces may be notched to provide lateral resistance in
addition to the friction between pieces. Metal clips may also be
used to improve lateral strength, as well as diagonal braces
between pairs of cribs.
3.4 Procedure for Lifting and Stabilizing a Load

This procedure consists of gradually lifting the target object or
load and inserting one layer of cribbing after another until sufficient
clearance and stability are obtained. Make sure to use full PPE
before starting any work. Make an initial opening using a pry bar or
similar tool. Set up a lever system with the prybar.
Lift the load gradually to create an opening large enough to set
up the first layer of cribbing under it. Use wedges to prop up the
load gradually as you are lifting; if the pry bar slips or breaks, this
will prevent the load from dropping any distance.

It is not necessary to lift the full height of the next layer of

cribbing all at once. Raise the fulcrum, raise the load again, and set
up the next level of cribbing with the wood pieces at 90degrees to
the previous layer.
3.5 Safety Measures for Cribbing

• “Lift an inch, crib an inch.”
• Never place hands beneath a load while cribbing!
• For maximum stability, the height cribbing should not exceed
three times the width of the cribbing blocks (3:1ratio).
4. Rolling a Load
You can use metal tubes to roll
heavy loads instead of lifting them.
Follow the simple steps below using
the picture as a guide.
Raise the loads lightly using a
Class One lever; just enough to slide
three metal tubes underneath it
(use the lifting technique for
cribbing).
Using Class Two levers push
the load in the desired direction. The tubes may be fanned to turn
the load as it rolls.
*************************

LESSON - 15
COMMUNITY BASED HEALTH AND FIRST AID
Objectives

✓ Community based health and first aid.
✓ Assessing Community’s needs.
✓ Volunteering and its principles.
✓ Effective communication.
✓ Public Health Emergencies
✓ Basic First Aid and injury prevention
COMMUNITY BASED HEALTH AND FIRST AID (CBHFA):
The role of CBHFA is to strengthen a community, by empowering

members to take care of their health during normal times. Well-prepared
volunteers will help respond to the emergencies. The concept is quite simple.
“Learn in the classroom & Implement in the community”.
Communities must have the knowledge of Health and First Aid work. A
volunteer plays a very important part in this process. He acts as a role model
by promoting healthy living and behavior in the community. After undergoing
the required training in the prescribed courses, a volunteer learns about how
the concept is implemented by working actively in the communities in different
areas of first aid, health and safety.
A volunteer also learns skills for assessing his community in terms of

its priority in health, first aid and safety. The assessment of the community
gives them the means to decide the priorities of the community. Volunteer/s
will then guide the community to learn the skills required to mitigate any kind
of disaster in terms of first aid and health. This lesson serves as a general
guidance for a volunteer to perform his duties in the community.

Must know for a volunteer

– Know the work.
– Know the responsibilities of volunteers.
– List the activities conducted for the community.
– Prepare a contact list of community leaders, local authorities and other
volunteers.
– Develop relationships with community partners and other volunteers.
– Identify NGOs who can assist the community and the volunteers.
THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
1. National Societies (NGOs) are recognized by the government of each
country as a voluntary civil society organization. National Red Cross or
Red Crescent Societies exist in almost every country in the world. The
National Society is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent
Movement. The National Society supports public authorities in each
country.
2. The duties and responsibilities of a National Society include humanitarian
aid during armed conflicts and emergencies, such as natural disasters. Its
volunteers are often the first on the scene and remain active in the
communities. Community-based volunteers also play a vital role in
development work, including disaster preparedness programmes, health
and care activities, blood donation campaigns, and the promotion of
humanitarian values.
3. The National Society is composed of the various local branches around the
country.
4. The local branch is formed by members and volunteers.
5. Local branches will organize activities according to the community’s needs
and interests.
6. The National Society and local branches partner with local health centers
and other organizations to provide first aid and work with the community
in health priorities.
The Volunteers
Should have the required knowledge of organizing activities according
to the community’s needs, interests and protocols. Activities such as
organizing First Aid training, Blood Donation camps or staffing first aid posts
at various community events. Other activities may include:
• Mock exercises related to disaster preparedness.
• Emergency response to disasters.
• Facilitating disaster victims contact with their family.
• Community-based promotion of healthy lifestyle and behaviour.

• Fund-raising for disaster relief.

• First Aid training and activities.
• Distribution of relief material in the community, and organize other
activities within the community according to their needs and interests.
• Safe sex awareness campaigns.
Volunteer Principles
Any voluntary service must have the following characteristics:
• Respect to Humanity
• Impartiality and neutrality for all
• Compassion for the destitute
• Honesty and integrity
• Motivated by the free will of the person volunteering, and not by a desire
for material or financial gain or by external social, economic or political
pressure
• Intended to benefit vulnerable people and their communities
VOLUNTEERING
Volunteer must know
• What “volunteering” means.

• What it means to be a volunteer.
• Responsibilities of a volunteer.
• The required quality and attitude of volunteers.
• The rights of a volunteer.
Role of a Volunteer
The volunteers assist vulnerable people. The volunteers may be
assigned specific tasks by the local authorities/ community depending on the
needs of the community. For example, first aid, disease prevention and health
promotion activities, running a help-line telephone service, food distributions,
disaster preparedness, fund-raising or visiting old people may all be
undertaken by volunteers.
• A volunteer carries out volunteer activities regularly or occasionally.
• A volunteer is familiar with priority health problems of the community.
• A volunteer knows the traditional beliefs of the community about health
and diseases.
• A volunteer treats everybody equally regardless of race, gender, ethnicity
or social status.

• A volunteer acknowledges that people are different and have different care
needs.
• A volunteer is able to show empathy.
Responsibilities of a Volunteer
• A volunteer uses the learnt skills to attend to the health needs of others in
the community.
• A volunteer fulfils duties without discrimination against nationality, race,
sex, political views or religious belief.
• A volunteer is able to take responsibility in times of disaster or conflict.
• A volunteer assists the vulnerable and the poor in the community.
• A volunteer seeks advice from the local authorities or the community
leaders on any required matters.
• A volunteer helps to raise awareness in the community to: prevent
common diseases; know where to find healthcare in the community;
encourage the community to share responsibility for health of all; help
others, including children, to help themselves by teaching good health
practices and first aid.
• A volunteer supports and communicates to: give feedback on activities to
the local authorities and community leaders; work together with leaders
and members of local health and government organizations.
Rights of a volunteer
• Have appropriate training or personal development.

• Agree to tasks and roles.
• Have appropriate equipment for agreed role and tasks.
• Insurance.
• Rewards and reimbursement for expenses if any.
• Accept or refuse any task or role.
Volunteers should avoid

▪ Taking advantage of their status as a volunteer to perform private
transactions or sales for a profit for themselves or a third party.
COMMUNICATING AND BUILDING RELATIONSHIPS

Communication with the community
Volunteers need to communicate and work with their community
members in many ways, such as in community meetings, during the
community assessment and afterwards in different activities. While visiting
households to talk to household members or facilitating discussions with

groups of household members, effective communication is essential.

Volunteers can help individuals adopt healthy practices and avoid risky
behavior by performing house-to-house health promotion. This is done by
providing information and demonstrating skills to individuals or a group.
Effective communication is an essential part of this process.
Effective communication (Verbal and Non-verbal)

Communicating effectively includes:
1. Look at individuals or groups when speaking to them (Eye contact).
2. Maintain eye contact, if this is an appropriate cultural norm. Do not stare,
as staring may be seen as threatening and uncomfortable for some people.
Follow traditional practices and culture.
3. Listening is as important as communicating. Showing interest, respect and
friendly attitude while communicating, by not interrupting people when
they are speaking and listening to everyone’s contribution. Cultivate habit
of active listening in yourself.
4. Match the posture of the person or group with whom you are
communicating, for example by sitting if they are sitting.
5. Showing respect for a community leader’s position and valuing his/her
contribution. Support from local leaders is important as they can help
approach the community.
6. Understand and empathize with people's problems as they see them.
7. Using simple and clear messages.
8. Repeat the message many times, and check understanding by asking the
recipients to repeat it.
9. Active listening can indicate how well (or not) the message is
communicated to that person.
10. Combine education with entertainment.
Barriers that may make communication less effective:
• Distance is created at the beginning of the communication (If antipathy is
created due to hurt sensitivities).
• People do not agree.
• People have conflicting interests or needs.
• People are anxious or under threat.
• The communicator is seen as too different.
How to reduce communication barriers

To remove barriers to communication it is important to:
• Understand what is happening and what’s the exact situation.
• Listen to what people are saying, and ask for clarification if necessary, to
avoid misunderstandings.
• Avoid talking about other people.

• Try to understand and acknowledge the other person’s feelings.

• Be prepared to adapt your message and be flexible.
• Respect people’s views in the community.
• Keep calm and learn to express views gently.
Good communication skills will help volunteers establish links with

community members in order to help them by learning and appreciating the
need to change behaviour.
Action Behavior
Looking • Observe people. Are they happy, sad, frightened,

anxious?
• Observe their environment. Is it safe, secure and
comfortable?
Listening • Practice listening to individuals and groups.
• Listen to what is actually said, without reacting to
the speaker's style of presentation.
• Listen carefully to find the exact meaning of what
has been said.
Feeling • Show understanding of people’s situations and be
respectful.
Learning • Learn to understand why others may find

something is a priority or a problem, even if you do
not agree.
• Learn to change ideas if the situation changes.
• Learn from mistakes.
• Learn from each other.
Knowing how to • Work with others to solve problems.
organize • When organizing health campaigns or disaster
response, remember people volunteer to help.
Motivate and encourage them.
Checking • Crosscheck whether people understood what you
whether people are saying.
have • Take time to find out if people understand you.
understood

ASSESSMENT OF THE COMMUNITY

Different assessment tools will help volunteers to learn about their community
in terms of:
✓ Risks and Vulnerabilities
✓ Resources and Capacities
During the assessment activities, it is expected that volunteers will
learn new information about the community and community members.
Volunteers live in the community and already know a great deal about it.
However, because a community is always changing it is important to return
to and update the information that is collected on a continuous basis.
Working with and involving community leaders (business leaders,
women’s groups, store owners, religious leaders, elected officials and others),
community health officials, other community members as well as
representatives from vulnerable populations (the elderly, youth, people living
with illnesses or disabilities) is basic to the community assessment process.
All these groups need to be kept informed about the assessment and
the CBHFA activities. They are the people who will make CBHFA successful.
Steps for Community Assessment
Step 1: Plan the community assessment
The scope for the community assessment must be defined. It is

important to limit the scope to health, safety and first aid priorities. Setting
limits enables a realistic community assessment to be conducted. Such an
assessment will assist in the development of an achievable action plan that
addresses realistic community health, safety and first aid priorities. When
planning the assessment, the volunteers and facilitators need to decide:
▪ Health, first aid and safety needs of the community. This includes
treatment and prevention of acute and chronic diseases, sanitation,
hygiene, nutrition, emergency health needs and accidents, safety issues in
the home.
▪ Prerequisites for setting up the assessment. Need for permission from
community leaders or government officials. Target participants
notification. Materials required to bring for conducting the assessment
exercises.
▪ Available information about the community before conducting the
assessment. Existing information from government reports, other
agencies working in the community, health centers, hospitals or clinics.

▪ Community participants in the assessment. Leaders of the community

(political, religious, social, age, religious). The vulnerable or minority
groups that need to be represented.
▪ Convenient time and duration to visit community members to collect
the information.
Groups of volunteers can communicate with different people in the
community. It is best for volunteers to divide into groups of two to four
volunteers to meet with community leaders, teachers, health workers, mothers
and children, and others.
Talk to community groups or organizations

• Volunteers need to find out which other organizations or groups are
working in the community.
• It is important to recognize that there is no need for duplicate information
by asking the same questions to all people.
• Tailor or target your questions to the audience. Ask people questions that
they will be able to answer.
• Non-health professionals such as agricultural workers and teachers are
additional sources of relevant information.
• Consult local institutions and groups such as the health center,
government authorities, community leaders or elders, and local
community health committee.
• Religious leaders can answer questions and will have access to important
information.
• Women’s groups, youth organizations, political parties, political leaders,
prominent businessmen and informal leaders are all useful sources of
information.
• As volunteers gather information, they will need to explain to community
members what CBHFA activities CAN and CANNOT do. This is imperative
to avoid creating unrealistic expectations.
Identify vulnerable groups

Identifying gaps in community services is necessary. Vulnerable people
may include the elderly, people living with HIV and AIDS, mothers and
children, the disabled, adolescents, refugees and internally displaced persons.
Often the voices of these groups are not heard. In the assessment, volunteers
need to talk to representatives of these groups and determine their needs and
priorities too.
Step 2: Perform the community assessment

Community members should know that volunteers are performing the
community assessment before it is implemented. Interested community

members can be included in the assessment process as part of the assessment

teams. Recording the information is important.
Step 3: Analyze the information

Information that is collected will need to be reviewed, prioritized and
recorded in formats that are useful to volunteers and to community members.
It may happen that different sources of information will contradict each other.
If so, it is helpful to return to the source(s) to verify accuracy. Analyzing the
information and ranking identified community needs will enable volunteers to
define realistic, actionable health, safety and first aid activities. The
information that is collected should focus on activities that the volunteers will
be able to achieve.
Step 4: Validate information with community members

Assessment findings must be shared with community members to
check the accuracy. It is recommended that all individuals who helped
volunteers collect the information should be informed of findings, as a matter
of courtesy.
Step 5: Develop an action plan that prioritizes health and safety needs
Once the information is analyzed, an action plan will be developed and
discussed. Discussion of the action plan will be conducted with volunteers,
Local Authorities and community members. In the initial plan of action, it will
be necessary to identify the training and learning that volunteers should
receive in order to implement activities. An action plan should be achievable
within specifically defined time periods, with roles, responsibilities and
resources clearly identified. It is recommended that the action plan should be
revisited periodically to keep it up to date.
BASIC FIRST AID AND INJURY PREVENTION

First Aid
First Aid is the immediate assistance given to an ill or injured person until
professional medical help arrives.
Principles of First aid Management

The four Principles of First Aid management are:
i. Stay calm. Do NOT take risks for yourself, the injured person or any
witnesses.
ii. Manage the situation to give safe access to the person (Secure the
Scene).
iii. Manage the person.
iv. Do things step by step.

The Four Steps for First Aid Action
Assess
Assess the situation and check for dangers:
▪ Check for safety before rushing to the person.
▪ Make sure the situation is safe for you, the casualty, and other people
or bystanders.
Assess the person’s condition:
• Is the victim suffocating or bleeding? In these cases, act immediately
and appropriately.
• Is the person conscious?
• Is the person breathing?
Assess for injuries.
Assess for signs of shock or psychological trauma.
Plan
Get help:
▪ Call for help or ask someone to call for medical or professional help.
Plan First Aid interventions:
• Plan what action to take until professional help arrives, based on the
initial or primary assessment.
• Determine how much help you can give based on what you know and
what skills you have.
• Ensure your own safety as a volunteer.
Implement
Implement First Aid:
▪ Give First Aid for life-threatening emergencies and specific injuries
based on the initial assessment.
▪ If emergency services are arriving very soon, do not splint injuries.
▪ Maintain safety and wait for assistance.
Give psychological first aid:
• Talk to person and family.
• Inform them what is happening and what you are doing.
If it is necessary, prepare the person for transportation.
Evaluate
Evaluate First Aid actions:
▪ Check that medical or professional assistance will arrive soon.
▪ Check that the scene remains safe. If not, consider moving the person as
carefully as possible with help.
▪ Re-check the actions in the initial assessment.

▪ Check that bandages are still in place and bleeding has stopped. If not,
do NOT remove existing dressings, but simply add more dressings and
apply pressure.
▪ If the person becomes unconscious, follow actions for basic life support.
▪ Hand over the person to medical or professional personnel as soon as
they arrive.
▪ Find out which hospital, clinic or health center will provide care.
▪ Inform family and relatives of the victim.
COMMUNITY MOBILIZATION IN MAJOR EMERGENCIES

Disaster
1. Disasters are man-made or natural events. Disasters frequently exceed the

community’s capacity to cope with them. There are different types of
natural and man-made disasters. Each has different effects on the
community and the health of individuals.
2. Disasters affect peoples’ health by causing:

a. Direct injuries that may lead to death.
b. Psychological trauma and stress.
c. Communicable diseases such as Diarrhoea, Measles, Malaria etc.
d. Contamination of water sources.
e. Other diseases
3. Communities have different vulnerability to different types of disaster.

Volunteers need to understand the vulnerability of their own communities
to disasters.
4. When there are many injured people, volunteers should provide effective
First Aid. Volunteers must be able to assess people who are injured so that
lives can be saved. Give First Aid for:
▪ Life-threatening conditions which should be treated first, for example,

severe bleeding.
▪ Major wounds that are not immediately life-threatening.
▪ Minor wounds.
▪ Dying people.
5. Volunteers need to be able to provide psychosocial support to affected
people in their communities.
6. People need to practice proper hygiene, use clean water and good
sanitation, use mosquito nets and receive vaccinations to overcome the
effects of disasters.

Volunteer Actions
Before a disaster:
▪ Be trained and prepared on first aid and disaster response.
▪ Know where important human and physical resources are located during
a disaster.
▪ Contact local authorities who will organize important resources: – human
and physical resources – communication resources – water, food, health
care and essential services – first aid and health facilities.
During a disaster:
▪ Give emotional and psychological support.
▪ Assist health officials.
▪ Give basic First Aid to casualties as directed by more specialized
volunteers or health professionals.
▪ Help organize safe transport of injured people to the nearest health
facilities.
▪ Support medical teams during mass casualty incidents.
▪ Help bury the dead.
▪ Help people in temporary shelters.
▪ Communicate with other volunteers, local authorities and community
members to ensure safety.
▪ Distribute relief items.
▪ Encourage and support other volunteers.
After a disaster:
▪ Continue to assist in basic health care and First Aid.
▪ Continue to provide emotional and psychological support.
▪ Help disseminate disease prevention and health education advice to
household groups and community members. Important topics will
include:
– Fever.
– Pneumonia and acute respiratory infection.
– Diarrhea and dehydration.
– Malnutrition.
– Other community health problems.
PUBLIC HEALTH IN EMERGENCIES: PREVENTION AND RESPONSE TO

EPIDEMICS
Six categories of diseases that cause epidemics
There are six categories of diseases that cause epidemics:
1. Diarrheal diseases (cholera, salmonella, e-coli, cryptosporidium).

2. Respiratory infections (tuberculosis).

3. Diseases preventable by vaccines (polio, yellow fever, measles, rotavirus
and meningitis).
4. Diseases transmitted by vectors (malaria, dengue).
5. Very contagious and fatal diseases (Ebola and Marburg).
6. New diseases (pandemic influenza, avian influenza, SARS Covid-19).
Prevention activities
Each category of diseases has a certain set of activities that help in its
prevention:
i. Hygiene, water and sanitation.

ii. Having good and clean shelter.
iii. Vaccination of children.
iv. NOT getting mosquito bites.
v. Avoiding unnecessary exposure to any diseases.
Volunteer actions for epidemics
▪ Educate community members about disease prevention.

▪ Educate community members about how to recognize signs and
symptoms of illnesses.
▪ Refer community members with illnesses to the health facility.
▪ Assist health officials to manage outbreaks.
▪ Get trained on epidemic control to learn how to assess and survey
epidemics.
▪ Meet with community leaders to learn what they know about epidemics
and what preparation plans they have made.
▪ Talk to members in the health facility about mass vaccination campaigns.
▪ Ask what volunteers can do to help.
*****************

LESSON - 16
SOFT TISSUE INJURY- BLEEDING CONTROL

AND WOUND CARE
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you would be able to know about:
• Soft Tissues
• Different Injuries in the soft tissues of the body
• Different Types of Wounds
• Dressing and Bandaging
• Sign and Symptoms and Pre-Hospital Treatment for different Soft Tissue
Injuries
INTRODUCTION
Soft tissue injuries (STI) are when trauma or overuse occurs to muscles,
blood vessels, skin, tendons or ligaments. Most soft tissue injuries are the
result of a sudden unexpected or uncontrolled movement due to trauma or
other reasons. However, soft tissue damage can also occur from excessive
overuse or chronically fatigued structures, especially muscles and tendons.
When soft tissue is damaged, there is usually immediate pain along with
immediate or delayed swelling. Stiffness is also very common as a result of the
trauma and swelling. Bruising may also develop after 24-48 hours.
Uncontrolled bleeding is the most common cause of preventable death

from trauma. You can help save a life by knowing how to stop bleeding if
someone, including yourself, is injured.
In this lesson, you will learn the various ways to control bleeding,
whether you only have your two hands to use or whether you have a full
trauma first aid kit available to you.

