Revision Notes for CBSE Class 10 Science Notes for Chapter 6 Life Processes:

Life processes: The processes which together perform this maintenance functions of living
organisms like respiration, nutrition, circulation, excretion, etc., are called life processes.
Living Being: Living beings are those who show all the characteristics of life i.e., growth,
movement, reproduction, respiration, etc. They live, die and become a part of nature again.
Nutrition: The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it to get energy, for growth,
repair, maintenance, etc. is called nutrition.
Need for Nutrition: Organisms need energy to perform various activities. This energy is
supplied by the nutrients obtained from nutrition.
Modes of Nutrition
(i) Autotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is
called autotrophic nutrition. For example, green plants and blue-green algae follow the
autotrophic mode of nutrition.
(ii) Heterotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism obtains its food from
another organism is called heterotrophic nutrition. For example, most of the bacteria, fungi and
all animals follow the heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
Heterotrophic Nutrition is of three types:
a. Saprophytic nutrition - It is a type of nutrition in which organisms feed on dead and
decaying matter. For example, fungi.
b. Parasitic nutrition - It is a type of nutrition in which organism feed on living host. For
example, Cuscutta.
c. Holozoic nutrition - It is a type of nutrition where an organism takes in whole food and
breaks it inside the body. For example, Amoeba.
Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is a process which utilizes carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll to synthesize carbohydrates like glucose.

Green leaves are the main site of photosynthesis. They contain green colour pigment known as
chlorophyll that traps sunlight for photosynthesis.

The following events occur during the process of photosynthesis:

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.

(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen.

(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to produce carbohydrates (glucose).

Stomata: Stomata are the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves.
Features of stomata:

➡ Stomata facilitate gaseous exchange in the leaves for the purpose of photosynthesis.

➡ The opening and closing of the stomatal pores is controlled by the guard cells.

➡ The guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open. Similarly
the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.

Nutrition in Amoeba

➡ Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows the holozoic mode of nutrition.

➡ Holozoic nutrition happens in five steps, viz. ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion.

➡ Amoeba cell engulfs the food particle using pseudopodia (temporary finger-like extensions of
the cell surface). This process is called phagocytosis.

➡ The engulfed food gets enclosed in a food vacuole.

➡ Inside the food vacuole, complex substances are broken down into simpler ones resulting in
digestion, absorption, assimilation.

➡ The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.

Nutrition in Human Beings

Humans consist of an alimentary canal and some accessory glands. The alimentary canal is
divided into several parts that are:

1.Mouth

2.Pharynx

3.Oesophagus/food pipe

4.Stomach

5.Small intestine

6.Large intestine

7. Rectum
8. Anus

Accessory glands: Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are the accessory glands which lie outside
the alimentary canal.
Process of digestion of food in human beings

➡ Food is taken in through mouth where it is moistened by saliva.

➡ Saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks down complex starch (present in
food) into simple sugar.

➡ The food is chewed in mouth by the muscular tongue. It then moves down the alimentary canal.

➡ The lining of canal has muscles that contract rhythmically in order to push the food forward.
➡ The food is taken to the stomach through the food-pipe called oesophagus.

➡ The muscular walls of the stomach help in mixing the food with more digestive juices.

➡ The gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach release hydrochloric acid, a protein
digesting enzyme called pepsin, and mucus.

➡ Hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin.
It also kills bacteria entered through food and prevents infection.

➡ From the stomach, the food now enters the small intestine (the longest part of the alimentary
canal).

(Note - Herbivores eating grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be
digested. Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a shorter small intestine.)

➡ Complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats occurs in small intestine. It receives the
secretions of the liver and pancreas for this purpose.

➡ Bile juice from liver helps in emulsification of fats.

➡ Pancreas secrete enzymes such as trypsin for the digestion of proteins.

➡ The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice. It finally convert
the proteins to amino acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.

➡ Digested food is then absorbed by the walls of the small intestine.

➡ The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi which
increase the surface area for absorption of food.
➡ The villi are richly supplied with blood vessels which take the absorbed food to each and every
cell of the body to meet their energy requirements.

➡ The unabsorbed food is then transferred to large intestine where water is absorbed from it.

➡ The rest of the material is then removed from the body via the anus.

Respiration: It is a metabolic process which involves breakdown of food to release energy.

➡ Respiration may take place in different conditions like presence of oxygen, lack of oxygen and
absence of oxygen.

➡ The first step in all three cases is the break-down of glucose into a three-carbon molecule called
pyruvate. This process takes place in the cytoplasm.

Anaerobic respiration: The breakdown of pyruvate into ethanol and carbon-dioxide is absence
of oxygen is known as anaerobic respiration. It is also called fermentation.
Aerobic respiration: The breakdown of pyruvate into carbon-dioxide and water in presence of
oxygen it is known as aerobic respiration.

The energy released during the process of respiration is used up to synthesize the ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) which is used to fuel all other activities in the cell.

Aquatic animals breathe faster than the terrestrial animals

Since the amount of oxygen dissolved in water is comparatively lower than that in air, the
acquatic animals have to breath rapidly to take in sufficient oxygen. Thus, the rate of breathing in
aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms. Fishes take in water
through their mouths and force it past the gills where the dissolved oxygen is taken up by blood.

Human Respiratory System

➡ The human respiratory system involves the nose, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx,
trachea/windpipe, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.

➡ Air is taken into the body through the nostrils.

➡ The air passing through the nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that line the passage. From here, the
air passes through the throat and into the lungs.

➡ Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which finally terminate in
balloon-like structures which are called alveoli.

➡ The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels where the exchange of
gases take place.
Haemoglobin: It is a respiratory pigment in humans that carries oxygen to different parts of the
body.
Respiration in Plants

Plants have stomata (present in leaves) and lenticels (present in stems) which are involved in the
exchange of gases.

Transportation in Human Beings

➡ Transportation in humans is done by the circulatory system. It is responsible for the supply of
oxygen, nutrients, removal of carbon dioxide and other excretory products.

➡ The circulatory system in humans mainly consists of blood, blood vessels and heart.

Blood: Blood consists of a fluid medium called plasma in which the cells are suspended. Plasma
transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form. Red blood cells carry
oxygen throughout the body.
Heart: It is the main pumping organ of the body which is composed of cardiac muscles.

➡ It is divided into four chambers which are involved in the transportation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
➡ The upper two chambers are called atria and the lower two chambers are called as ventricles.

➡ Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.

➡ Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.

Working of Heart

➡ Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs comes to the thin-walled upper left chamber of the heart
called the left atrium.

➡ The left atrium relaxes when it is collecting this blood. It then contracts, while the next
chamber, the left ventricle relaxes so that the blood is transferred to it.

➡ The left ventricle then contracts so that the blood is pumped out to the body.

➡ De-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper right chamber called the right atrium.

➡ The left atrium relaxes when it is collecting this blood. It then contracts, while the next
chamber, the right ventricle dilates so that the blood is transferred to it.

➡ Right ventricle then pumps the de-oxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation.

Cardiac cycle: One complete heartbeat in which all the chambers of the heart contract and relax
once