COMMONLY INJURED TISSUES

Ligaments: Anterior Cruciate Ligament (Knee), Medial Collateral Ligament
(Knee), Ulnar Collateral Ligaments (Wrist/Hand), Interspinous Ligaments
(Vertebrae)
Muscle: Biceps Brachia (Upper Arm), Rectus Femoral (Thigh), Transverse

Abdomens (Abdominals)
Tendons: Patellar Tendon (Knee), Calcaneal/Achilles Tendon (Foot/Lower

Leg), Biceps Tendon (Shoulder/Elbow)
Nerves: Brachial Plexus (Shoulder), Ulnar Nerve (Elbow/Hand), Peroneal

Nerve (Ankle/Foot), Cranial Nerves I-XII(Head)
Bones: Femur (Leg), Humerus (Arm), Ribs (Torso), Metatarsals I-VI (Foot),
Metacarpals I-VI (Hand)
Cartilage: Menisci (Knee), Intervertebral discs (Spine), Acetabulum (Hip)
CLOSED WOUNDS
Definition: The skin is intact and the underlying tissue is not directly exposed
to the outside world. Closed wounds can involve superficial damage to the skin
or can be severe with damage to internal organs. Small contusions generally
do not need treatment, whereas more serious injuries can be fatal. Closed
wounds are generally caused by impact with a blunt object.
Closed wounds are usually caused by direct blunt trauma sustained

when falling down or in motor vehicle accidents. Even with the skin intact, the
damage can reach down to the underlying muscle, internal organs and bones.
Crush wounds can sometimes be caused by heavy falling objects, it might
happen in car accident or collapsing building.
How to recognize closed wounds

• Swelling
• Tenderness
• Discoloration
• Possible deformity

Types of Closed Wounds

Contusion
These are common type of sports injuries, where

a direct blunt trauma can damage the small
blood vessels and capillaries, muscles and
underlying tissue, as well the internal organs
and, in some cases, bone. Contusions present
as a painful bruise with reddish to bluish
discoloration that spreads over the injured area
of skin.
Hematomas
These include any injury that damages the

small blood vessels and capillaries resulting in
blood collecting and pooling in a limited space.
Hematomas typically present as a painful,
spongy rubbery lump-like lesion. Hematomas
can be small or large, deep inside the body or
just under the skin, depending on the severity
and site of the trauma.
Crush injuries
These are usually caused by an external high-

pressure force that squeezes part of the body
between two surfaces. The degree of injury and
pain can range from a minor bruise to a
complete destruction of the crushed area of the
body, depending on the site, size, duration and
power of the trauma.
Pre-hospital treatment for closed wounds

Use universal precautions and secure the scene.
• Apply “RICE” method: Rest, Ice, Compress, and Elevate

• Monitor the patient for any rapid changes in vital signs that might indicate
internal bleeding, which should be treated by a physician
• Treat for shock
• Transport the patient to any medical center as soon as possible.

R.I.C.E. Method:
R - Rest is recommended for initial
24-48 hours after that moderate
activity should start.
I- Apply ice not more than 20 min

with interval of 40-45 min &
apply till maximum 48 hours.
C - Aim is to reduce edematous

swelling.
E – Elevation aims to reduce swelling by increasing venous return of blood to

the systematic circulation.
Note: - If skin color changes don’t apply ice.
OPEN WOUNDS
The skin is broken or interrupted and the underlying tissue is exposed
outside.
An open wound (as in a knife cut) is a break in the skin or mucous
membrane. The most common accidents resulting in open wounds are falls,
mishandling of sharp objects, accidents with tools or machinery, and road
accidents.
Types of open wounds
Abrasions
An abrasion is a skin wound caused by
rubbing or scraping the skin against a hard, rough
surface. Bleeding in this type of wound is usually
limited, but it is important that the skin be cleaned
against infection.
• Includes scrapes and scratches
• Outer layer of skin damaged
• All layers not penetrated

Lacerations
A laceration is a jagged, irregular or blunt
breaking or tearing of soft tissues, often
resulting from mishandling tools and machinery
and other accidents. Bleeding from a laceration
may be rapid and extensive having following
characteristics:
• Smooth or jagged cut
• Caused by Sharp edged objects
• Severe blow or impact with blunt object
• Impossible to determine depth
• Considerable bleeding
Punctures
A puncture is a piercing wound that

causes a small hole in the tissues. Objects such
as nails, needles, ice picks and other pointed
objects can produce puncture wounds. Even if
there is slight external bleeding, there may be
serious internal bleeding resulting from internal
damage to an organ (as in a gunshot wound).
Avulsions
An avulsion is a forcible tearing or partial

tearing away of tissues. It occurs in such
accidents as gunshot wounds,
explosions, animal bites or other body-crushing
injuries. Bleeding is heavy and rapid. Following
are the characteristics of Avulsion wounds:
• Flaps of skin and loose tissues
• Completely pulled off
• Tissue cut off from its oxygen supply

Amputations
Amputation is the removal of a limb

by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a
surgical measure, it is used to control pain or an
infection in the affected limb, such
as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is
carried out on individuals as a preventive
measure for such problems. A special case is
that of congenital amputation, a congenital
disorder, where foetal limbs have been cut off by
constrictive bands. Amputations due to trauma will have following
Characteristics:
• Generally, extremities are affected.
• Massive bleeding
• Blood vessels collapse
Impaled objects
Impaled objects are items that have
punctured any body part and are still
embedded. Depending on the location of the
impalement and the size of the object,
emergency medical response may be necessary.
Gunshot wounds
The immediate damaging effect of a

gunshot wound is typically severe bleeding, and
with it the potential for hypovolemic shock, a
condition characterized by inadequate delivery
of oxygen to vital organs. In the case of
traumatic hypovolemic shock, this failure of
adequate oxygen delivery is due to blood loss, as
blood is the means of delivering oxygen to the
body's constituent parts.

Incisions
An incision is a cut caused by a knife,
the rough edge of metal, broken glass, a razor
blade or some other sharp object. This type of
wound generally bleeds rapidly and heavily. If
the cut is deep, muscles, tendons and nerves
may be damaged.
Pre-hospital treatment for open wounds

• Expose the wound. Remove all clothing and expose soft tissue. Avoid
removing clothing by pulling it over the patient’s head. Best method is to
remove clothing by cutting with trauma scissors.
• Control bleeding. Begin with direct pressure and elevation. If wound
continues to bleed use indirect pressure on a suitable pressure point and
elevation. Use a tourniquet only as a last resort.
• Prevent contamination. Remove debris and contamination around the
surface of the wound. Do not try to remove embedded particles.
• Dress and bandage. Use a sterile dressing and secure with a bandage to
cover the wound.
• Cover the patient and Keep him calm.
• Treat for shock.
• Transport the patient to the nearest medical centre as soon as
possible.
DRESSINGS AND BANDAGES

Dressing: - Any material used to cover a wound that helps control bleeding
and aids in the prevention of additional contamination.
Bandage: - Any material used to hold a dressing in place.
Occlusive dressing: - Any water-resistant material (plastic or waxed paper)
applied to a wound to prevent the entrance of air and the loss of moisture
from internal organs.
Bulky dressing: Multiple stacked dressings made to form a single dressing
2-3 centimetres thick, such as a thick sanitary towel or any similar
material.
Applying Dressings and Bandages
• Dressings are applied for controlling the bleeding.
• Apply the dressing using the aseptic technique.
• Cover the wounds completely.

• Ensure that the dressing and the bandage are firm, fixed and
comfortable, but not so tight as to affect circulation.
• Ensure there are no loose ends that can get entangled in any object.
• Avoid covering the fingertips.
Advantages of dressing and bandages
• Prevent infection
• Absorb discharge
• Control bleeding
• Avoid further injuries
• Reduce pain
The pre-hospital treatment of wounds and soft tissue injuries is
directed at controlling bleeding and preventing contamination
PRIMARY PRINCIPLES OF BLEEDING CONTROL

A: Alert ■ B: Bleeding ■ C: Compress
Ensure own safety
➢ Before you offer any help, you must ensure your own safety! If you
become injured, you will not be able to help the victim
➢ Provide care to the injured person if the scene is safe for you to do so
➢ If, at any time, your safety is threatened, attempt to remove yourself (and
the victim if possible) from danger and find a safe location
➢ Protect yourself from blood-borne infections by wearing gloves, if
available
CALL 112
Call 112 yourself, OR tell someone else to

call. This will notify emergency medical
responders and, depending on the
situation, EMS to respond to the scene
FIND THE SOURCE OF BLEEDING
➢ Open or remove the clothing over the wound so you can clearly see it
➢ Look for and identify “life-threatening” bleeding

WHAT IS “LIFE-THREATENING” BLEEDING?
Blood that is spurting out Blood that won’t stop coming out
of the wound
Blood that is pooling on the ground Clothing that is soaked with blood
Bandages that are soaked with blood Loss of all or part of an arm or leg
COMPRESS
If you don’t have a trauma first aid kit:
➢ Apply Direct Pressure on the wound

Cover the wound with a clean cloth and apply pressure by pushing
directly on it with both hands
If you do have a trauma first aid kit:
➢ For life-threatening bleeding from an arm or leg and a tourniquet

is available:
Apply the tourniquet

➢ For life-threatening bleeding from an arm or leg and a tourniquet is

NOT available OR for bleeding from the neck, shoulder or groin:
Pack (stuff) the wound with a bleeding control (also called a hemostatic)
gauze, plain gauze, or a clean cloth and then apply pressure with both
hands
DIRECT PRESSURE ON A WOUND
1. Take any clean cloth (e.g. shirt) and

cover the wound
2. If the wound is large and deep, try to
“stuff” the cloth down into the wound
3. Apply continuous pressure with both

hands directly on top of the bleeding
wound
4. Push down as hard as you can
5. Hold pressure to stop bleeding.
Continue pressure until relieved by
medical responders
APPLYING A TOURNIQUET
For life-threatening bleeding from an arm or leg and a tourniquet is available

WOUND PACKING AND DIRECT PRESSURE

If you do have a trauma first aid kit:
➢ For life-threatening bleeding from an arm or leg and a tourniquet is NOT
available
OR
➢ For life-threatening bleeding from the neck, shoulder or groin:
Pack (stuff) the wound with bleeding control gauze (also called
hemostatic gauze), plain gauze, or a clean cloth and then apply pressure
with both hands.
1. Open the clothing over the bleeding

wound
2. Wipe away any pooled blood
3. Pack (stuff) the wound with bleeding

control gauze (preferred), plain gauze,
or clean cloth.
4. Apply steady pressure with both

hands directly on top of the bleeding
wound
5. Push down as hard as you can
6. Hold pressure to stop bleeding. Continue
pressure until relieved by medical
responders.
BANDAGING UNUSUAL WOUNDS

Penetrating Injury
• Cover any open wound completely.
• Examine the patient for possible exit wound.
Impaled Objects
• Do not remove unless impaled in the cheek or obstructing the airway or
creating any hindrance in administering CPR.
• Control bleeding.
• Stabilize the object with a bulky dressing and apply a bandage

Avulsion (skin flap)

• Clean the wound surface
• Return skin flap to original position
• Control bleeding
• Cover with bulky dressing and apply a bandage
Amputations or unattached avulsion

• Clean the wound
• Control bleeding.
• Apply dressing and bandages
• Keep amputated part cool and moist, but not wet

SPECIAL SITUATIONS
Injuries to the Scalp
Suspect spinal injury in any patient with a head injury. Do not apply direct
pressure if you suspect a skull fracture.
Wounds to the Eyes (puncture wound or impaled object)

• Bandage the good eye to prevent
movement of injured eye.
• In an unconscious patient, close the

eyes before blindfolding the patient to
prevent the eyes from drying, which
may cause blindness.
• Treat an extruded eye the same way as

you would treat an eye with an impaled
object. Do not try to put the eyeball
back into the socket if it has been
extruded. Cover it with a cup or
cardboard cone before applying the
bandage.
Injuries to the Ear

Blood, clear fluid, or blood-tinged fluid draining from the ear may indicate
skull fracture or severe head trauma.
• Never probe the ear.
• Never pack the ear to stop bleeding; check for clear fluid (CSF) which may
indicate a skull fracture.
• Place a loose, clean dressing across the opening to absorb the fluids.
• Do not apply pressure.
Nosebleeds
A nosebleed in an emergency can be serious and should not be
neglected. The loss of blood can be great and lead to shock. If the patient has
a suspected skull fracture or spinal injury, do not try to stop the bleeding.

Pre-hospital treatment for nosebleeds
Use universal precautions and secure

the scene.
• Maintain open airway.
• Pinch nostrils together or place a
dressing between the upper lip
and the gum and apply pressure.
• Keep patient seated and still.
• Do not pack the nose; check for
clear fluid (CSF) which may indicate a skull fracture.
• Do not remove any objects you may find inside the nose.
• For avulsions, apply a compressive dressing.
Injuries to the Neck

• Visible lacerations or other wounds can produce massive bleeding or air
embolism.
• May lead to difficulty in speaking/ loss of voice.
• Airway obstructions without foreign bodies in mouth, nose or airway.
• Tracheal deviation.
• Deformities or depressions.
• Immobilize the patient if you suspect a spinal injury.
Pre-hospital treatment for injuries to the neck

• Ensure airway open.
• Gloved hand over wound.
• Apply occlusive dressing.
• Place dressing over occlusive dressing.
• Apply pressure as needed.
• Bandage dressing.
• Immobilize cervical spine.
IMPORTANT: With any injury to head, face, scalp, eye, ear, nose or neck,
one should also suspect a possible spinal injury.

Injuries to the Abdomen
The abdomen contains solid and hollow organs. The rupture of hollow
organs (stomach, large and small intestine) can cause the contents (acids,
digestive enzymes, bacteria) to spill into the peritoneal cavity, causing an
inflammatory reaction. Rupture of the solid organs (liver, spleen, etc.) can
cause severe haemorrhage. (Contusion may indicate injury to the abdomen or
pelvis)
Signs and Symptoms of Abdominal Injury

• Pain or cramps in the abdominal area, local or diffused.
• Guarding the abdomen or lying down in foetal position.
• Tenderness of the abdomen.
• Signs of shock.
• Rigid, tense or distended abdomen.
• Mild discomfort progressing to intolerable pain.
• Deep, penetrating pain in the pelvis or lower back.
• Vomiting blood, bright red or like coffee grounds.
• Blood in the stool, bright red or tarry black.
Pre-hospital treatment of Abdominal Injuries

• Be alert for patient vomiting.
• Cover all open wounds.
• Do not try to put the exposed internal organs back; cover them with
thick, moist sterile dressing. Then loosely cover moist dressing with
occlusive dressing. Keep exposed area warm by placing a dressing or
towel over the occlusive dressing.
• Do not remove impaled objects; stabilize it with bulky dressings.
• Constantly monitor vital signs.
• Put patient in supine position.
• Treat for shock.
Injuries to the Genitals
Wounds to the genitals should be treated the same as any other wound.
However, special care and attention should be given to protect the patient’s
privacy.
********************************

LESSON - 17
MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURIES
Objectives

• Define skeletal system and types.
• Define human bone’s structure and joints.
• Define open fracture and close fracture.
• Signs & symptoms of open fracture and close fracture.
• Define dislocation, sprain and strain.
• Signs & symptoms of dislocation sprain and strain.
• Demonstrate the Pre-hospital treatment of fractures and dislocations.
INTRODUCTION
Musculoskeletal injuries are injuries in the Human Musculoskeletal
System, including the joints, ligaments, muscles, nerves, tendons, bones, and
structures that support limbs, neck and back.
Musculoskeletal injuries can arise from a sudden exertion (e.g., lifting a
heavy object) or from repeated motions exerting repetitive strain or from
repeated exposure to force, vibration or awkward posture. Injuries and pain
in the musculoskeletal system caused by acute traumatic events like a road
accident or fall are also considered in musculoskeletal injuries.
Musculoskeletal injuries can affect many different parts of the body including
upper and lower back, neck, shoulders and extremities (arms, legs, feet, and
hands).
HUMAN MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM:

Definition: - The human musculoskeletal system (also known as the Loco-
motor System, and previously the activity system) is an organ system that
gives humans the ability to move using their muscular and skeletal systems.
The musculoskeletal system provides form, support, stability, and
movement to the body. It is made up of the bones of skeleton, muscles,
cartilage, ligaments, tendons, joints and other connective tissue that supports

and binds tissues and organs together. The musculoskeletal system's primary
functions include supporting the body, allowing motion, and protecting vital
organs.
The skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage system
for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of
the hematopoietic system. This system describes how bones are connected to
other bones and muscle fibers via connective tissue such
as tendons and ligaments. The bones provide stability to the body.
The skeleton of an adult human consists of 206 bones. It is composed of
300 bones at birth, which decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some
bones have fused together. It consists of 80 bones in the axial skeleton (28 in
skull and 52 in torso) and 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton (32 x 2 in
upper extremities including both arms and 31 x 2 in lower extremities
including both legs).
Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton
Axial Skeleton: - The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones, including:

• Skull
• Thorax
• Vertebral (spinal) column
Appendicular Skeleton:-
The appendicular skeleton consists
of 126 bones which include:
• Shoulder: clavicle and scapula
• Upper extremities: arms, hands,
fingers
• Pelvis (hips)
• Lower extremities: legs, feet, toes

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

✓ Provide support for the body
✓ Store minerals and lipids
✓ Produce blood cells
✓ Protect body organs
✓ Provide leverage and movement
OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
• Joints — knee, hip, elbow, or shoulder. Each joint reflects a compromise

between stability and range of motion.
• Tendons — A tendon is a fibrous connective tissue which attaches muscle to

bone. Tendons may also attach muscles to structures such as the eyeball. A
tendon serves to move the bone or structure.
• Ligaments -A ligament is a fibrous connective tissue which attaches bone to

bone, and usually serves to hold structures together and keep them stable.
• Skeletal muscles -These muscles contract to pull on tendons and move the
bones of the skeleton. In addition to producing skeletal movement, muscles
also maintain posture and body position, support soft tissues, guard
entrances and exits to the digestive and urinary tracts, and maintain body
temperature.

• Nerves — Nerves control the contraction of skeletal muscles, interpret sensory

information, and coordinate the activities of the body's organ systems.
• Cartilage — This is a type of connective tissue. Cartilage is the tough but
flexible tissue that covers the ends of your bones at a joint. It also gives shape
and support to other parts of your body, such as your ears, nose and windpipe.
Healthy cartilage helps you move by allowing your bones to glide over each
other. It also protects bones by preventing them from rubbing against each
other.
MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURIES
Musculoskeletal injuries result from the damage to muscular or skeletal
systems, which usually occur due to a strenuous and/or repetitive activity.
They are among the most common work-related injuries. It also occurs due to
trauma.
They include a number of disorders involving muscles, bones, tendons,
blood vessels, nerves, and other soft tissues. Treatments vary and can
produce different results. Musculoskeletal pain affects the muscles, ligaments
and tendons, and bones.
SYMPTOMS OF MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURY

• Pain in the hands, arms, shoulders, neck, back, legs or feet.
• May include swelling, numbness, tingling and a feeling of heaviness
and/or tiredness in the affected area.
• Some workers may experience multiple symptoms due to more than
one injury.
FRACTURES
A fracture is a break in a bone. Fractures commonly occur because of
road accidents, falls or sports injuries. Other causes are low bone
density and osteoporosis, which cause weakening of the bones. Overuse can
cause stress fractures, which are very small cracks in the bone.
Symptoms of a Fracture are
• Intense pain
• Deformity - the limb looks out of place
• Swelling, bruising, or tenderness around the injury
• Numbness and tingling
• Problems moving a limb

Fractures can be open or closed.

Closed fracture: - One in which the overlying
skin is intact. Proper splinting may reduce the
damage of closed fracture.
Open fracture: - If the broken bone punctures

the skin, it is called an open or compound
fracture. The bone may or may not protrude
through the wound. Open fractures are serious
because of risk of contamination.
.
DISLOCATIONS
A dislocation is a separation of 2 bones
from the joint that is to say “a dislocated
joint is a joint where the bones are no longer
in their normal positions”.
Symptoms of Dislocation
• Numbness or tingling at the joint or

beyond it
• Very painful, especially if you try to
use the joint or put weight on it
• Limited movement
• Swollen or bruised
• Visibly out of place, discolored, or not
in shape
Pre-hospital treatment for Dislocation

• Call EMS before treating someone who may have a dislocation,
especially in the accidental case and injury is life threatening.
• If the person has a serious injury, check their circulation, Airway and
breathing. If necessary, begin CPR.
• Do not move the person if you think that their head, back, or leg is
injured. Keep the person calm.
• If the skin is broken, take steps to prevent infection. Don’t blow on the
wound. Rinse the area gently with clean water to remove any dirt but do
not scrub or probe. Cover the area with sterile dressings before
immobilizing the injured joint.
• Splint or sling the injured joint in the position in which you found it. Do

not move the joint. Also immobilize the area above and below the injured
area.
• Check blood circulation around the injury by pressing firmly on the skin
in the affected area. It should turn white, then regain color within a
couple of seconds after you stop pressing on it. Apply ice packs to ease
pain and swelling, but do not put ice directly on the skin. Wrap the ice
in a clean cloth.
• Take steps to prevent shock.
Don’t
• Do not move the person unless the injury has been completely
immobilized.
• Do not move a person with an injured hip, pelvis, or upper leg unless it
is absolutely necessary. If you are the only rescuer and the person must
be moved, drag them by their clothing.
• Do not attempt to straighten an out of shape bone or joint or try to
change its position.
• Do not test an out of shape bone or joint for loss of function.
• Do not give the person anything by mouth.
SPRAINS AND STRAINS
• A sprain is a stretched or torn ligament.

Ligaments are tissues that connect bones at a
joint. Falling, twisting, or getting hit can cause a
sprain.
Ankle and wrist sprains are common. Symptoms
include pain, swelling, bruising, and being unable
to move your joints. You might feel a pop or tear
when the injury occurs.
• A strain is a stretched or torn muscle or tendon. Tendons are tissues

that connect muscle to bone. Twisting or pulling these tissues can cause a
strain. Strains can happen suddenly or develop over time. Back and
hamstring muscle strains are common. Many people get strains playing
sports.
• At first, treatment of both sprains and strains usually involves resting the
injured area, icing it, wearing a bandage or device that compresses the area
and the medicines.
• Later treatment includes exercise and physiotherapy.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF A MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURY

• Deformity or angulation: compare with opposite limb
• Pain and tenderness upon palpation or movement
• Crepitus (grating) – a sound or feeling of broken bone ends rubbing
together.
• Swelling
• Bruising or discoloration
• Exposed bone ends
• Joint locked in position – reduced motor ability or reduced ability to
move a joint.
• Numbness and paralysis – may occur distal to site of injury caused by
bone pressing on a nerve.
• Compromised circulation distal to injury evidenced by alteration in skin
colour, temperature, pulse or capillary refill.
Never intentionally induce crepitus. This may cause or aggravate

soft tissue injury.
SPLINTING
A device that is used to stabilize any painful, swollen or deformed body
part. The primary objective of splinting is to prevent further movement of body
parts. For any splint to be effective it must immobilize adjacent joints and
bone ends.
Splinting techniques are used to treat musculoskeletal system
abnormalities. The main indications for splinting are to temporarily
immobilize a limb for pain and spasm, to decrease swelling, and to minimize
further potential soft-tissue or neurovascular injuries associated with
contusions, sprains, lacerations, fractures, dislocations, or painful joints due
to inflammatory disorders.
Reasons for splinting include:
• To prevent moment of bone fragments or dislocated joints
• To reduce pain and suffering
• To minimize damage to soft tissues (for example, nerves, arteries, veins
and muscles)
• To prevent a closed fracture from becoming an open fracture
• To minimize blood loss or shock

Types of Splints
Effective splinting may require
some ingenuity. Though you may carry
many types of splinting devices, many
situations will require you to improvise.
Five basic types of splints:
• Rigid splint: Requires limb to be in
anatomical position. Ideal for long-
bone injuries (for example
cardboard, wood).
• Conforming splint: Can be molded
to different angles or surrounds the
extremity (for example air or
vacuum splints).
• Traction splint: Used specifically
for femur fractures.
• Sling and swathe: Two triangular
bandages used to hold an injured
arm in place against the body.
• Improvised splints: a book,
cardboard, pillow or blanket etc.
General Rules for Splinting
Regardless of the method of splinting, general rules apply to all types of
immobilization, as follows:
• Always communicate your plans with your patient if possible.
• Before immobilizing an injured extremity, expose and control bleeding.
• Always cut and remove clothing around the injury site before
immobilizing the joint. Remove all jewelry from the site and below it.
• Assess PMS (pulse, motor function and sensation)
• If limb is severely deformed or distal circulation is compromised
(cyanosis distal to fracture site or no distal pulse), align the bone with
gentle traction (pulling). If pain or crepitus worsens, discontinue.
• Do not attempt to push protruding bone ends back into place. However,
when realigning, they may slip back into place. Make a note if this
occurs.
• Pad a splint before applying it.
• If a joint is injured, immobilize it and the bones above and below.

Avoid tunnel vision

• Do not over-splint the patient - In trauma patients, do not distract
your attention from life-threatening injuries after gross appearance of
non-critical injuries.
• After securing the patient to a long backboard, support and splint every
affected bone and joint without wasting time.
• Be flexible while splinting. Keep in mind patient’s comfort and principles
of splinting.
PHT FOR SUSPECTED FRACTURES, DISLOCATIONS OR
SPRAINS
Examination involves use of your senses and skills of inspection
(looking), auscultation (listening) and palpation (feeling). Use universal
precautions and secure the scene.
1) Perform initial assessment.
• Identify and treat life-threatening problems.
• Do not be distracted by dramatic-looking injuries.
• Use cervical collar and oxygen, if necessary.
2) Perform a physical exam.
You can use the abbreviation “BPDOC” to guide your exam as you look for
signs and symptoms of injuries.
• Check for visible Bleeding.
• Check for Severe pain.
• Check for visible Deformities. Check all joints and bones in entire body.
• Check for Open injuries.
• Check for crepitus sound.
For Extremity Injuries, always assess for distal pulse, motor function
and sensation of (PMS) before and after splinting.
• Pulse: Radial in upper extremity injuries or pedal pulse (on top of foot)
or posterior tibial pulse (back of ankles, medially) for lower extremities.
• Motor function: check patient’s ability to move, such as wiggling toes
or fingers (movement indicates intact nerves).
• Sensation: Gently squeeze or pinch the finger of the extremity then ask
if patient feel your touch.
3) Stabilize the injury.
After physical examination, secure injury site providing manual
stabilization. Do not release manual stabilization of an injured extremity
until it is properly immobilized.

4) Expose the injury.

Cut away clothing and remove jewellery before swelling occurs.
5) Treat open wounds and control bleeding.
Cover with a clean or sterile dressing and avoid direct pressure over
broken bone ends. Use pressure points as needed if bone ends protrude
from injury, use caution not to allow bone ends to reenter wound.
6) Prepare your splinting materials.
7) Apply the splint carefully to victim.
• Measure or adjust the splint and maintain manual stabilization during
splinting until procedure is completed.
• Apply and secure adjacent joints and injury site.
• Be careful regarding circulation.
8) Reassess pulse, motor function and sensation.
9) Apply cold packs or ice to reduce pain and swelling.
10) Treat for shock.
PHT FOR SPECIFIC INJURIES AND APPLICATION OF SPLINTS

IMPORTANT: Always reassess pulse, motor function and sensation before
and after splinting.
SLING & SWATH CONFORMING SPLINT

Splinting the Upper Extremities

Shoulder and clavicle
• Signs and symptoms: Shoulder appears to be “drooped,” deformity
(Asymmetry), pain.
• Treatment: Apply a sling and swath. Use pad if necessary, to fill the
gap between body and arm.
Humerus (Upper Arm) and Shoulder

• Signs and symptoms: Pain, swelling, deformity.
• Treatment: Use rigid splint to outside of the arm and pad in voids, then
apply sling and swath.
Elbow
• Important: Splint in the same position as found, do not attempt to
straighten.
• Signs and symptoms: Pain, swelling and deformity.
• Treatment: If arm is bent at elbow, splint with sling & swath.
Alternative is pillow or blanket. If elbow is straight, splint entire arm,
armpit to fingertips, both sides.
Forearm and Wrist
• Treatment: Splint area with arm board, then sling and swath.
(Pneumatic splints are an option.)
Hands and Fingers

• Important: Pulse can be checked by capillary refill.
• Treatment: If one finger is fractured, tape it to an adjacent finger or use
tongue depressor as splint. If more than one finger is fractured, splint
the entire hand in the position of fracture. Place a roll of bandage in
palm of hand and then wrap entire hand and place on arm board.
Splinting the Lower Extremities
Pelvis
• Pelvic injuries can be life-threatening due to massive blood loss.
• Suspect shock.
• Any force strong enough to injure the pelvis can also injure the spine.
Signs and symptoms of pelvic injury
• Pain, especially when pressure is applied to iliac crests or pelvic bones
• Inability to lift legs while lying on back

Pre-hospital treatment for pelvic injury

1. Minimize patient movement.
2. Do not log roll or lift with pelvis unsupported.
3. Place a folded blanket between patient’s legs from groin to feet and bind
together with cravats (2 to upper leg, 2 to lower leg).
4. Place the patient on long backboard.
5. Treat for shock.
Hip Injuries
With this type of injury, it is difficult to differentiate an upper femur
fracture from a hip or pelvic fracture or dislocation. Assess for life threatening
injuries as with pelvic injuries.
Signs and symptoms of hip injury
• Pain, swelling and discoloration
• Inability to move leg(s)
• Possible foot rotation (outward or inward)
Pre-hospital treatment for hip injuries
1. Bind legs together with a folded blanket between patient’s legs
2. Support the hip with pillows.
3. Stabilize patient on long backboard, or use long splints along outer
thigh, from foot to armpit with pad and along the inner thigh, from groin
to foot.
4. Secure with cravats.
Femoral Injuries
A femoral fracture can produce massive internal bleeding which may
lead to shock. Treat for life-threats first.
Signs and symptoms of femoral fracture
• Pain (often intense)
• Deformity
• Rigidity
• Shortened limb
Pre-hospital treatment: If you find the leg in a straight position, use two
padded splints one along the inner thigh from groin to the foot, the other along
the outer thigh from the armpit to the foot. Secure with cravats.
Knee Injuries
• Bent position: Immobilize in the position found. The bones above and
below it should be splinted with short padded boards.
• Straight position: Use two padded long splints, the first on the inner

thigh from groin to beyond foot. Place the second on the outer thigh,
from hip to beyond foot. Secure with cravats.
Tibia or Fibula Injury

• Signs and symptoms: Pain, swelling and deformity
• Pre-hospital treatment: Use two padded long splints – groin to foot and
thigh to foot. Secure with cravats. Alternative method for a closed injury
to the tibia or fibula is to use a circumferential splint or pneumatic
splint.
Ankle and Foot Injuries

• Pre-hospital treatment: Stabilize, remove shoes and socks if possible,
expose injury. Circumferential or formable splint such as a pillow
secured with cravats is recommended.
• Alternative: Padded boards to mid-thigh.
IMPROVISED SPLINT:
**********************

LESSON - 18
BASIC LIFE SUPPORT
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to know about:
• Causes of partial or total upper airway obstruction.
• Demonstrate rescue breathing for adults, children and infants using a
mannequin, with and without foreign body airway obstruction.
• Describe and demonstrate CPR in adults, children, and infants using a
Mannequin.
• Describe and demonstrate two-rescuer CPR for adults.
INTRODUCTION
BLS stand for “Basic Life Support” and CPR stands for “Cardio
Pulmonary Resuscitation” i.e., to survive the brain cells in order to save the
victims from irreversible damage to brain cells.
Basic Life Support (BLS) and CPR are the process through which a first
responder makes an attempt to stabilize a victim till the arrival of
EMS/advance care.
BLS is a level of medical care which is used for victims of life-threatening
illnesses or injuries until they can be given full medical care at a hospital. It
can be provided by trained medical personnel, including Emergency Medical
Technicians, Paramedics, and by qualified bystanders.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is made up of four
components:
• An airway (upper and lower)
• A neuromuscular system (includes the
respiratory center in the brain,
respiratory muscles, and the nerves
that connect the two)
• Alveoli – Tiny airs sacs surrounded by
capillaries
• Arteries, capillaries and veins

The alveoli are surrounded by the capillaries. The brain sends nerve
signals to muscles in the thorax and diaphragm, causing us to breathe. With
each inhalation, air is carried through the airways to the alveoli in the lungs,
where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged.
In combination with the respiratory system, the circulatory system
supplies the oxygen necessary for life, and eliminates carbon dioxide from the
body.
1. BREATHING: To assess the presence of breathing, we follow-Look,

Listen and Feel (LLF).
Adequate breathing is characterized by:

• Chest and abdomen, proper rise and fall with each breath.
• Air can be heard and felt exiting the mouth or nose.
• Ease of breathing(effortlessness)
• Adequate rate
Inadequate breathing is characterized by:

• Inadequate rise and fall of the chest and abdomen.
• Noisy breathing: bubbles, rales, strider, whistling etc.
• Increased respiratory effort
• Cyanosis
• Inadequate rate
• Altered mental status
Absent breathing is characterized by:

• No chest or abdominal movement.
• Air cannot be heard and felt exiting the mouth or nose.
2. CYANOSIS
A bluish coloration of the skin and mucous
membranes caused by a lack of oxygen in the
blood and tissues.
This condition can be the result of the
patient breathing in an environment poor in
oxygen, suffering from illness or respiratory
injury, or airway obstruction. Cyanosis can
be more easily noticed on the lips, ears and
nostrils or nail beds.

3. TECHNIQUES FOR OPENING THE AIRWAY
Head-tilt chin-lift
• This is the method of choice for opening the airway.
• Do not use this method if you Suspect head, neck or spinal injury.
Conduct Demonstration:
1) Position the patient lying face up.
2) Kneel by the patient’s shoulders towards the head.
3) Place one hand on the forehead and place the fingertips of your other
hand under the bony part of the patient’s jaw.
4) Lift up on the chin, supporting the jaw, and at the same time, tilt the
head back as far as possible. For infants and children: Place in the
―sniffing position – do not over extend.
Important Precautions:
• Always keep the patient’s mouth slightly open – use your thumb to hold
down the patient’s lower lip.
• Never dig into the soft tissue under the patient’s chin. Once the airway
is open, check breathing. Look, listen and feel. If patient is not
breathing, start artificial ventilations. If unable to ventilate, assume the
airway is obstructed.
Jaw Thrust: The jaw thrust is the only

maneuver recommended on an unconscious
patient with suspected head, neck or spinal
injury.
Process:
• Position the patient lying face up.
• Kneel above the patient’s head. Place your elbows next to the patient’s
head on the surface where the patient is lying. Place both hands on
either side of the patient’s head.

• Grasp the angle of the patient’s jaw on both sides; for an infant or child
use two to three fingers.
• Use a lifting motion to move the jaw forward (up) with both hands.
• Keep the patient’s mouth slightly open by using your thumbs if needed.
Emphasise the need to reattempt if airway does not open. Reposition and
reassess. If unsuccessful, consider using airway adjunct.
4. ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION (RESCUE BREATHING)
Once the patient has an open airway, you can provide artificial
ventilation for a patient breathing inadequately or not at all.
There are many techniques for artificial ventilation. You should be
competent in three, listed below in recommended order of preference:
1. Mouth-to-mask
2. Mouth-to-barrier device
3. Mouth-to-mouth
Breathing rates and duration:

• Adults: 12-20 breaths per minute.
• Children: 15-30 breaths per minute.
• Infant: 25-50 breaths per minute.
Note: -Breathing rate also vary as per age. Look for proper chest rise.
With infants and newborns, use puffs from the mouth so as not to over-
ventilate.
Hazards to Rescuers
• Diseases: Blood-borne and/or airborne. Mask, gloves, and eye
protection should be worn. Use BVM (Bag Valve Mask) or pocket mask.
• Chemicals: Exposure from a contaminated patient. Patient should be
decontaminated first.
• Vomits: One-way valve on a pocket mask or BVM should be used.

Gastric Distention
This problem can occur during rescue breathing, which can force some
air into the patient’s stomach, causing the stomach to become inflated, or
distended.
Prevention: Avoid or minimize gastric distention by positioning the patient’s
head properly and by avoiding giving ventilations that are too forceful or too
quick. Volume should be limited to that which causes the chest to rise
adequately.
Recovery Position: For a patient with a pulse

and adequate breathing, place the patient in the
recovery position. This position uses gravity to
keep the airway clear, allowing fluids to drain out
of the mouth instead of into the airway. The
recovery position should be used on an
unresponsive, uninjured patient who is
breathing adequately. Keep the patient in that
position until transportation arrives. Do not
move the patient into the recovery position if you
suspect trauma or C-spine (cervical spine) injury.
Mouth-To-Mask ventilation procedure

This method uses a pocket face mask with a
one-way valve to form a seal around the patient’s
nose and mouth. It is the preferred method
because it eliminates direct contact with the
patient and prevents exposure.
1. Place the mask around the patient’s mouth and nose. The narrower top
portion of the mask should be seated on the bridge of the nose. The
broader portion should fit the chin.
2. Seal the mask by placing heel and thumb of each hand along the border
of the mask and pressing firmly to provide a tight seal around the edges
of the mask.
Mouth-To-Barrier device ventilation procedure

There are two broad categories of barrier devices: masks and shields.
Most have a one-way valve but have no exhalation port. The patient’s
exhaled air will leak out around the barrier device.
1. Position the barrier device around the patient’s mouth and nose,
providing an adequate seal.

2. Open the patient’s airway, using the appropriate maneuver.

3. Deliver breaths at the appropriate rate and depth, observing chest rise
and fall. Listen for patient exhalation.
Mouth-to-Mouth ventilation procedure: -
The risk of contracting infectious diseases makes mouth-to-mouth
ventilation very risky for use in the field. The decision to use this method is a
personal one.
Use barrier devices whenever possible.
1. Open the patient’s airway, using the appropriate maneuver.
2. Gently pinch the patient’s nose closed with your thumb and index finger
(of the hand on the forehead), to prevent air from escaping.
Stoma Patients: Occasionally, you may encounter a patient who has
undergone a laryngectomy. This person will have a stoma, a permanent opening

from the trachea to the front of the neck. Perform direct mouth-to-stoma
ventilation.
5. FOREIGN BODY AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION (FBAO)
“Foreign body airway obstruction: a partial or complete blockage of the
breathing tubes to the lungs due to a foreign body (for example, food, a bead,
toy, etc.). The onset of respiratory distress may be sudden with cough. There
is often agitation in the early stage of airway obstruction.”
There are two types of airway i.e., upper and lower airway. An upper
airway obstruction is anything that blocks the back of the mouth or throat, or
the nasal passages (Upper airway). A lower airway obstruction is caused by
breathing in a foreign body or by severe spasm of the bronchial passages, such
as asthma. Airway obstruction can be caused by the following:
Causes of Airway Obstruction

➢ Tongue: The tongue falls back, blocking the throat. This problem is
common in unconscious patients.
➢ Epiglottis: Occurs when patient try to force breathing. Also caused by
allergies.

➢ Foreign body: Objects such as food, ice, toys, dentures, vomitus and
liquid that remain in the upper portion of the throat or airway
➢ Tissue Damage: Can be caused by a penetrating injury to the neck,
inhalation of the hot air,
➢ Illness: Respiratory infections and certain chronic conditions (such as
asthma) or Sudden Infant Death Syndrome may cause tissue
inflammation or muscular spasms and obstruct the airways.
Recognizing (FBAO)
The key to successful treatment is early recognition. Suspect FBAO in
any victim who suddenly stops breathing, becomes cyanotic, and loses
consciousness for no apparent reason.
There are two types of FBAO – Partial and Complete.
Partial: An object caught in the throat that does not totally block breathing.
A patient with partial obstruction may have adequate or poor air exchange.
With adequate air exchange, the patient may cough forcefully, though there
maybe wheezing between coughs. Do not interfere with patient’s attempt to
clear the airway. With poor air exchange, the patient will exhibit a weak,
ineffective cough, high-pitched noise while inhaling, increasing respiratory
difficulty and possible cyanosis. Treat this situation as a complete airway
obstruction.
Complete: The patient is unable to speak, breathe or cough. May clutch neck
with thumb and finger – this gesture is known as the universal sign of
choking. Movement of air will be absent.
6. MANAGING FBAO IN ADULTS AND CHILDREN

The method recommended for relieving FBAO with poor air exchange
or complete obstruction is the abdominal thrust (Heimlich maneuver). Each
individual thrust should be administered with the intent of relieving the
obstruction. It may be necessary to perform several thrusts. It is possible to
damage internal organs with this method. To minimize the possibility of
injury, never place your hands on the xiphoid process or on the lower edges
of the ribcage – your hands should be below this area but above the navel.
Manage a complete airway obstruction in children the same way you
would for adults, except that you never use a blind finger sweep in children
ages 1 to 8 as well in infants. Airway obstruction in children may also be
caused by infections such as epiglottis or croup, which produce airway
edema. Suspect this condition if an infant or child has a fever with
congestion, hoarseness or drooling. A patient with any of these conditions
must be transported to the emergency facility. It is dangerous to the patient
to attempt to relieve this form of obstruction.

Abdominal Thrusts — Responsive Adult or Child (Patient Standing or

Sitting)
1. Determine that there is

complete obstruction or
partial obstruction.
2. Ask, hey are you choking.
3. Position yourself behind the
patient and place the thumb
side of one fist on the center of
the breast bone.
4. Grasp the fist with the other
hand and give up to five chest
thrust in rapid succession.
5. Watch and listen for evidence
that the object has been
removed. The patient will
begin to cough or speak if it
has been.
6. If the patients’ airway remains obstructed repeat the thrust until the
airway is cleared or until the patient loses responsiveness.
7. If the patient becomes unresponsive before you are able to clear the
airway obstruction, direct someone to call EMS and begin CPR.
Unresponsive Adult or Child
1. Take the appropriate BSI precaution.
2. With the patient lying face up position (supine) tap and shout to assess
responsiveness.
3. If unresponsive, alert EMS.
4. Assess for the presence of breathing by looking, listening and feeling for
air Exchange.
5. If breathing is absent or only gasping, assess for carotid pulse. If there
is a Pulse, attempt to ventilate the patient.
6. If after two attempts you are unable to achieve adequate chest rise,
begin CPR.
Chest Thrusts — Pregnant or Obese Responsive Adult (Patient Standing
or Sitting)
Chest thrusts are to be used only with patients in late stages of pregnancy or
with the markedly obese, when abdominal thrusts cannot be applied
effectively. So, use chest thrust for pregnant lady and fat person. Also, same
procedure (unresponsive adult) will be followed after unresponsiveness.

7. MANAGING FBAO IN INFANTS
Always suspect foreign body airway

obstruction in infants who demonstrate sudden
onset of respiratory distress associated with
gagging, coughing or wheezing.
Removing FBAO in Conscious Infant:
Perform the following procedure only if the infant has a complete

obstruction or partial obstruction with poor air exchange, and only if you
suspect a foreign object.
1. Take appropriate BSI (Body Substance Isolation)
2. Pick up the infant and support him between forearms of both arms.
3. Rapidly deliver five back blows between the shoulder blades. If this fails
to expel the object proceed the next step.
4. Infant turns over onto his back, again keeping the head lower than the
Trunk use your thigh to support your forearm.
5. Locate the compression site and deliver the five chest thrusts.
6. Continue with this sequence of back slaps and chest thrusts until the
object is expelled or the infant loses responsiveness.
7. If the infant becomes unresponsive before you can expel the object,
begin CPR.
Unresponsive Infant: -
1. Take appropriate BSI

2. If the infant is unresponsive and breathing is absent or only gasping,
alert EMS
3. If there is no pulse, begin CPR with chest compression. If there is a pulse
attempt to Ventilate
4. If after two attempts you are unable to achieve adequate chest rise,
begin CPR

8. CHAIN OF SURVIVAL: The chain of survival refers to the links

through which the chance for survival of patient increases once all the links
are put together. At present there are five links related to the chain of survival.
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) can save the lives of victims in cardiac
arrest. Two-thirds of heart attack victims (due to heart disease) die outside the
hospital, most within two hours of the onset of symptoms. Though CPR itself
is not enough to save
the life of a victim of
heart attack, it is a
vital link in the chain
of survival.
The Chain of
Survival has five
links. The 5 links in
the adult out-of-
hospital Chain of
Survival are
1. Recognition of cardiac arrest and activation of the emergency
response system
2. Early cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) with an emphasis on
chest compressions
3. Rapid defibrillation
4. Basic and advanced emergency medical services
5. Advanced life support and post-cardiac arrest care
A strong Chain of Survival can improve chances of survival and recovery for
victims of cardiac arrest. The need for these interventions should not be
limited to victims of heart disease. Many victims of drowning, trauma,
electrocution, suffocation, airway obstruction, allergic reaction, etc may be
saved by prompt interventions.
Heart Attack Risk Factors-
An association has been found to exist between specific conditions and
behaviors, and the development of blood vessel disease. The risk factors
concept was developed to create an awareness of these associations.
Factors that cannot be changed
• Family history
• Sex
• Ethnic background
• Age

Risk factors that can be changed

• Smoking
• High blood pressure
• High cholesterol
• Physical activity
Contributing factors
• Obesity
• Diabetes
• Excessive stress
The greater the prevalence of risk factors, the greater the likelihood of heart
disease or other blood vessel disease.

9. HEART AND LUNG FUNCTION AND ANATOMY
Cardiovascular system: The Cardiovascular system consists of the heart,

blood, arteries, capillaries and veins. The heart is a muscular organ,
approximately the size of a fist, and is located in the thoracic cavity behind
the sternum and between the lungs. The coronary arteries are special arteries
that supply blood to the heart muscles themselves.
The function of the heart is to pump blood. The left side receives
oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body through the
arteries. The right side receives, from the veins, the blood that has circulated
through the body and pumps it to the lungs to be oxygenated once again.
A system of one-way valves keeps the blood flowing in the right direction
and prevents it from flowing backwards.
Clinical and Biological death:

The respiratory and circulatory system is interdependent – if either one
stop; the other will do the same in a very short time. The brain is the first
organ to suffer the effects of a lack of oxygen. Shortly after oxygen supply is
cut off, brain cells begin to die, causing irreversible damage.
Clinical Death: Occurs when a patient is in respiratory arrest (not breathing)
or in cardiac arrest (heart not beating). The patient has a period of 4 to 6
minutes to be resuscitated without brain damage. Clinical death can be
reversed.
Biological Death: The moment the brain cells begin to die. Biological death
cannot be reversed.
Exception: Cold water drowning.
There have been cases of persons resuscitated One hour or more after cold-
water drowning. In a cold environment, a person should not be considered
dead until the victim’s body is warmed.
10. SIGNS OF CERTAIN DEATH
Lividity : The pooling of blood in the lower areas of the body. Shows as a
purple to bluish color. A few hours after death,
blood will settle in the lowest areas of the body
due to gravity.
Rigor mortis: stiffening of the body and limbs
that occurs after death, usually within 4–10
hours.

Decomposition: A decomposing body

always produces a fetid odor. The rate of
decomposition depends on a number of
factors, primarily ambient temperature.
Other signs: mortal wounds such as decapitation, dismemberment,

incineration, severe crushing injuries etc.
Note: - Only a medical doctor can pronounce a person officially dead.
11. CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION (CPR)

During respiratory arrest, the heart can continue to pump for several
minutes and circulate oxygen. Without early
intervention, respiratory arrest may lead to
cardiac arrest. Once cardiac arrest occurs,
circulation ceases and vital organs are
deprived of oxygen.
When respiratory and cardiac arrest
occurs together, the patient is considered
clinically dead. Within 4 to 6 minutes without
circulation, brain damage will begin, and after
8 to 10 minutes, the damage is irreversible.
CPR involves a combination of chest compressions and artificial
ventilations designed to revive a person and prevent biological death by
mechanically keeping a person’s heart and lungs working.
Note: - CPR must begin as soon as

possible
Preparing for CPR

No patient should undergo CPR
until the need for resuscitation has been
established by appropriate assessment.
Before providing CPR, you must
determine unresponsiveness,
breathlessness and pulselessness.
Follow these steps:
➢ Establish unresponsiveness: Ask the patient, ―Are you okay? ―What is

your name? Or shake/tap the patient. If unresponsive, position the
patient properly (supine with arms along the body on a firm, flat surface,
or blood flow will be compromised).
➢ Activate the EMS system: (Ask someone else to activate when available)

➢ Check CAB.
➢ Circulation: Check pulselessness. On an adult and child, check the
carotid for 5-10 seconds. On an infant, check brachial pulse. If you detect
no pulse, begin CPR immediately.
➢ Airway: Check for open airway. Use appropriate method to open airway.
➢ Breathing: Use the look, listen and feel method to assess respirations. If
the patient is not breathing, provide two ventilations. Use small puffs on
infants.
CPR Chest Compressions for Adults: The specific steps for 1 rescuer & 2
rescuers CPR will be covered in the stations.
Chest compressions consist of rhythmic, repeated pressure over the
lower half of the sternum. When combined with artificial ventilation, it
provides enough blood circulation to sustain life. Follow these steps:
1) Position the patient: Must be supine on firm, flat surface, with arms
along sides.
2) Expose the patient’s chest: Remove the patient’s shirt or blouse,
providing for patient’s privacy as much as possible.
3) Get in position: Kneel close to the patient’s side, with your knees about
as wide apart as your shoulders.
4) Locate the xiphoid process: Feel the
lower margin of the rib cage. Run your
fingers along the rib cage to the notch
where the ribs meet the sternum, in
the Centre of the lower chest.
5) Locate the compression site:
Measure two finger widths from the
xiphoid toward the upper chest, this is where you will rest the heel of your
firsthand.
6) Position your hands: Put your free hand on top of the first hand. Extend
or interlace your fingers (do not rest them on the chest wall).
7) Position your shoulders: They should be directly over your hands.
8) Perform chest compressions: Keeping your arms straight and your
elbows
locked, thrust straight downward from your shoulders. Release pressure
completely after each compression. However, do not lift or move your
hands, or you will lose proper position. Count as you perform
compressions.

Adult CPR Summary – 8 years and older

• Compression depth: 5-6cm.
• Compression rate: 100-120 per minute
• Each ventilation: 4-5second
• Pulse location: Carotid artery
• One-rescuer cycle: 30 compressions, 2 breaths
• Two-rescuer cycle: 30 compressions, 2 breaths
CPR Chest Compressions for Infant and Children
The specific steps for infant CPR
Cardiac arrest in infants and children is rarely caused by heart
problems. Usually, the cause is too little oxygen (hypoxia) due to injuries,
suffocation, smoke inhalation etc. For this reason, you should resuscitate an
infant/child for one minute before activating the EMS system (if you are
alone).
1. Position the patient: Must be supine on firm, flat surface, with arms
along sides. If an infant, place him or her on your forearm, using your
palm to support the head.
2. Expose the patient’s chest: Remove the patient’s shirt or blouse.
3. Locate the compression site: In a child, use the same location as an
adult. In infants, use one finger width below an imaginary line between the
nipples.
4. Perform chest compressions: For an infant, use the flat part of your
middle and ring fingers to compress the sternum. For a child, use the heel
of one hand. Release pressure completely after each compression.
However, do not lift or move your hands, or you will lose proper position.
Count as you perform compressions.
Child CPR Summary – 1-8 years of age American Heart Association (AHA)
• Compression depth: 4-5 cm. (1/3–1/2 total chest depth)
• Compression rate: 100-120 per minute
• Each ventilation: 3-5 second
• Pulse location: Carotid artery
• One-rescuer cycle: 30 compressions, 2 breaths.
• Two-rescuer cycle: 15 compressions, 2 breaths.
Infant CPR Summary – 1 year old and under (AHA)

• Compression depth: 3-4 cm. or 1-1.5 inch, (1/3–1/2 total chest depth)
• Compression rate: 100-120 per minute or more
• Each ventilation: 3- 5 second
• Pulse location: Brachial artery
• One-rescuer cycle: 30 compressions, 2 breaths.
• Two-rescuer cycle: 15 compressions, 2 breaths.

12. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING CPR

Signs of Successful CPR: ―Successful CPR does not mean that the patient
survives – it only means that you performed it correctly. Very few patients will
survive if they do not receive Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS). The goal
of CPR is to prevent the death of cells and organs for a few crucial
minutes.
The patient’s condition needs to be monitored throughout CPR to determine if
CPR is effective.
• Have someone feel for a pulse during compressions. A pulse should be
palpable with every compression.
• The chest should rise and fall with each ventilation.
• The pupils may begin to react normally.
• Patient’s skin color may improve.
• Patient may attempt to move and try to swallow.
• Heartbeat may return.
Complications Caused by CPR
Even properly performed CPR can cause injuries, including:
• Fracture of the sternum and ribs
• Pneumothorax
• Haemothorax
• Cuts and bruises to the lungs
• Lacerations to the liver
Most of these complications are rare. Take care to use proper technique.
Remember that even if CPR results in complications, the alternative is death.

13. MISTAKES IN PERFORMING CPR

Problem Result
1. Patient is not on a hard surface Compressions are not effective
If patient’s head is higher than the
Patient is not in horizontal position rest
2.
of the body, there is insufficient
blood flow to reach the brain.
Head-tilt chin- lift manoeuvre improperly Open airway not ensured
3.
performed
Incomplete seal around the patient’s Ventilation is not effective
4.
mouth and/or nose
Nostrils not completely pinched and
5. the patient’s mouth is not fully open during Ventilations are not effective
mouth-to-mouth ventilation.
Hands not in correct position or Fractured ribs; fractured sternum;
compressions incorrectly placed lacerated liver, spleen, lungs or
6.
injured
pleura as a result of fractured ribs
Compressions too deep or frequent Insufficient amount of blood is
7.
pumped
8. Improper compression/ventilation ration Inadequate oxygenation of blood
Interrupting CPR: Once you begin CPR, you should not interrupt for more
than a few seconds to check for pulse and breathing, or to reposition yourself
or the patient. In addition, you interrupt CPR to:
• Move the patient on to a stretcher
• Move the patient down a flight of stairs or through a hallway
• Loading or unloading the patient into the ambulance
• To allow for defibrillation or ACLS (Advanced Cardiac Life Support)
measures to be initiated
• Recover from physical exhaustion
14. AUTOMATED EXTERNAL DEFIBRILLATION

An automated external defibrillator (AED) is a portable electronic device
that automatically diagnoses the life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias of
ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia and is able to treat
them through defibrillation, the application of electricity which stops the
arrhythmia, allowing the heart to re-establish an effective rhythm. AED
designed with simple audio and visual commands, and to be simple to use for
the layperson. Certified medical first responder is able to use AED.

AED are designed to deliver an electric shock that will stimulate the
heart to begin beating normally. The shock does not start a heart that has
stopped or is in arrest, but it will give the heart a chance to spontaneously
re-establish an effective rhythm on its own. The entire process is called
defibrillation.
Conditions That the Device Treats
Sudden cardiac arrest can happen to anyone, anytime without warning but
usually occurs in adults. Most cardiac arrests happen in the home. Therefore,
knowing how to activate the emergency medical services (EMS) system,
perform CPR and use an automated external defibrillator (AED) could help you
save a life.
The heart’s electrical system sends out signals that tell the heart to pump
blood. These signals travel through the upper chambers of the heart, called
the atria, to the lower chambers, called the ventricles.
When the heart is normal and healthy, these electrical signals cause the
ventricles to squeeze together, or contract. These contractions force blood out
of the heart. The blood then circulates throughout the body. When the
ventricles relax between contractions, blood flows back into the heart. The
pause that you notice between heart beats when taking a person’s pulse are
the pauses between contractions.
*****************************

LESSON - 19
LIFTING AND MOVING PATIENTS
Objective
• Define Body Mechanics.
• Explain three Emergency Moves and two Non-Emergency Moves for
lifting and moving a patient.
• Demonstrate the techniques for immobilizing and transporting a
patient, using a backboard
• Explain five examples of situations that might require you to make an
Emergency Move with a patient.
INTRODUCTION
The proper and efficient use of body mechanics for a rescuer during
lifting and moving of the patient/victim from the incident sites or operational
sites for better cure and immediate proper treatment. Before lifting or moving
a patient or an object, it is very important to make a plan that what and how
we have to do for successful completion. Before lifting and moving a patient or
object we will have to ensure or estimate the load or weight and if required
additional help can also be taken. Never try to lift or move which is beyond
in your capacity.
BODY MECHANICS

Body mechanics (the use of the body to facilitate lifting and moving to
minimize injury) involves standing and moving one’s body correctly as well as
making the best use of one’s strength to prevent injury. When you learn how
to control and balance your body, you can safely move another person. When
lifting something or someone heavy, the proper body mechanics will help you
prevent injuries to your back
GENERAL RULES:
When you are ready to lift, these rules minimize the chance of injury:
1. Position your feet properly. It should be on firm, leveled surface and
positioned at a comfortable width apart.
2. Take extra care if the surface is slippery or unstable.
3. Lift with your legs. Keep your back as straight as possible and bend at
your knees. Don’t try to bend the waist and keep eyes on your partner.
This technique is known as a power lift.
4. When lifting an object with in one hand, avoid leaning to either side.
Bend your knees to grasp the object and keep your back straight.
5. Minimize twisting during a lift.
6. Keep the weight as close to your body as possible. It can reduce the
greater chance of injury.
7. When carrying a patient on a stairway, use a stair chair instead of a
wheeled stretcher whenever possible have a rescuer watch you as you
walk backward down stairs.
DO NOT:
✓ Lift from a twisted / sideways position.
✓ Lift from a forward stooped / imbalanced position
Apply these principles to lifting, pulling, pushing, carrying, moving or
reaching of an object. The key to preventing injury is correct alignment of
the spine. Keep a normal inward curve of the lower back. Keep wrist and knees
in normal alignment. Teamwork is essential. Communicate during a task,
clearly and frequently. Use commands that are easy for team members to
understand. Verbally coordinate moves from beginning to end. A proactive,
well-balanced physical fitness program should include training in flexibility,
cardiovascular exercise, strength and nutrition.
MOVING PATIENTS:
Lifting the patients safely requires you to use good posture and good
body mechanics. You should consider the weight of the patient and call for
additional help if needed. Plan how you will move the patient and where you
will move him. It is also important to remember to lift with your legs and not
your back. When lifting with other EMS professionals, communication and
planning are keys.

Patient-moving techniques can be classified as Emergency Moves and Non-

Emergency Moves.
EMERGENCY MOVES:
It is a patient move that is carried out quickly when the scene is
hazardous, care of the patient requires immediate response, or you must
reach another patient who needs life-saving care, or in order to reach critical
patients. These situations call for an emergency move.
Characteristics of emergency moves:
• Fastest
• No spinal stabilization
• Performed when the scene is not safe, and there is an immediate danger
to both the patient and the rescuer.
Examples of situations which might require you to make an Emergency
move:
• Fire or threat of fire – always considered a great threat to patients and
rescuers.
• Explosion or threat of explosion (hazardous scene)
• Inability to protect the patient from hazards at the scene
• Unstable building
• Rolled over car
• Hostile crowd
• Hazardous materials (Hazard-Mat)
• Spilled gasoline
• Extreme weather
• To gain access to other patients who need care.
• When life-saving care cannot be given due to patient’s location or
position.
The greatest danger in making an emergency move is the possibility of
aggravating a spinal injury. Provide as much protection to the spine as
possible – pull the patient in the direction of the long axis of the body.
Try not to move the head away from the neck and shoulders and secure
the hands and arms. Moving patients away from a vehicle quickly and safely
may be impossible. Move the patient only under conditions mentioned above.
Types of Emergency Moves:

• Shirt drag
• Shoulder or forearm drag
• Blanket drag

Other Types of Emergency Move:

• Piggy Bag Carry
• Cradle Carry
• Firefighter’s Drag
• One Rescuer Crutch
• Two Rescuer Assist
Fore arm drag

• Place your hands under the patient’s
armpits from the back and grasp the
patient’s forearms.
• Used to move a heavy patient.
• Offers some protection for the head and
neck.
Blanket drag:
Gather half of the blanket material up against
patient’s side. Roll patient toward your knees so
that you can place the blanket under him. Gently
roll patient back onto the blanket. During the
drag, keep patient’s head as low as possible.
Piggy back carry:
Assist the patient to stand. Place his/ her
arms over your shoulder so that they cross your
chest. Bend over and lift. While he/she holds on
with his/her arms, crouch and grasp each thigh.
Use a lifting motion to move him/her onto your
back. Pass your forearms under his/her knees
and grasp his/her wrists
Cradle carry:
Place one arm across patient’s back with
your hand under his/her arm. Place your other
arm under his/her knees and lift. If your patient
is conscious, have him/her place his/her near
arm over your shoulder.
Fire fighter drag:

Place patient on his back and secure his
hands together with tape or roller gauze.
Straddle the patient, facing his head. Crouch;
Move on your hands and knees. Keep patient’s
head as low as possible.

One-rescuer assist:
Place patient’s arm around your neck, grasping
his/her hand in yours. Place your other arm around
patient’s waist. Help his/her walk to safety. Be prepared
to change technique if level of danger increases. Be sure
to communicate with patient about obstacles, uneven
terrain, and so on.
Two-Rescuer Assist:
Patient’s arms are placed around shoulders of

both rescuers. Each rescuer grips one of the patient’s
hands, places a free arm around the patient’s waist, and
helps him walk to safety.
NON–EMERGENCY MOVES:
A non-emergency move is the preferred choice when the situation is not
urgent, the patient is stable, and you have adequate time and personnel for a
move. Non-emergency moves should be carried out with the help of other
trained personnel or bystanders. Take care to prevent additional injury to the
patient, as well as to avoid patient discomfort and pain.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-EMERGENCY MOVES:
Scene safe, patient stable:

• Use a minimum of three rescuers whenever possible.
• If possible and when in doubt, always suspect spinal injury and provide
full spinal immobilization on a backboard before moving.
• For example, a patient out of a car crash should always be immobilized
even if he or she appears well.
• Where there is no immediate threat to life, the patient should be moved
only when ready for transport, using a Non-Emergency move.
EXAMPLES OF NON-EMERGENCY MOVES:

DIRECT-GROUND/BED LIFT:
The direct ground lift is a three-rescuer non-emergency move that can
be used to move a patient from the ground or floor to a bed or stretcher. This
move is not recommended for use on patients with possible neck or spine
injuries. Although it can be carried by two people, three are recommended.
To perform a direct ground lift, the patient should be lying face up
(supine), and his arms should be placed on the chest. You and your helpers

should line up on one side of the patient. One rescuer should be at the
patient’s head, another at his/her midsection, and the third at the lower legs.
Each of you should drop to the knee closer to the patient’s feet.
The rescuer at the head should place one arm under the patient’s neck
and grasp the far shoulder in order to cradle the head. The other arm should
be placed under the back, just above the waist. The rescuer at his/her
midsection should place one arm above and one arm below the buttocks. The
rescuer at the patient’s lower legs should place one arm under his/her knees
and the other arm under the ankles.
First, on the signal of the rescuer at the head, everyone should lift the
patient up to their knee level.
Then, on signal, the rescuers should roll the patient toward their chests.
Finally, on signal, everyone should stand while holding the patient. You can
now move her, reversing the process when it is time to place her in a supine
position.

EXTREMITY LIFT:
An extremity lift requires two people. This lift is ideal for moving a
patient from the ground to a chair or the stretcher. It can be also used to move
a patient from a chair to the stretcher. It should not be performed, however, if
there is a possibility of head, neck, spine, shoulder, hip, or knee injury, or any
suspected fractures to the extremities that have not been immobilized.
The patient should be placed face up, with the knees flexed. You should
kneel at the head of the patient, placing your hands under her shoulders. Have
your helper stand at the patient’s feet and grasp her waists. Direct your helper
to pull the patient into a sitting position, while you push the patient from the
shoulders.
(Do not let your helper pull the patient by the arms if there are any signs of
suspected fractures). Slip your arms under the patient’s armpits and grasp
the wrists. Once the patient is in a semi-sitting position, have your helper
crouch down and grasp the patient’s legs behind the knees.
POSITIONING THE PATIENT:

How you position a patient depends on the patient’s condition.
Examples:
• Patient showing signs of shock may be placed in the shock position –
elevate legs or foot end of long spine board 20-30 cm.
• Patient with respiratory problems may get into a more comfortable
position, unless injuries prevent it. These patients generally want to sit
up.
• Patients with abdominal pain generally want to be on one side with legs
drawn up.
• A responsive patient, who is nauseated or vomiting, should be allowed
to remain in a position of comfort, unless injuries prevent it. Always be
ready to manage patient airway.
• Trauma patients, especially suspected with spinal injury, should be
appropriately immobilized on long spine board.
• Place patient in recovery position if unconscious and not
contraindicated.

Obviously, it is not possible to address every situation. Conditions at the scene

and the patient’s condition will dictate a good position for the patient.
PATIENT-CARRYING EQUIPMENT:
EMTs and advanced life support (ALS) personnel will often ask
Emergency Medical Responders to assist with preparing the patient for
transport and with lifting, and loading patients into the ambulance. To help
with these tasks, you must be familiar with various carrying and packaging
devices that are used. Many Emergency Medical Responder courses do not
include information and practice on immobilization devices.
Such equipment includes stretchers and other devices designed to carry
patients safely to their destination. You should become completely familiar
with the use of these devices. They must also know the limitations of the
equipment. It is very import to regularly maintain and inspect these devices.
Typical equipment used to move patients includes:
LIGHT WEIGHT PORTABLE STRETCHERS:

This type of stretcher is also known as a folding or flat stretcher. It is
much lighter than standard wheeled stretcher and
makes the task of moving a patient down stairs or
out of tight spaces much easier. Portable stretchers
may be canvas, aluminum, or heavy plastic, and
they usually fold, roll up, or collapse for easy
storage. Aluminum and plastic stretchers are now
commonly used because it is easy to disinfect them.
WHEELED STRETCHERS:
For ambulances, a collapsible wheeled stretcher, or gurney, is a type of
stretcher on a variable-height wheeled frame. Normally, an integral lug on the
stretcher locks into a sprung latch within the
ambulance in order to prevent movement during
transport. It is usually covered with a disposable sheet
and cleaned after each evacuation in order to prevent
the spread of infection. Its key value is to facilitate
moving the patient and sheet onto a fixed bed or table
on arrival at the emergency department. Both types may
have straps to secure the patient.

SCOOP STRETCHER:
The scoop stretcher (or clamshell, Roberson
orthopedic stretcher, or just scoop) is a device used
specifically for moving injured people. It is most
frequently used to lift people from the ground who
may have a spinal cord injury. They have to be so
lifted either due to unconsciousness or in order to
maintain stability in the case of trauma.
VEST-TYPE EXTRICATION DEVICES:

This device facilitates the extrication of a seated patient, while
stabilizing the patient’s head, neck, and spine. Commonly used in vehicle
extrication.
Stair chair: The stair chair helps rescuers move seated
medical patients down stairways and through right
places where a traditional stretcher will not fit.
Newer brands are made of sturdy folding frames
with either canvas or hard plastic seats and are easy to
store. They have wheels that allow rescuers to roll them
over flat surfaces. Some models have a tractor tread
mechanism that allows them to easily slide down
stairways just by tilting them.
Basket stretcher: A stretcher made of metal or

strong synthetic material in which a patient is placed so
he or she can be securely extricated by Emergency
Medical Service from an accident or otherwise
inaccessible site. The stretcher may also be lifted by
ropes. The basket stretcher is also known as STROKE
stretcher.
Flexible stretcher: This stretcher is made of

rubberized canvas or other flexible material such as
heavy plastic, often with wooden slats sewn into pockets.
The flexible stretcher usually has three carrying handles
on each side. Because of its flexibility, it can be useful in
confined spaces or narrow hallways.

Draw sheet: A draw sheet is a small bedsheet placed

crosswise over the middle of the bottom sheet of a
mattress to cover the area between the person's upper
back and thighs, often used by medical professionals
to move patients. It can be made of plastic, rubber, or
cotton, and is about half the size of a regular sheet. It
can be used in place of a mattress pad if a rubber
mattress is used. The draw sheet may or may not be
tucked into the sides of the bed.
Backboards:
• A stiff board on which an injured person, especially one with neck or
spinal injuries is placed and immobilized in order to prevent further
injury during transport.
• These devices are usually made of splinter resistant wood or synthetic
material that will not absorb blood. They usually have handholds or
carrying straps.
There are two types:
• Long backboard: 6–7 feet long, used for patients

found lying down who must be immobilized.
• Short backboard: 3-4 feet long, used primary to

remove patients from vehicles when neck or spinal
injuries are suspected. The backboard is slid between
the patient’s back and the seat. Once secured to the
short board and wearing a rigid cervical collar, the
patient can be removed from his sitting position in the
vehicle to a supine position on the long board. Vest-
type devices are often used as a short backboard.
Improvised Stretcher
Improvised stretcher can also be made out of two

wooden/ bamboo Shafts and T shirts just by inserting
the shafts from the two arms of the T-Shirt as explained
in the diagram. Two T-shirts can be used to further
strengthen the weight carrying capacity of the
improvised stretcher.
*****************************

LESSON -20
SNAKE BITE & ANIMAL BITE
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to know about:
✓ Snakebites
✓ 10 deadliest snakes in India.
✓ Complications of snake bite.
✓ Types of Anti-snake venom.
“The large number of snakebite death cases per annum in India occurs
due to three main reasons: lack of adequate medical infrastructure,
strong belief in myths, and lack of trained doctors/COMMUNITY”.
FACTS
• About only 20 percent of the total snake species found in the world
are poisonous.
• 80% of them are non-poisonous.
• The venomous snakes include only about 58 species and There are only
4 species of snakes that are dangerous to man, namely, Cobra, Krait,
Russell's viper and Saw-scaled viper.
• India has been recognized as having the highest snakebite mortality in
the world. Most of the fatalities, are due to victims not reaching the
hospital in time, and are preventable.
• Almost 300 species are existing in India; Only 50 species are poisonous.

10 deadliest snakes in India-

• Russell's Viper,
• Indian Krait,
• Saw-Scaled Viper,
• Spectacled Cobra,
• King Cobra,
• Hump-Nosed Pit Viper,
• Malabar Pit Viper,
• Bamboo Pit Viper,
• Indian Rock Python
• Yellow-Lipped Sea Krait
TOXIC EFFECT OF SNAKE VENOM
• The toxic effect of snake venom results from both the protein and the
nonprotein component. It is further complicated by the inflammatory
response of the victim's body.
• It damages red blood cells, leukocytes, platelets, skeletal muscle,
vascular endothelium, peripheral nerve endings, and the myoneural
junction.
EFFECTS OF SNAKE BITE
• Myocardial Infraction—due to vasospasm or coronary artery

thrombosis
• Cardiac Rhythm disturbance
• Pulmonary edema
• Hypotension
• Neurological complications
• Stroke
• Paralysis
• Ptosis
• Ophthalmoplegia
• Respiratory Failure
• Convulsions
• Delayed sensory neuropathy
• Locked in syndrome
• Hemotoxic
• Affects blood clotting

• Some venoms possess anticoagulants and promote excessive bleeding

(cerebral haemorrhages can be very fatal – 20% of people who die after
a snake bite have cerebral haemorrhages)
• Whereas the other toxins are procoagulant – initially causing
widespread clot formation, followed by defibrinogenation, making
patients more vulnerable to strokes
LOCAL COMPLICATIONS
• Pain
• Swelling
• Vision damage /corneal ulceration
due to venom spray
• Compartment syndrome
• Necrosis
• Gangrene
• Infection
• Chronic ulceration

TYPES OF ANTI-VENOM SERUM: -
• Monovalent/Monospecific-Species specific
• Polyvalent-effective against several species
Note: As per the recommendations of WHO, the most effective treatment for
snakebite is the administration of monospecific ASV however, this therapy is
not always available to snakebite victims because of its high cost, frequent
lack of availability, and the difficulty in correctly identifying the snake.
VENOMOUS SNAKES: Symptoms and First Aid
• Traditional methods to be avoided
• Advance method of first aid
• Reassure
• Immobilize
• Rush to hospital immediately
• Avoid use of tourniquet

Signs or symptoms associated with a snake bite may vary depending on

the type of snake, but may include:
• Puncture marks at the wound

• Redness, swelling, bruising, bleeding, or blistering around the bite
• Severe pain and tenderness at the site of the bite
• Nausea, vomiting, or diarrhoea
• Labored breathing (in extreme cases, breathing may stop altogether)
• Rapid heart rate, weak pulse, low blood pressure
• Disturbed vision
• Metallic, mint or rubber taste in the mouth
• Increased salivation and sweating
• Numbness or tingling around your face and/or limbs
• Muscle twitching

FIRST AID
• Take the following steps if bitten by a snake:
• Seek medical attention as soon as possible (dial 112 or call local
Emergency Medical Services EMS.)
• Antivenom is the treatment for serious snake envenomation. Earlier the
antivenom can be started sooner the irreversible damage from venom
can be stopped.
• Driving oneself to the hospital is not advised because people with
snakebites can become dizzy or pass out.
• Take a photograph of the snake from a safe distance if possible.
Identification of the snake can help with treatment of the snakebite.
• Keep calm.
• Apply first aid while waiting for EMS personnel to get you to the
hospital
• Lay or sit down with the bite in a neutral position of comfort.
• Remove rings and watches in anticipation of swelling.
• Wash the bite with soap and water.
• Cover the bite with a clean, dry dressing.
• Mark the leading edge of tenderness/swelling on the skin and write the
time alongside it.

Do NOT do any of the following:
• Do not pick up the snake or try to trap it. NEVER handle a venomous
snake, not even a dead one or its decapitated head.
• Do not wait for symptoms to appear if bitten, seek immediate medical
attention.
• Do not apply a tourniquet.
• Do not slash the wound with a knife or cut it in any way.
• Do not try to suck out the venom.
• Do not apply ice or immerse the wound in water.
• Do not drink alcohol as a painkiller.
• Do not take pain relievers (aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, etc.).
• Do not apply electric shock or folk therapies.
ANIMAL BITES - SELF-CARE

An animal bite can break, puncture, or tear the skin. Animal bites that
break the skin put you at risk for infections.
CAUSES
Most animal bites come from pets. Dog bites are common and most often
happen to children. Compared with adults, children are much more likely to
be bitten on the face, head, or neck.
Cat bites are less common but have a higher risk for infection. Cat teeth
are longer and sharper, which can cause deeper puncture wounds. Most other
animal bites are caused by stray or wild animals, such as skunks, raccoons,
foxes, and bats.
Bites that cause a puncture wound are more likely to become infected.
Some animals are infected with a virus that can cause rabies. Rabies is rare
but can be deadly.
SYMPTOMS
Pain, bleeding, numbness and tingling may occur with any animal bite.
The bite may also result in:
• Breaks or major cuts in the skin, with or without bleeding
• Bruising (discoloration of the skin)
• Crushing injuries that can cause severe tissue tears and scarring
• Puncture wounds
• Tendon or joint injury resulting in decreased motion and function of the
injured tissue

WOUND CARE
Because of the risk for infection, you should see a health care Doctor within
24 hours for any bite that breaks the skin. If you are caring for someone who
was bitten:
• Calm and reassure the person.
• Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water before treating the
wound.
• If the wound is bleeding, put on latex gloves if you have them.
• Wash your hands again afterward.
To care for the wound:

• Stop the wound from bleeding by applying direct pressure with a clean,
dry cloth.
• Wash the wound. Use mild soap and warm, running water. Rinse the
bite for 3 to 5 minutes.
• Apply an antibacterial ointment to the wound. This may help reduce the
risk for infection.
• Put on a dry, sterile bandage.
• If the bite is on the neck, head, face, hand, fingers, or feet, call your
Doctor right away.
• For deeper wounds, you may need stitches. The Doctor may give you a
tetanus shot if you have not had one in the last 5 years. You may also
need to take antibiotics. If the infection has spread, you may receive
antibiotics through a vein (IV).
• For a bad bite, you may need surgery to repair the damage.
WHEN TO CALL ANIMAL CONTROL/ MUNICIPALITY / CORPORATION

You should call animal control or your local police if you are bitten by:
• An animal that behaves in an odd way
• An unknown pet or a pet that has not had a rabies vaccination
• A stray or wild animal
Tell them what the animal looks like and where it is. They will decide
whether the animal needs to be captured and isolated.
Possible Complications
Most animal bites will heal without developing infection or decreased
tissue function. Some wounds will require surgery to properly clean and close,
and even some minor bites may need stitches. Deep or extensive bites may
result in significant scarring.

Complications from bite wounds include:

• An infection that spreads quickly
• Damage to tendons or joints
An animal bite is more likely to become infected in people who have:

• Weakened immune systems due to medicines or disease
• Diabetes
• Peripheral arterial disease (arteriosclerosis, or poor circulation)
Getting a rabies shot right after you are bitten can protect you from the
disease.
HOW TO PREVENT ANIMAL BITES
To prevent animal bites:
• Teach children not to approach strange animals.
• Do not provoke or tease animals.
• Do not go near an animal that is acting strangely or aggressively. It may
have rabies. Do not try to catch the animal yourself.
WHEN TO CALL THE DOCTOR
Wild animals and unknown pets may be carrying rabies. If you have been
bitten by a wild or stray animal, contact your Doctor right away. See your
Doctor within 24 hours for any bite that breaks the skin.
Call your Doctor or go to the emergency room if:
• There is swelling, redness, or pus draining from the wound.
• The bite is on the head, face, neck, hands, or feet.
• The bite is deep or large.
• You see exposed muscle or bone.
• You are not sure if the wound needs stitches.
• The bleeding does not stop after a few minutes. For serious bleeding,
call 112 or the local emergency number.
• You have not had a tetanus shot in 5 years.
Rabies is a disease that kills people and dogs. If a dog or any other animal
has rabies and it bites you, it can give you the disease. If you are bitten
remembering what the dog that bit you looked like and getting medical help
can save your life. Don’t disturb, mistreat or kill the dog.
Remind your parents, teachers, friends and everyone you know that the
best way to stop rabies is to make sure all dogs are vaccinated against it every
year.

5 tips to prevent dog bites
Dogs can be your best friends, but sometimes when we are

angry or scared, we might bite. Let’s learn to live together
responsibly and safely to prevent being bitten.
Don’t disturb me or frighten me,

particularly when I am eating or
1 tied up.
• Don’t disturb me when I am with my toys, my
puppies, in a car, behind a fence or when I am
asleep or ill.
Keep away from me when I am
2
angry or scared.
• When I am angry, I will show my teeth.

• When I am scared, my tail will be between
my legs and I will try to run away.
3
Don’t move if I approach you
when I am not on a lead.
• Stand still like a tree trunk.
• If you fall over, curl up and stay as still and
heavy as a rock.

4
Approach me slowly and quietly.
• Ask my owner or your parents/guardian’s
permission before you touch me. Let me sniff
your hand before you touch me. When you
stroke me, stroke my back first.
If a dog bites you act quickly.

Wash the wound with soap and
5
water and look for a first aid
centre.
• Remember to tell your parents that you were
bitten. Tell them which dog it was and
where you were when it bit you.
****************************

LESSON - 21
ROPE RESCUE
Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to know about…
✓ Rescue using Ropes.
✓ Types of Ropes.
✓ Use of ropes & Rope safety.
✓ Knots, hitches and bends.
✓ Different Rope rescue equipment.
ROPE RESCUE
Rope rescue is the
foundation of all other
disciplines in the rescue
world such as water,
trench, and structural
collapse.
A rope is a group of
yarns, fibres or strands that
are twisted or braided
together into a larger and
stronger form. Ropes have
tensile strength, so they can
be used for multipurpose
tasks like dragging, lifting
etc.

TERMS:
Running End – (Working End) The end of a rope that you will manipulate the most
to actively tie a knot.
Bitter End – (Standing End) The end of the rope not being used in the knot you
are tying. The opposite end to the “running end”.
Bight – Any rope that doubles back on itself without actually crossing over.
Loop – Created when a bight crosses itself.
Knot – An intertwined loop of rope, used to fasten two such ropes to one another
or to another object. A knot, even when not in use, will hold its shape or form.
Bend or Hitch – Ways of fastening or tying ropes together. A hitch will not hold its
form when not in use or “wrapped” around something.
Splice – Made by untwisting two rope ends and weaving them together.
Kernmantle – (literally “core–sheath”) rope is a balanced construction consisting

of continuous filament polyester cover braided over a unidirectional nylon core. It
is designed to meet the rigorous requirements associated with rescue and
rappelling operations.
TYPES OF ROPE
Natural fibre Rope Synthetic fibre Rope

Wire Rope
USE OF ROPE: Rope can be used for RIVER CROSSING, Rock climbing,
Rappelling, Rescue.
ROPE SAFETY:
✓ Avoid walking or standing on the rope
✓ Do not drag the rope. Added abrasion leads to less sheath life
✓ Do not leave a rope under tension for any extended period of time unless
necessary
✓ Remove all knots as soon as possible
✓ If rope cleaning is needed, clean by rinsing with clean fresh water
✓ Dry wet rope (hang dry) before bagging
✓ Exposure to the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation will damage the rope, keep
exposure
✓ to a minimum
✓ Nylon moving across nylon can melt. Be careful when running nylon

✓ over nylon, for example moving rope over stationary webbing

✓ Be sure to pad sharp edges
✓ Avoid adding twists and kinks when bagging/coiling the ropes.
KNOTS, HITCHES AND BENDS:

In the Rope rescue, the knowledge of how to tie and use knots is essential.
While there are many knots available, the following knots described in this section
should be adequate to meet the needs in most situations.
Keep in mind that it is more important to be able to tie these standard knots
automatically, while under the stress of an emergency, than to know a greater
number of knots and yet have failed to acquire skill in their use.
The ropes used during operation range in size from 1/4” woven cotton tie
ropes to ½”” kernmantle nylon life safety rescue ropes. They can vary in length
from just a few feet to 300-feet lengths. Ropes and knots are used daily in securing
equipment, fire suppression, rescue work, and emergency medical applications.
Whether working with rope or knots in an emergency or training, SAFETY
should be on the mind of all involved.
The criteria for knot selection are:
✓ The ability to tie
✓ The ability to inspect
✓ The ability to adjust
✓ The ability to untie
✓ The last is the strength of the knot.
RELATIVE STRENGTHS OF “KNOTS” FOR SINGLE KERNMANTLE ROPE:

No Knot 100%
Figure 8 75-80%
Bowline 70-75%
Double Overhand Bend 65-70%
Ring Bend 60-70%
Clove Hitch 60-65%
Overhand 60-65%
Two Half Hitches 60-70%
Square Knot 43-70%
The Thumb Knot:
The thumb knot is used to give a
temporary finish to the end of the rope,
which has not been whipped, to prevent it
from fraying, or to provide a stop to prevent
a rope from slipping through a block or
small ring. The thumb knot is illustrated

The Reef Knot:
The reef knot is used to

join two ropes of equal, or
approximately equal
circumference. It is
illustrated
The Granny and Thief Knots:
Granny and thief knots

look like a reef knot, but
neither of these is safe as they
will slip when a strain is put
on both ropes. These knots
are illustrated
The Sheet Bend:

The sheet bend is used to join
two ropes of unequal size, as
illustrated
The Double Sheet Bend:

The double sheet bend is used for the same purpose as the single sheet bend,
but is easy to undo. It is used to fasten rope to an awkwardly placed ring, so a large
loop may be formed and the knot made more accessible. It does not jam as does
the round turn and two half hitches, or the fishermen's bend. It is illustrated as
below:

The Timber Hitch:
The timber hitch is a useful

knot when you need to use the rope
to pull a weight, such as a log. The
heavier the pull on the rope, the
tighter the knot will grip, but it will
not jam and may be undone easily.
This knot is illustrated.
Round Turn with Two Half Hitches:
A utility knot used in many applications where a quick non-slip attachment

is required in non-life safety situations.
The Round Turn One Half Hitch
Second Half Hitch

Bowline with a Yosemite Finish:

Used because of its adjustability, ease of inspection, and ability to be untied
after being loaded. The bowline must be backed-up with a Yosemite Finish or a
double overhand. The long-tail bowline doesn’t require a backup knot. The end of
the bowline must be secured. The Yosemite Finish is an easy way to tie off the
bowline and is less bulky than a double overhand. Essentially, the tail is rewoven
through the knot until it surfaces in parallel with the standing end.
Figure-Eight Follow Through:

Double Figure Eight is used as an end knot to form a loop to connect the
rope to an anchor or harness. Generally, the Double Figure 8 is an easy knot to tie,
inspect, and untie. This is one of two tie-in knots recommended for tie-in to a single
person belay line. It may also be used to tie off the running end of a rappel rope so
the person is not able to slide off the end of the rope.

In-Line Figure Eight:

A mid-line attachment point that can be used for rescue systems and life
safety or any place where a midline loop may be of use.
Chain Stitch with Webbing:

The preferred method of storing webbing. Start with an overhand slip knot
and stitch back through the eye of the slip knot. Repeat with each successive loop.
A hitch incorporates something within it to maintain shape, if the center
element is removed, the hitch will fall apart (e.g., Prusik and Clove Hitch are tied
around another rope or object).
Prusik Hitch:
The prussik hitch or “prussik” is formed from pre-tied 8mm accessory cord.
Rescuers should only use the three-wrap prussik. The three wrap Prusik Hitch is
for rescue loads up to 600 lbs.

Clove Hitch:
It is useful to quickly tie-off the end of a rope so it will not fall out of your
reach, and still easily adjustable. Also, it is a good beginning for wrapping and
frapping. However, the clove hitch has been known to slip and untie. It is not used
as a tie-off, or in place of an anchor knot, like the Figure Eight.
BENDS:
Square Bend:
While historically called a knot, this bend is used to tie two strands together.
Used primarily for non-life safety situations.
Overhand Follow-through Bend

Used to tie two webbing ends together to form a “runner,” tie a multipoint
anchor together. Tubular webbing is slippery so leave a hand width, or two inches
of tail as a minimum. Also, because of the slippery material, dressing and setting
this bend is very important.

Double Overhand Bend:
This bend is used to tie two ropes together. For the fire service, it is primarily
for prusik loops, it can also be used to tie high/low-stretch materials together. It is
preferred for use with single person loads. Because of the tight arcs within the
bend, it is very difficult to untie once loaded. However, if the Double Overhand
Bend is used for rescue loads, a prusik by-pass is recommended. Otherwise, you
may need to cut this bend out of the rope once it is set with a rescue load.
Double Becket Bend:

Used for joining two unequal sized diameter material together. It is easy to
tie, inspect, and untie after weighing with a rescue load. One may wish to back up
the Double Becket Bend with Double Overhands on the two tails.
There are other knots and lashing you can learn and use as per your
requirement and rescue the needy person.

ROPE RESCUE EQUIPMENT

CARABINEER
DESCENDER
ASCENDER

SEAT HARNESS
FULL BODY HARNESS
MITTENS

Be familiar with basic search and rescue principles if you are traveling in
remote environments. Precious time may be wasted if you don’t know how to
quickly and safely execute a rescue operation. The general principles of conducting
a rescue are the same.
*******************************

LESSON - 22
FIRE SAFETY
Objectives
✓ What is fire?
✓ Fire triangle.
✓ Stages of burning.
✓ Modes of spread of fire.
✓ Classification of fire.
✓ Prevention and control of fire.
✓ What to do in case of fire.
WHAT IS FIRE?
FIRE is a series of chemical reactions, which releases the energy stored in
fuel in the form of heat and light (flame).
It is a type of chemical chain reaction among fuel, heat and oxygen which
takes place with the evolution of heat and light.
FIRE TRIANGLE
HEAT

STAGES OF BURNING:
Three progressive stages of burning:
Beginning Phase:
• Oxygen is plentiful
• Temperature has not built up to high peak
• Breathing is not difficult
• Fire extinguishments:
✓ Direct application of water at base of fire.
✓ Ventilation: not a problem
Free Burning Phase:

• Fire has involved more fuel
• Oxygen supply is being depleted
• Heat accumulated at upper areas
• Breathing difficult: Masks recommended
Smoldering Phase:
• Oxygen supply not equal to demands of fire
• Temperature throughout building is very high
• Normal breathing is not possible
• Oxygen deficiency may cause back-draft
• Fire extinguishments by indirect method
MODES OF SPREAD OF HEAT: -

Conduction: It occurs only in solids i.e., metallic objects.
Convection: It occurs both in liquids & gases
Radiation: It is neither conduction nor convection. These are heated rays

emanating from the hot object.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE:
CLASS “A”:
Fire in solid carbonaceous substances like wood, paper, jute,

coal, cloth etc.
CLASS “B”:
Liquid fire- fire in flammable liquid like petrol, kerosene oil,
alcohol, benzene etc.
CLASS “C”:
Gas fire- fire in gases like L.P.G., hydrogen, acetylene etc.
CLASS “D”:
Metal Fire- Fire in Metals like Sodium, Magnesium, Aluminum etc.
CLASS “E”: Fire of any class (i.e., Class A, B, C or D), when

associated with Electrical power supply; extra care must be taken.
PREVENTION & CONTROL OF FIRE

FIRE PREVENTION:
✓ Training of personnel.
✓ Separation of process from storage.
✓ Preventive maintenance of machinery and periodical lubrication.
✓ Regular fire safety checks and fire drills.
✓ Good house-keeping
✓ Standard work practices.

PRINCIPLES OF FIRE EXTINCTION

Cooling: Removal of heat from the burning material/fire area
Starvation: Removal of un-burnt material from the fire area
Smothering: Cutting off the supply of oxygen from fire area
Cooling:
• The cooling principle in fire extinction is the one most commonly employed.
• The extinguishing medium operates by absorbing heat from the fire.
• Its temperature is raised.
• It is converted to the vapour state.
• It is decomposed.
• For firefighting, water is the best coolant.
Why water?
• Easily available.
• Cost is Comparatively lesser than other extinguishing media.
• After evaporation it expands enormously; Thus, removing the oxygen from
the scene of Fire.
Starvation:
• By removing the fire from the neighbourhood of combustible material.

• By removing combustible material from the neighbourhood of the fire.
Smothering:
• If the oxygen content of the atmosphere in the immediate neighbourhood of

burning material can be sufficiently reduced, combustion will cease.
• Agents- Foam, CO2, DCP, Sand, Wet Cloths etc.
PRIMARY FIRE FIGHTING APPLAINCES:

These appliances are very valuable in the early stage of fire when used promptly
and effectively.
1. Fire buckets
2. Fire beater
3. Chemical extinguishers
4. Hose reel

TYPE OF EXTINGUISHERS:
1. Water Type Extinguisher
2. Foam Type Extinguisher
3. CO2 Extinguisher
4. DCP Extinguisher
5. Automatic Modular Type Fire
Extinguisher
1. WATER TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHER
• Best fire extinguisher for ordinary fire materials like wood,

paper, cloth, rubber etc.
• Not to be used on oil and electrical fires.
• Water extinguishes fire rapidly by striking, instant cooling
& quenching effects.
USES:
✓ Use: On ‘A’ Class Fire. Operating Position: Upright.
✓ Capacity: 9 Litres.
✓ Chemical Used: Nil.
✓ Extinguishing medium: Water.
✓ Expelling Agent: CO2 gas Cartridge.
✓ Principle: Cooling.
2. FOAM TYPE EXTINGUISHER:
• Foam is a powerful knockdown agent for spill fires.

• Most useful in liquids such as petrol, oil, naphtha, paints,
alcohols & solvents.
• Forms a thick layer of foam over burning surface.
Uses: -
✓ Use: On ‘B’ Class Fire.

✓ Operating Position: Upright.
✓ Capacity: 9 Litres.
✓ Chemical Used: Fluoro Chemical surfactants.
✓ Extinguishing medium: Foam.
✓ Principle: Smothering

3. CARBON DIOXIDE FIRE EXTINGUISHER:
• Quick & efficient knockdown property of CO2 gas makes

it ideal for tackling fires.
• Useful for B, C & Electrical fires.
• CO2 extinguishes within seconds by dilution of oxygen
and chilling effect suitable for sophisticated
machineries.
USES:
✓ Use: On ‘A’, ‘B’ & ‘C’ Class Fire.

✓ Capacity:1 Kg to 6 Kgs.
✓ Chemical Used: CO2
✓ Extinguishing medium: CO2
✓ Expelling Agent: CO2 gas itself
✓ Principle: Smothering and little cooling.
4. DCP (DRY CHEMICAL POWDER) FIRE EXTINGUISHER:

•
Highly effective on B, C & Electrical Fires.
•
Powder based extinguisher knocks down fire by beating
& displacement of air
USES:
✓ Use: On all classes of fire especially in ‘D’ class of fire.

✓ Capacity: 1 kg to 13.5 kgs.
✓ Chemical Used: DCP
✓ Extinguishing medium: DCP
✓ Principle: Smothering
5. AUTOMATIC MODULAR TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHER:

Used in various homes, offices and other industrial units.
Suitable for Fighting Fire of paper, Wood, Cloth, Plastics & Solid
combustible material, Petrol, Oil, Paints, Spirits, Chemical,
Cooking, Welding Gas & Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Fires.

INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF FIRE-FIGHTING APPLIANCES
1. A well planned and approved maintenance schedule.

2. Periodical inspection / Maintenance.
3. Testing of extinguishers annually as per norms.
FIGHTING THE FIRE:
Pull the pin

P
Aim low at bass of
A flames
S Squeeze the Handle
Sweep side to side

S
FIREFIGHTING DECISION CRITERIA:
• Know emergency procedures and evacuation routes
• Know locations of extinguishers in your area and how to use them
• Always sound the alarm regardless of fire size
• Avoid smoky conditions
• Ensure area is evacuated
• Don’t attempt to fight unless:
✓ Alarm is sounded
✓ Fire is small and contained
✓ You have safe egress route (can be reached without exposure to fire)
✓ Available extinguishers are rated for size and type of fire
✓ If in doubt, evacuate !
NOTE:- “DON’T ATTEMPT TO FIGHT UNLESS YOU ARE TRAINED”
TIPS FOR FIRE SAFETY:

1. Install Smoke Detectors
Smoke Detectors can alert you to a fire in your home
in time for you to escape, even if you are sleeping.
Install detectors on every level of your home,
commercial building and outside each sleeping area.

2. Plan escape from fire
• IF A FIRE BREAKS OUT in your home,

you have to get out fast.
• To prepare, sit down with your family
and agree on an escape plan.
• Be sure that everyone knows at least two
unobstructed exits -- doors and
windows -- from every room.
3. Keep an Eye on Smokers
Careless Smoking is the leading cause of fire

deaths
4. Cook carefully
a) Don't leave food on the heat unattended

b) Beware of kids in the kitchen
c) Keep flammable materials away from
heat sources
d) Wear Appropriate Clothing
e) There's a time and place for breezy silk robes and feathery boas, but it's not
in the kitchen. Loose clothes and excess fabric increase the risk they'll
accidentally ignite.
f) Monitor Cooking Temperatures. An oil beyond its smoke point may lead to
its flash point where it automatically catches fire in the pan.
g) Clean Your Kitchen. Fine layer of sticky vaporized grease coating on poorly
maintained cabinets and equipment can help a fire spread even faster than
it might otherwise.
5. Matches and Lighters –

Tools, Not Toys

6. Cool a Burn: RUN COOL WATER over

a burn for 10 to 15 minutes. If the burnt
skin has developed blisters or is charred,
see a doctor immediately.
7. Crawl on your hands and knees to

the nearest exit: During a fire, smoke
and poisonous gases rise with the heat.
The air is cleaner near the floor. If you
must escape through smoke, crawl on
your hands and knees to the nearest exit,
keeping your head 12 to 24 inches (30 to
60 cm) above the floor.
8. Stop, Drop, and Roll
IF YOUR CLOTHES CATCH FIRE, don’t

run. Stop where you are, drop to the
ground, cover your face with your hands,
and roll over and over to smother the
flames.
WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF FIRE: -
✓ Do not run
✓ Do not waste time for collecting valuable items.
✓ Do not panic
✓ Inform fire and emergency services about fire
✓ Alert neighbors about the fire
✓ Do not jump out of the building; signal or shout for help
✓ If possible, use fire extinguisher
✓ Do not take shelter in bathroom/toilet
✓ Shut all the doors behind you
✓ Do not use lift to escape
✓ Make exit to ground level instead to terrace
✓ Use nearest means and the staircase available to escape
If trapped or stranded:
✓ Cover gapes of the door by blanket or by rugs or other piece of cloths
available.
✓ Stay close to the ground level
✓ Cover with blanket, and Pour water on body.
✓ Give first aid and send to the hospital

PRE-HOSPITAL TREATMENT FOR BURNS:
Use universal precautions, secure the scene and alert EMS:
• Stop the burning process. Run cold water over the scald burns. Flush away
chemicals with water for 20 minutes or more.
• Remove any smouldering clothing and jewellery.
• If you meet any resistance or if you see pieces melted into the skin, cut
around the area. Do not try to remove them.
• Perform initial assessment.
• Most victims die from blocked airway, inhaled toxins or other trauma rather
than from the burn itself.
• Treat life threatening injuries.
• Administer oxygen as per local protocol. If your patient's breathing is
adequate, provide ventilation with supplemental oxygen.
• Determine the severity of burns, using the rule of nines.
• Cover the burns. Use dry sterile dressings or a disposable sterile burn sheet.
• Do not use grease or fat, ointment, lotion, antiseptic, or ice on the burns.
• Do not break any blisters. If a burn involves the eye, be sure to cover both
eyes.
• Fingers with second- or third-degree burns require dressing each finger
individually.
• Follow local protocols for the use of wet dressings.
• Keep the patient warm and treat for shock.
Rule of Nines
*******************

LESSON - 23
FOREST FIRE
Objectives

✓ What is forest fire?
✓ Classification of forests.
✓ Describe about forest/wild fire.
✓ Reasons for forest fire.
✓ Classification of fire.
✓ Prevention and control of fire.
✓ What to do in case of fire.
INTRODUCTION
Since ancient times forests have played important role in social, economic
and religious activities and have enriched human life in variety of ways. The Total
Forest cover in our country is 7,12,249 sq km which is 21.67% of the geographical
area of the country. The Tree cover is 2.89% of the geographical area of the country.

Fire has been a major influencing factor on the development and

management of many of the world's forests. Some forest ecosystems have evolved
in response to frequent fires from natural causes, but most others are susceptible
to the effects of wild fire. Forest fire may be defined as an unclosed and freely
spreading combustion that consumes the natural fuels. When a fire burns out of
control it is known as Wild Fire.
There have been forest fires throughout historic time ignited and raging
naturally through the forest. Fire effects on forests however are not equal. Fire may
be beneficial for one ecosystem and may be dreadful for the other, depending upon
the climatic conditions and type of vegetation. Each year, millions of hectares of
the world's forests are consumed by fire, which results in enormous economic
losses because of burnt timber; degraded real estate; high costs of fire suppression;
damage to environment and loss of life.
Classification of forests:
Forest area can be classified as reserved, protected and unclassified as

defined below;
Reserved Forest (RF): An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act
or the State Forest Acts having full degree of protection. In Reserved Forests all
activities are prohibited unless permitted.
Protected Forest (PF): An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act
or the State Forest Act.
Unclassified Forest (UF): An area recorded as forest but not included in reserved
or protected forest category. Ownership status of such forests varies from state to
state.
Due to rapid population growth,
forests fires are increasing as pace of human
activities have increased. Forests fires are as
old as the forests themselves or are prevalent
since time immemorial. They pose a threat
not only to the forest wealth but also to the
entire regime to fauna and flora seriously
disturbing the bio-diversity and the ecology
and environment of a region.

During summer, when there is no rain for months, the forests become
littered with dry, which could burst into flames ignited by the slightest spark.
Forest fires cause imbalances in nature and endangers biodiversity by

reducing faunal and floral wealth. Traditional methods of fire prevention are not
proving effective and it is now essential to raise public awareness on the matter,
particularly among those people who live close to or in forested areas so that wealth
of nation could be saved.
FOREST/WILD FIRE:
Wild fire, also called forest or vegetation fire, can be described as any
uncontrolled burning of plants in a natural setting such as a forest, grassland,
which spreads based on environmental conditions. Wild fire can be initiated by
human actions such as land clearing, extreme drought or in rare cases by
lightning.
There are three conditions that need to be present in order for a wildfire to
burn: fuel, oxygen, and a heat source. Fuel is any flammable material surrounding
a fire, including trees, grasses, bushes, even homes. The greater an area's fuel
capacity, the more intense the fire will be. Heat sources help spark the wildfire as
they heat up the fuel to temperatures, hot enough to ignite. Lightning, burning
campfires, cigarettes or glass pieces strewn over the dry leaves, hot winds, and
even the Sun can provide sufficient heat to spark a wildfire.
Most of fires are initiated by people. The list of human motivations for the
same includes, land clearing and other agricultural activities, maintenance of
grasslands for livestock management, extraction of non-wood forest products,
industrial development, resettlement, hunting, negligence and arson.
Wildfire plays a, mixed role for ecology and economy since some ecosystems
depend on natural fires to maintain their dynamics, biodiversity and productivity.
However, every year, wildfire destroys millions of hectares of forest woodland and
other vegetation, causing the loss of human and animal lives and an immense
economic damage.
TYPES OF FOREST FIRE
Forest fires are not always same; they may differ, depending upon its
nature, size, spreading speed, behaviour etc. Basically, forest fires can be sub-
grouped into four types depending upon their nature and size:

a) Surface fires: Surface fire is the most common forest fire that burn
undergrowth and dead material along the floor of the forest. It is the type of fire
that burns surface litter, other loose debris of the forest floor and small vegetation.
In general, it is very useful for the forest growth and regeneration. But if grown in
size, this fire not only burns ground flora but also engulf the undergrowth and the
middle storey of the forest.
b) Underground fires: The fires of low intensity, consuming the organic matter
beneath the surface litter of forest floor are sub-grouped as underground fire. In
most of the dense forests a thick mantle of organic matter is found on top of the
mineral soil. This fire spreads in by consuming such material. These fires usually
spread entirely underground and burn for some meters below the surface. This fire
spreads very slowly and in most of the cases it becomes very hard to detect and
control such type of fires. It may continue to burn for months and destroy
vegetative cover of the soil. The other terminology for this type of fire is Muck fires.
c) Ground fires: There is no clear distinction between underground and ground

fires. The smouldering underground fire sometime changes into ground fire. This
fire burns root and other material on or beneath the surface i.e., burns the
herbaceous growth on forest floor together with the layer of organic matter in
various stages of decay. They are more damaging than surface fires, as they can
destroy vegetation completely. These fires are often hard to detect and are the least
spectacular and slowest moving. Fighting such fire is very difficult.
d) Crown fires: Crown fire is the most unpredictable fires that burn the top of
trees and spread rapidly by wind. In most of the cases these fires are invariably
ignited by surface fires. This is one of the most spectacular kinds of forest fire
which usually advance from top to down of trees or shrubs, more or less
interdependent of surface fires. In dense coniferous forests, the crown fire may race
ahead of the supporting surface fire with the help of a brisk wind. Since it is over
the heads of ground force it is uncontrollable until it again drops to the ground,
and since it is usually fast moving, it poses grave danger to the fire fighters
becoming trapped and burned.

CAUSES OF FOREST FIRE
More than ninety five percent forest fires are caused either by negligence or
unknowingly by the human being. The rest of the fires are caused by natural
reasons i.e., lightning, extreme rise in the temperature etc., which are very rare. In
general, all over the world, the main causes of forest fires are anthropogenic. The
natural causes of forest fires are common in remote areas only.
There are basically three components i.e., fuel, heat and oxygen that are
needed in right combination to produce fire. Combination of these components,
produces the “fire triangle". Out of three essential components of fire triangle, two
components i.e., fuel and oxygen are naturally available in forest. It is the third
component i.e., heat that really initiates fire in the forest. Heat may be supplied by
either natural or artificial reasons.
Depending upon the source of the heat, the causes for forest fire may be
classified as natural or artificial. While lightening, volcanic explosion, friction of
rolling stone etc., are the natural causes for forest fire; the anthropogenic causes
may be subdivided into two categories i.e., deliberate causes and unintentional or
accidental causes.
FOREST FIRE IN INDIA
India constitutes one of the mega bio-diversity zones of the world, abundant
with unique and diversified floral and faunal wealth. The total recorded forest area
of the country is 7,64,566 square Kilometres.
Due to increasing population pressure, this exemplary land ecosystem of the

world is struggling for its survival. Increasing human interference in the natural
forest ecosystem has also tremendously increased the forest fire incidences. Every
year one or other part of the forests in India comes under fire. The forest fire season
throughout the country is not the same.
Depending upon the type of vegetation, the climate and various other factors,
the fire season varies from place to place. Though the major forest fire season in
the country varies from February to June, some forests are not safe from fires
throughout the year. According to the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2015, the
estimated fire prone areas under heavy, moderate and mild fire are 2.40 per cent,
7.49 per cent and 54.40 per cent respectively, making the total forest fire prone
area as 64.29 percent of the total recorded Forest Area.
Forest fire spreading over a large forest area in the country causes immense
loss to the environment and the property. Ecological, economic and social impacts
of the forest fire in India in brief, may be enlisted as: loss of timber, loss of bio-

diversity, loss of the wild life habitat, global warming, soil erosion and depletion of
soil quality, loss of fuel wood and fodder, damage to water and the other natural
resources, loss of natural regeneration, loss of Non Timber Forest Products, Ozone
layer depletion, change in micro-climate leading to health problems, other health
problems due to smoke, soil erosion and floods, loss of livelihood for the people
living in or near the forest etc.
REASONS OF FOREST FIRE
• Natural causes- Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning
which set trees on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fires without causing
much damage. High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer
favourable circumstances for a fire to start.
• Manmade causes- Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame,
cigarette or bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with
inflammable material.
Human related causes result from human activity as well as methods of forest
management. These can be intentional or unintentional, i.e.,
• The centuries old practice of shifting cultivation.

• Fires started accidentally by careless visitors to forests who discard cigarette
butts.
• The use of fires by villagers to ward off wild animals.
• Fires lit intentionally by people living around forests for recreation.
People enter forests ever more frequently to graze cattle, collect fuelwood, timber
and other minor forest produce. It has been estimated that 90% of forest fires in
India are man-made. The causes of forest fire have been increasing rapidly. The
problem has been increased by the growing human and cattle population.
Environmental causes are largely related to climatic conditions such as

temperature, wind speed and direction, level of moisture in soil and atmosphere
and duration of dry spells.
HOW TO PREVENT A WILDFIRE
✓ Contact to your local fire department or the park service if you notice an
unattended or out-of-control fire.
✓ Never leave a campfire unattended. Completely extinguish the fire—by
dousing it with water and stirring the ashes until cold—before sleeping or
leaving the campsite.

✓ When camping, take care when using and fuelling lanterns, stoves and
heaters. Make sure lighting and heating devices are cool before refuelling.
Avoid spilling flammable liquids and store fuel away from appliances.
✓ Do not discard cigarettes, matches, and smoking materials from moving
vehicles, or anywhere on park grounds. Be certain to completely extinguish
cigarettes before disposing of them.
✓ Follow local instructions when burning yard waste. Avoid backyard burning
in windy conditions, and keep a shovel, water, and fire retardant nearby to
keep fires in check. Remove all flammables from yard when burning.
EVACUATION TIPS
✓ If advised to evacuate, do so immediately.

✓ Know your evacuation route ahead of time and prepare an evacuation
checklist and emergency supplies.
✓ Wear protective clothing and footwear to protect yourself from flying sparks
and ashes.
✓ Before You Leave, Prepare Your House.
✓ Remove combustibles, including firewood, yard waste, barbecue grills, and
fuel cans, from your yard.
✓ Close all windows, vents, and doors to prevent a draft.
✓ Shut off natural gas, propane, or fuel oil supplies.
✓ Fill any large vessels—pools, hot tubs, garbage cans, or tubs— with water to
slow or discourage fire.
If Caught in a Wildfire
✓ Don't try to outrun the blaze. Instead, look for a body of water such as a
pond or river to crouch in.
✓ If there is no water nearby, find a depressed, cleared area with little
vegetation, lie low to the ground, and cover your body with wet clothing, a
blanket, or soil. Stay low and covered until the fire passes.
✓ Protect your lungs by breathing air closest to the ground, through a moist
cloth, if possible, to avoid inhaling smoke.
FIRE SAFETY TIPS FOR KIDS
There are many ways that you can help to prevent wildfires.
✓ NEVER leave a campfire unattended.

✓ Don’t start a fire outdoors unless conditions will allow the fire to burn safely
from when it is started until it is put out.
✓ Always have adult supervision when you are around a fire.
✓ Build a campfire on rocks or sand.

✓ Don’t put rocks around a campfire. When you go to put it out, the rocks can
hide small pieces of wood that are still burning.
✓ Keep your campfire small and under control.
✓ Don’t build campfires underneath trees.
✓ Always leave a bucket of water and a shovel near a campfire.
✓ Make sure your fire is out before you leave it.
✓ Have an adult put out the campfire completely.
Here is the correct way to put out a campfire (have an adult do this)
1. Pour lots of water on the campfire

2. Stir the ashes with a stick
3. Pour more water over top of it
Repeat these three steps until…
1. The ashes don’t hiss anymore
2. Everything looks wet
3. No more smoke comes from the ashes
• Have an adult hold their hand over the ashes to see if they are still warm. If
they are, stir and pour more water on them until they are cold.
• NEVER play with matches or fireworks. Put out smoking materials
thoroughly.
• If you see a fire burning out of control, tell an adult immediately.
• Please don’t be careless. Many of the wildfires started each year are because
of humans being careless.
• Do your part to protect the home of the animals and trees that live in the
forest.
GENERAL FOREST FIRE SAFETY TIPS FOR FAMILY
Before a Wildfire
• The following are things you can do to protect yourself, your family and your
property in the event of a fire.
• To begin preparing, you should build an emergency kit and make a family
communications plan.
• Design and landscape your home with wildfire safety in mind.
• Select materials and plants that can help contain fire rather than fuel it.
• Use fire-resistant or non-combustible materials on the roof and exterior
structure of the dwelling, or treat wood or combustible material used in roofs,
siding, decking or trim with fire-retardant chemicals evaluated by a
nationally recognized laboratory.

• Plant fire-resistant shrubs and trees. For example, hardwood trees are less
flammable than pine, evergreen, eucalyptus or fir trees.
• Regularly clean roof and gutters.
• Inspect chimneys at least twice a year. Clean them at least once a year. Keep
the dampers in good working order. Equip chimneys and stovepipes with a
spark arrester (Contact your local fire department for exact specifications.)
• Use 1/8-inch mesh screen beneath porches, decks, floor areas, and the home
itself. Also, screen openings to floors, roof and attic.
• Install a dual-sensor smoke alarm on each level of your home, especially near
bedrooms; test monthly and change the batteries at least once each year.
• Teach each family member how to use a fire extinguisher (ABC type) and
show them where it's kept.
• Keep handy household items that can be used as fire tools: a rake, axe,
handsaw or chain saw, bucket and shovel.
• Keep a ladder that will reach the roof.
• Consider installing protective shutters or heavy fire-resistant drapes.
• Clear items that will burn around the house, including wood piles, lawn
furniture, barbecue grills, tarp coverings, etc. Move them outside of your
defensible space.
Plan Your Water Needs
• Identify and maintain an adequate outside water source such as a small

pond, cistern, well, swimming pool, or hydrant.
• Have a garden hose that is long enough to reach any area of the home and
other structures on the property.
• Install freeze-proof exterior water outlets on at least two sides of the home
and near other structures on the property. Install additional outlets at least
50 feet from the home.
• Consider obtaining a portable gasoline powered pump in case electrical
power is cut off.
After a Wildfire
• The following are guidelines for different circumstances in the period

following a fire:
• Go to a designated public shelter if you have been told to evacuate or you
feel it is unsafe to remain in your home.
• If you are with burn victims, or are a burn victim yourself, seek help
immediately; cool and cover burns to reduce chance of further injury or
infection.

• If you remained at home, check the roof immediately after the fire danger
has passed. Put out any roof fires, sparks or embers. Check the attic for
hidden burning sparks.
• For several hours after the fire, maintain a "fire watch." Re-check for smoke
and sparks throughout the house.
• If you have evacuated, do not enter your home until fire officials say it is safe.
• If a building inspector has placed a color-coded sign on the home, do not
enter it until you get more information, advice and instructions about what
the sign means and whether it is safe to enter your home.
• If you must leave your home because a building inspector says the building
is unsafe, ask someone you trust to watch the property during your absence.
• Use caution when entering burned areas as hazards may still exist, including
hot spots, which can flare up without warning.
• If you detect heat or smoke when entering a damaged building, evacuate
immediately.
• If you have a safe or strong box, do not try to open it. It can hold intense heat
for several hours. If the door is opened before the box has cooled, the
contents could burst into flames.
• Avoid damaged or fallen power lines, poles and downed wires.
• Watch for ash pits and mark them for safety and warn family and neighbours
to keep clear of the pits also.
• Watch animals closely and keep them under your direct control.
• Hidden embers and hot spots could burn your pets’ paws or hooves.
• Follow public health guidance on safe clean-up of fire ash and safe use of
masks.
• Wet debris down to minimize breathing dust particles.
• Wear leather gloves and heavy soled shoes to protect hands and feet.
• Cleaning products, paint, batteries and damaged fuel containers need to be
disposed of properly to avoid risk.
• Discard any food that has been exposed to heat, smoke or soot.
• Do NOT use water that you think may be contaminated to wash dishes,
brush teeth, prepare food, wash hands, make ice or make baby formula.
• Remain calm. Pace yourself. You may find yourself in the position of taking
charge of other people. Listen carefully to what people are telling you, and
deal patiently with urgent situations first.
During a Wildfire
• If advised to evacuate, do so immediately. Take your disaster supply kit, lock

your home and choose a route away from the fire hazard.
• Watch for changes in the speed and direction of the fire and smoke.

• Tell someone when you left and where you are going.
• If you see a wildfire and haven't received evacuation orders yet, call 101.
Don't assume that someone else has already called. Describe the location of
the fire, speak slowly and clearly, and answer any questions asked by the
dispatcher.
• If you are not ordered to evacuate, and have time to prepare your home,
Forest Department recommends you to take the following actions:
• Arrange temporary housing at a friend or relative’s home outside the
threatened area in case you need to evacuate.
• Wear protective clothing when outside – sturdy shoes, cotton or woollen
clothes, long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, gloves and a handkerchief to protect
your face.
• Gather fire tools such as a rake, axe, handsaw or chainsaw, bucket and
shovel.
• Close outside attic, eaves and basement vents, windows, doors, pet doors,
etc. Remove flammable drapes and curtains. Close all shutters, blinds or
heavy non-combustible window coverings to reduce radiant heat.
• Close all doors inside the house to prevent draft. Open the damper on your
fireplace, but close the fireplace screen.
• Shut off any natural gas, propane or fuel oil supplies at the source.
• Connect garden hoses to outdoor water faucet and fill any pools, hot tubs,
garbage cans, tubs or other large containers with water.
• Place lawn sprinklers on the roof and near above-ground fuel tanks. Leave
sprinklers on and dowsing these structures as long as possible.
• If you have gas-powered pumps for water, make sure they are fueled and
ready.
• Place a ladder against the house in clear view.
• Disconnect any automatic garage door openers so that doors can still be
opened by hand if the power goes out. Close all garage doors.
• Place valuable papers, mementos and anything "you can't live without" inside
the car in the garage, ready for quick departure. Any pets still with you
should also be put in the car.
• Place valuables that will not be damaged by water in a pool or pond.
• Move flammable furniture into the centre of the residence away from the
windows and sliding-glass doors.
• Turn on outside lights and leave a light on in every room to make the house
more visible in heavy smoke.

WILDFIRE CONTROL STRATEGIES
1. CONTROL LINE
One of the most important
components of wildfire suppression
control lines are simply the
boundaries —natural or manmade —
that fire-fighters employ to control
how and where a fire spread. A rocky
ridge or river can serve as a natural
control line, or firefighters can
establish a manmade one by clearing
out an extended line of brush.
A fire line is when the barrier is
scraped down “to mineral soil,” a
scratch line is a preliminary line built
in a hurry.
A wet line is when the area has had

flame retardant or water applied.
Fires can sometimes jump the
barrier; this means even a 100
percent contained fire can start up
again.
2. BURNING OUT
When establishing control lines,
digging a small ditch and pulling up
some plants isn't always enough. To
create a sturdy, fuel-free barrier,
firefighters may use small torches to
burn the brush just inside a control
line. A burnout is one of several ways
to bolster a control line and further
prevent a blaze from escaping the
established boundaries.

3. BACKBURN
A backburn is similar to a
burnout, but requires a slightly more
sophisticated technique. Once a control
line is established, firefighters may set a
controlled blaze downwind of the main
fire, just on the inside of the control line.
Firefighters then push the new blaze
back toward the main fire, burning up
all the fuel that lies between the fire and
the control line.
4. FLANKING
For a wildfire small enough to be

snuffed out using a direct attack,
firefighters may begin their assault on
the blaze from behind. Starting from
already burned earth, the firefighters
will typically work their way around the
edge of the fire to spray the flames as
they make their way around the entire
perimeter of the blaze.
5. HOT SPOTTING
Hot spotting is the term used to
describe the extra attention given to the
most active and dangerous portions of a
wildfire. The crews fighting the fire size
up the parts of the blaze most likely to
spread and try to devise the best
strategy for keeping these areas in
check. Hot spotting may also involve
diverting extra manpower to the task of
stamping out embers and spot fires that
blow or erupt from the hottest part of the
fire.

6. KNOCK DOWN
Whereas hot spotting refers to the

assessment of a fire's condition,
knocking down is all about action. The
knock down strategy is employed when
firefighters decide that a certain hotspot
needs to be suppressed immediately. To
diminish the section of a fire deemed to
have grown too hot, too active, or too
large, fighters directly apply some
combination of dirt, water, or retardant
to that section.
7. COLD TRAILING
While a fire is being attacked from
the front or side, other firefighters may
be involved in cold trailing, the task of
combing through already scorched
ground in the wake of a moving wildfire.
The point is to make sure no hot or
glowing embers remain, since leftover
coals can be blown around and flame up
again.
8. AERIAL ATTACK
If significant exposed water
sources are nearby, planes and
helicopters can scoop up buckets of
water and carry them to be dropped
atop the blaze. The water is often mixed
with a foam retardant before being
dropped. The foamed water acts as a
more effective barrier to the spread of
fire and also insulates fuel that has not
yet burned.

9. FIRELINE EXPLOSIVES
When setting control lines or fire
lines, firefighters may even use
explosives to break up dense brush
and fallen trees. Explosives can also be
used to fell trees whose spread might
help a fire jump across a control line.
During a large or fast-moving fire,
explosives are employed mainly for
efficiency purposes, as they can save
precious time when firefighters need to
contain a fire quickly.
10. MOP-UP
It's called mop-up when
firefighters go back and clean up along
a completed control line. Mop-up
consists of dousing any embers and
spot fires that have made their way
across control lines. It also involves
protecting still-vulnerable fuels using a
burnout (if they're permanently
situated) or by simply moving them.
********************

LESSON - 24
CHEMICAL EMERGENCIES
Objectives
✓ Causes of Chemical Emergencies.

✓ Signs and symptoms of chemical exposure.
✓ Defense against hazardous chemical.
INTRODUCTION
During the last several
decades there has been a growing
awareness of the expanding risks
and consequences of major
industrial disasters. This is
reflected in official statistics, mass
media reports, and the appearance
of new public institutions that
address the problem. The growth of
industrial accident prevention
companies and the blossoming of
literature on industrial risk
assessment are other expressions of the same trend.
Industrial hazards are threats to people and life-support systems that arise
from the mass production of goods and services. When these threats exceed human
coping capabilities or the absorbed capacities of environmental systems, they give
rise to industrial disasters. Industrial hazards can occur at any stage in the
production process, including extraction, processing, manufacture, transportation,
storage, use, and disposal. Incidents generally involve the release of damaging
substances (e.g., chemicals, radioactivity, genetic materials) or damaging levels of

energy from industrial facilities or equipment into surrounding environments. This

usually occurs in the form of explosions, fires, spills, leaks, or wastes.
Chemicals, being at the core of modern industrial systems, has attained a

very serious concern for disaster management within government, private sector
and community at large. Chemical disasters may be traumatic in their impacts on
human beings and have resulted in the casualties and also damages nature and
property. The sections which are at highest risks due to chemical disaster primarily
include the industrial plant, its employees & workers, hazardous chemicals
vehicles, the residents of nearby settlements, adjacent buildings, occupants and
surrounding community.
Chemical disasters may arise in number of ways, such as: -
▪ Process and safety systems failures
▪ Human errors
▪ Technical errors
▪ Management errors
▪ After effects of natural calamities
▪ Accidents during the transportation
▪ Hazardous waste processing/ disposal
▪ Terrorist attack/ unrest leading to sabotage
HOW TO IDENTIFY A CHEMICAL EMERGENCY

EMERGENCY:
There are a lot of instruments to detect and identify the specific chemicals
causing an emergency. But if you see a lot of smoke cloud, burning fire, running
nose and tears in an uncomfortable environment you can suspect an emergency
related to a chemical.
To identify if a substance is hazardous, check the product's container label

and/or the Safety Data Sheet which is made available by the supplier.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF CHEMICAL EXPOSURE:

Signs of an exposure are external and can often be seen by you. They are
objective and can sometimes be measurable. Signs of exposure sometimes include
hives, puffiness, sneezing, etc. They are often temporary and can go away when the
source of the exposure is removed but they can also leave a permanent damage.
Symptoms are internal and are not visible to the naked eye. They are only
felt by the person exposed to the particular chemical and examples include pain,
dizziness, numbness, etc.
Sometimes a sign can indicate a symptom. For example, vomiting is a sign

than indicates someone is feeling nauseated (symptom).
There are different signs/symptoms of exposure to chemicals based on their

nature, reactivity, and the route of exposure. Many of the signs and symptoms of
exposure to chemicals are similar, but there are some specific signs which are
indicative of particular compounds. For example, Osmium tetroxide vapors damage
the cornea of the eye, can make your eyes feel gritty, and even turn them black. It
is important to know the signs and symptoms of the chemicals with which
you work and other chemicals in the laboratory to which you could potentially
be exposed.
SKIN ABSORPTION:
• Itching
• Redness
• Burns
• Blisters
• Rash & hives

INGESTION
• Abdominal Pain
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Diarrhoea
• A warm sensation in the stomach (halogenated hydrocarbons)
• Dark-coloured (black water) urine (arsenic)
• Dehydration
INHALATION
• Drowsiness
• Dizziness/Vertigo
• Headache
• Confusion/Lethargy
• Watery Discharge from nose
• Cough
• Dry/Scratching/Burning Throat
• Blurred vision
• Shortness of breath
• Rapid breathing (tachypnoea)
• Rapid heart rate (tachycardia)
EYE CONTACT
• Redness of the eyes

• Burning sensation in eyes
• Constant tear production
• Mucous discharge from tear ducts
• Blurred vision / blindness (partial or complete)
DEFENCE AGAINST HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL:
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is

the last line of defense against exposure
to hazards. For hazards with health
effects this is an important means to
protect yourself even if you have
minimized risk of exposure. Most
chemical splashes are accidental and
not anticipated. PPE has saved many

people from permanent damage to their body or loss of sight. When PPE
becomes contaminated it is important to remove it immediately since many
chemicals can penetrate PPE.
• Minimum PPE when working with materials that have health effects includes
lab coat (or similar clothing cover), gloves, and eye protection.
• Not all PPE will provide the same level of protection. Make sure the SOP
written for the chemical specifies the exact type of PPE required.
First Aid: Chemical Exposure:
a. Stop the source. Remove the victim from contact with the chemical spill,
airborne particles, or fumes. ...
b. Clear the lungs. Take the victim to fresh air. ...
c. Flush the eyes. Flush the affected eye with water for at least 15 minutes.
d. Clean the skin.
e. Some chemicals cause burns. Others may be absorbed through skin or
lungs, causing hidden damage. If possible, always refer to the particular
chemical's Material Safety Data Sheet or contact the experts for advice; In
general, follow the steps below:
Step 1. Stop the source
• Remove the victim from contact with the chemical spill, airborne particles, or
fumes. (Wear gloves or use other safety equipment as needed to protect
yourself from exposure to the chemical.)
• Take off any clothes or jewelry that have been in contact with the chemical.
Chemical injuries, just like heat burns, continue to worsen as long as the
source is in contact with the body.
Step 2. Clear the lungs
• Take the victim to fresh air. This may

mean going into another room or
leaving the building or even the affected
area.
• Initiate chest compressions if Pulse and

breathing absent.

Step 3. Flush the eyes

• Flush the affected eye with water for at least 15 minutes. Make sure the water
is cool.
• Take precautions that there is no accidental flushing of chemicals into an
unaffected eye. Hold the head so that the injured eye is on the bottom. Flush
from the nose downward
Step 4. Clean the skin

• Brush water-activated chemicals,
such as lime, from the skin, instead
of using water. Be careful not to
brush particles into the eyes.
• If the chemical does not react with
water, flush the affected skin with
cool water for at least 15 minutes.
Make sure the water flow is not
forceful enough to cause pain or
break blisters.
• Don't brush away chemicals with your bare hands.
When to call your healthcare provider
Chemicals may cause serious damage not only to the outside of the body, but
also to the inside. If absorbed into the bloodstream, chemicals may launch a silent
attack on the kidneys or liver. Do not take any action other than evacuation to
a safe area and hospitalization of the victims if you are not trained and if you
do not have requisite knowledge of the rescue in such environments. Call your
healthcare provider right away if any of the following is true:
• A chemical has come into contact with the eyes, nose or mouth.
• The Material Safety Data Sheet notifies the chemical hazardous or likely to
cause damage.

• The container label warns of corrosive contents, which can wear away skin.
• The chemical causes a large burn.
• There is difficulty breathing after exposure.
CALL EMERGENCY NUMBER
Call 112 right away if the victim has:
• Symptoms of shock
• Trouble breathing
• Burns over a large area
While you wait for help
• Reassure the person.

• Ventilate the area and allow as much fresh air as possible.
Do's & Don’ts
Precautions to be taken before, during and after the Chemical (Industrial)

Accidents:
▪ Do not panic, evacuate calmly and quickly perpendicular to the wind

direction / through the designated escape route
▪ Keep a wet handkerchief or a piece of cloth/ sari on face during evacuation.
▪ Keep the sick, elderly, weak, handicapped and other people who are unable
to evacuate inside house and close all the doors and windows tightly.
▪ Do not consume the uncovered food/ water etc. open to the air, drink only
from bottle
▪ Change into fresh clothing after reaching safe place/ shelter, and wash
hands properly
▪ Inform Fire & Emergency Services, Police and medical services from safe
location by calling 101, 100 and 108 respectively.
▪ Listen to Public Address System of the plant/ factory, local radio/ TV
channels for advice from district administration/fire/health/police and
other concerned authorities
▪ Provide correct and accurate information to government officials.
▪ Inform others at public gathering places like school, shopping Centre,
theatre etc. on occurrence of event.
▪ Don’t pay attention to the rumors and don’t spread rumors.
▪ Prepare to evacuate as and when directed by the authorities.
▪ If advised to evacuate, do so immediately.

▪ Know your evacuation route ahead of time and prepare an evacuation

checklist and emergency supplies.
▪ Take care in following the directions to evacuate exactly as directed by the
authorities as they would be in best position to know about the threat levels
in each area.
General Precautions During Normal Time
▪ Do not smoke, light fire or spark in the identified hazardous area.

▪ Sensitize the community living near the industrial units and they should be
more vigilant about the nature of industrial units and associated risks.
▪ If you are living in an area where there are industries, be aware of the
chemicals they are using/ storing and also the counter measures, in case of
a leakage.
▪ If possible, know physical and chemical properties of the substances involved
and initiate evacuation only when you have all necessary information as an
uninformed response may accentuate the complications/ exposure rather
than reducing them.
▪ Keep the contact numbers of nearest hazardous industry, fire station, police
station, control room, health services and district control room, for
emergency use.
▪ Avoid housing near the industries producing or processing the hazardous
chemicals, if possible.
▪ Participate in all the capacity building programmes organized by the
government/ voluntary organizations / industrial units.
▪ Take part in preparing disaster management plan for the community and
identify safe shelter along with safe and easy access routes.
▪ Prepare a family disaster management plan and explain it to all the family
members.
▪ Make the family/neighbours aware of the basic characteristics of various
poisonous/ hazardous chemicals and the first aid required to treat them.
▪ Adequate number of personal protective equipment needs to be made
available, to deal with emergency situation.
▪ Prepare an emergency kit of items and essentials in the house, including
medicines, documents and valuables.
**************************

LESSON – 25
BIOLOGICAL EMERGENCIES
Objectives
✓ What are biological Emergencies?
✓ Dos and Don’ts during Biological emergencies
INTRODUCTION
Biological disasters are phenomenon of organic origin which may be

transmitted by biological vectors, that includes exposure to pathogenic micro-
organisms, toxins and bioactive substances and may cause loss of lives, injury,
illness or other health impacts, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage. Examples of biological disasters include
outbreaks of epidemics, plant or animal contagion, insect infestation.
Biological disasters may be in the form of: -
Epidemic
Epidemics affects a disproportionately large number of individuals within a

population, community, or region at the same time, e.g., Cholera, Plague, Japanese
Encephalitis (JE)/Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) etc.
Pandemic
Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a

continent, or even worldwide of existing, emerging or re-emerging diseases and
pestilence, e.g., Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu), SARS Covid, Ebola etc.
DOs and DON’Ts
Before the Disaster

Make Family Biological Disaster Plan.

Step 3: Wash fingers

Step 1: Wash palms
and knuckles
and fingers
Step 2: Wash back of hands.
Step 4: Wash thumbs Step 5: Wash fingertip Step 6 : Wash wrists
Prepare by ensuring Preventive measures: -

• Personal cleanliness - daily bath, don’t grow long nails and wear clean
clothes.
• Hand Hygiene (Wash hands with soap and water before preparing food or
eating, after passing stools, coughing or sneezing). The steps of hand
washing are: -
• Eat nutritious and balanced food.
• Immunisation should be up to date.
• Prevent overcrowding.
• Maintain proper ventilation.
• Protect from extreme hot and cold weather.
• Health Education.
• Be observant for any health conditions in the neighbourhood.
• Subscribe to a Medical Insurance Plan.
• Take a First Aid and Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) training.
Diarrhoeal Group of Diseases Including Cholera

Dos
• Always keep hand hygiene.
• Encourage drinking of water from a safe source or water that has been
disinfected (chlorinated). Add bleaching powder in all community wells at
regular intervals. Use water from hand pumps, if installed in the
village/community.
• Drink boiled potable water in an emergency that has been boiled for at least
15 minutes and consume it the same day.

• Promote storage of water in narrow mouthed container and keep it covered.

• Cook food thoroughly, especially meat, poultry, eggs and seafood until it is
steaming and eat it while it is still hot.
• Ensure cooked meat and poultry is safe and no part of the meat is
discoloured or foul smelling, or in the case of eggs, their shells are not
cracked.
• If food is not eaten immediately, reheat cooked food until it is steaming hot
prior to serving.
• Keep food items covered.
• Increase fluid intake as soon as diarrhoea starts, by drinking ORS solution
or home-made preparation of Table Salt 5 grams (1 teaspoon) and 20 grams
(4 teaspoons) of Sugar dissolved in 1 litre of drinking water.
• Encourage banana eating, which provides potassium.
• Continue feeding children when they are sick and to continue breastfeeding
if the child is being breast fed.
• Refer the diarrhoea case to the nearest health facility in case of the following:
Child is irritable, restless, lethargic or unconscious: eating or drinking
poorly; child has marked thirst; child has fever or blood in stool.
Don’ts
• Do not drink water from unsafe sources.
• Do not eat uncooked food.
• Do not leave cooked food at room temperature longer than 2 hours.
• Do not consume pre-cut fruits from vendors.
• Do not defecate in open area.
• Do not allow rats and houseflies in your house.
Respiratory Group of Diseases like Tuberculosis, Influenza, Chickenpox,

Meningitis
1. Avoid close contact with people who are having respiratory illness.
2. The sick person should stay at home, and avoid going into the community,
school/office, public places for at least 24 hours after symptoms have resolved.
3. Sick persons at home should keep distance from others.
4. Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette: -
• Cover the nose/mouth with a handkerchief/ tissue paper when coughing

or sneezing which should be disposed of in dustbins;
• Perform hand hygiene (e.g., frequent hand washing with soap and water,
alcohol-based sanitizers, or antiseptic hand wash) and thoroughly dried,
preferably using disposable tissue/ paper/ towel after having contact with
respiratory secretions and contaminated objects/ materials.

5. Triple layer surgical Mask of standard and certified make should be worn by
suspected/ probable/confirmed cases of influenza or by the care provider in
home care settings and close family contacts of such cases undergoing home
care.
6. Get plenty of sleep, be physically active, manage your stress, drink plenty of
fluids, and eat nutritious food.
7. Avoid smoking.
8. Persons who have difficulty breathing or shortness of breath should seek
immediate medical attention and report to the nearby hospital.
9. If sick persons have to go into the community (e.g., to seek medical care), then
they should wear a face mask or use a handkerchief or tissues to cover any
coughing and sneezing so as to reduce the risk of spreading the infection in the
community.
10. Immunization status should be up to date as per National Universal
Immunisation Programme.
Mosquito Borne Diseases like Malaria, Dengue, Filaria, Chikungunya

Do’s
• Follow “sun-down sleeves-down” approach. Wear clothes that cover arms
and legs.
• Prevent water pools on ground and other places to prevent malaria
breeding.
• Empty water containers at least once a week.
• Remove water from coolers from time to time.
• Cover and seal any septic tanks.
• Use Mosquito Nets Preferably Insecticide Treated Bed Nets (ITBN).
• Apply insect repellents while sleeping to keep the mosquitoes away.
• Seek medical advice in case of rashes, mental irritation or
unconsciousness.
Don’ts
• Do not encourage children to wear shorts and half sleeved clothing.
• Do not allow water to stagnate.
• Do not allow discarded items such as tyres, tubes, empty coconut shells,
household items and objects to pile up in open wherein water may collect.
• Do not bathe in village ponds where cattle also take bath.
Maintain an Emergency Kit for the Biological Emergencies: -
• Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) sachets.

• Tablet Paracetamol.
• Tablet Anti-diarrhoea.
• Tablet Anti-spasmodic.
*************************

LESSON – 26
RADIOLOGICAL & NUCLEAR EMERGENCIES
Objectives
✓ What are Radiological Emergencies?
✓ Dos and Don’ts
INTRODUCTION
Sad memories of the use of nuclear weapons dropped on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, and the wide publicity given to the reactor accidents at Three Mile Island
(TMI) in USA and Chernobyl in erstwhile USSR, have strongly influenced the public
perception of any nuclear or radiological emergency.
Most often these memories are linked, erroneously, to only these events.
However, one must be prepared to face nuclear/radiological emergencies of lower
magnitudes and ensure that the impact of such an emergency is always kept under
control. For a given magnitude the impact of such an incident is likely to be much
greater today, because of higher population densities coupled with an enhanced
urban infrastructure due to economic prosperity It may be noted that better
infrastructure can be helpful during such incidences in terms of enhancement of
communication, transport and medical support.
To improve the public perception of safe use of atomic energy and radiation
for peaceful and beneficial purpose it is necessary to convey the right information
to public. DAE has already such an active programme both in print media and on
electronic media. However, to create awareness on AERB’s role towards safety in
using nuclear and radiation applications safely in this country it has decided to
carry out a public awareness programme, organize and also participate in such
programmes organized by others. It has also decided to make knowledgebase
available on its website for visitors seeking information on how safe use of atomic

energy and radiation is ensured without harming human being and the
environment.
Radiation is energy in motion. The simplest and well-known example of
radiation is light either from sun or an object on fire. We all know when the
intensity of this light is higher (e.g., in summer) it has a potential to cause harm.
When it is lower than a certain limit it is soothing and harmless. But during winter,
we use fire to heat ourselves using radiation emanating from it because intensity
of light (radiation) from sun becomes less. Therefore, radiation is similar to a drug
that when taken in a right dose has more benefit than harm caused by it whereas
an overdose may even cause death.
Radiation can be either ionizing or non-ionizing in nature:
Non-Ionizing radiation is the kind of radiation that does not have sufficient
energy to remove an electron (ionize) from an atom (e.g., radio waves, microwaves,
infrared radiation, visible light, lasers, ultraviolet light, radar etc.),
Ionizing radiation is the radiation that has sufficient energy to eject
electrons from atoms i.e., ionize atoms (e.g., alpha particles, beta particles,
neutrons, gamma rays, and x-rays etc.). Characteristics and types of
electromagnetic radiation are shown in the below Figure.
Nuclear and Radiological Emergency can arise in a nuclear facility at plant

level leading to plant/ on site emergency or an offsite emergency if its impact goes
past the facility’s confines, out into the surroundings.

It can also take place while using radiation sources, either at Hospitals,
Industries, Agriculture or Research Institutions due to loss or misplacement or due
to faulty handling.
The other events that can lead to Nuclear or Radiological Emergency in the
public domain, include, accident of a vehicle carrying radioactive/nuclear material,
due to an orphan source i.e., the source which is not under regulatory control or
due to usage of radiation source/radioactive material in malevolent activities.
Any radiation incident resulting in or having a potential to result in exposure

and/or contamination of the workers or the public in excess of the respective
permissible limits can lead to a nuclear/radiological emergency.
Ionizing radiation
BACKGROUND RADIATION
WHAT IS BACKGROUND RADIATION AND HOW MUCH RADIATION ONE CAN

GET:
We are practically in a sea of radiation that reach us from either outer space
after getting thoroughly filtered by earth’s atmosphere or from the material on earth
or building walls/structures made of earthly materials that has higher percentage
of naturally occurring radioactive materials. If we fly high up in the air unprotected,
we can get higher radiation from cosmic source than we get on earth from the same
source.
If we are in a region where naturally radioactive materials are present on
earth’s surface (such as beach sand material in some of the coastal regions or open
mines) we may get a little higher background radiation than at those places where
such materials are absent on earth’s surface.
The energy deposited into our body due to normal natural background
radiation is about 2.4 mSv/year (2400 μSv/year). When we compare this value
with the radiation dose one may receive at the exclusion boundary (1.0 km - 1.6

km away from the Reactors) of a NPP we see that it is only about 0.015 mSv/year
(15 μSv/year). This is far less than any other activities.
Radiation emitted from manmade radionuclides is exactly the same form as
radiation emitted from naturally-occurring radioactive materials (namely alpha,
beta or gamma radiation).
As such, the radiation emitted by naturally-occurring materials cannot be
distinguished from radiation produced by materials in the nuclear fuel cycle.
Most elements have a radioactive form (radioisotope) and many of these
occur naturally. We live our lives surrounded by naturally-radioactive materials,
and are constantly bathed in radiation originating in the rocks and soil, building
materials, the sky (space), food and one another.
A typical background level of exposure is 2.4 milli Sieverts per year (mSv/y).
Regulations limit extra exposure from man-made radiation due to human activities
(other than medicine) to 1 mSv/y for members of the public and average 20 mSv/y
for occupational exposure. Some people are exposed lifelong to natural background
levels which are higher than this.

APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION
Medical- Diagnosis and treatment

Industrial- Food processing, Radiography, Gauges and measurement
Research – Irradiation of samples, Calibration sources, tracers
Agriculture- Tracer studies
EXPOSURE TO LARGE DOSES OF RADIATION
Can be dangerous as they may cause two types of biological effects: -
1. Somatic effect - Where person exposed is affected.

2. Genetic effect - Which occur in the descendants of the exposed persons.
ANNUAL AVERAGE VALUES OF THE EFFECTIVE DOSE FROM NATURAL
SOURCES OF RADIATION: -
S.NO. ELEMENTS OF EXPOSURE ANNUAL DOSE mSv.Y-1

01 COSMIC RAYS 0.4
02 TERRESTRIAL GAMMA RAYS 0.5
03 INTERNAL RADIATION 0.3
04 RADON & ITS DECAY PRODUCTS 1.2
TOTAL 2.4

We must remember that –

• Radiation has always been a part of the natural
environment.
• The regulations and safety measures for radioactive
materials are more advanced compared to all other
potentially harmful agents.
• The benefits of the use of radiation and radioactive
materials under controlled conditions greatly outweigh
the risks.
Preparedness for Nuclear/Radiological Emergencies:
The handling of nuclear emergencies requires coordination among different
service groups of the nuclear facility. In the event of potential radiological
consequences in the public domain, all the authorities at the three levels,
i.e., district, state and central, will play a vital role and assist the offsite
officials in effectively responding to and keeping the public informed on the
precautions to be taken.
Do's & Don’ts
Do's
a. Go indoors. Stay inside.
b. Switch on the radio/television and look out for public announcements from
your local authority.
c. Close doors/windows.
d. Cover all food, water and consume only such covered items.
e. If in the open, cover your face and body with a wet handkerchief, towel, dhoti
or sari. Return home, change/remove clothes. Have a complete wash and
use fresh clothing.
f. Extend full cooperation to local authorities and obey their instructions
completely -- be it for taking medication, evacuation, etc.
g. You must be aware of nuclear radiation hazard. Discuss on Nuclear radiation
safety among children and family members, to reduce their fear of radiation.
Don’ts
a. Do not panic.
b. Do not believe in rumours passed on by word of mouth from one person to
another.
c. Do not stay outside/or go outside.
d. As far as possible, avoid water from open wells/ponds; exposed crops and
vegetables; food, water or milk from outside.
e. Do not disobey any instruction of the district or civil defence authorities who
would be doing their best to ensure the safety of you, your family and your
property.
*************************


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A HANDBOOK FOR AAPDA MITRA

NDRF Academy, Nagpur

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur, Ministry of Home Affairs,

Written & Compiled by

Instructors of National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

Authenticated Websites, Brady reference book and PEER instructor’s guide

National Disaster Response Force Academy

Civil Line, Temple Road Nagpur– 440001

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

It is a matter of great pleasure and honour that National Disaster Response

We all are aware of hazards and vulnerability profile of Country. Majority of

I am pleased to place on record my sincere appreciation to Shri Pankaj

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 outlines

It aimed to achieve the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in

This handbook is the outcome of participatory approach involving group of

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

I am happy to acknowledge the support extended by team of instructors of

The approach focuses on facilitating learning about the disasters and

Finally, I am deeply indebted and would like to express my gratitude to the

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur

9. Thundering and Lightening 62-70

10. Drought 71-75

13. Basic Search and Rescue 97-104

14. Lifting and Stabilizing Load 105-111

21. Rope Rescue Techniques and Improvise 192-204

23. Forest fire 215-229

24. Chemical Emergencies 230-237

25. Biological Emergencies 238-241

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur 1

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur 2

BASIC CONCEPTS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:

➢ Describe disaster management cycle

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur 3

Disaster Risk Assessment: -

hazards that endanger communities, their vulnerabilities and capabilities.

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur 4

Disaster Risk Reduction- The reduction of disaster risk is the bedrock of

I. WATER AND CLIMATE RELATED DISASTERS

1. Floods 5. Snow Avalanches

II. GEOLOGICALLY RELATED DISASTERS

III. CHEMICAL, INDUSTRIAL AND NUCLEAR DISASTERS

IV. ACCIDENT-RELATED DISASTERS

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur 5

V. BIOLOGICALLY RELATED DISASTERS

1. Biological Disasters and Epidemics

NODAL MINISTRIES FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM AT NATIONAL LEVEL

• NEC headed by the Home

• Union Cabinet may set up a Cabinet Committee/Task Force/Group of

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur 6

INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM AT STATE LEVEL

• The committee comprises

• State Relief Commissioner

DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT 2005

NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (NDMA)

National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur 7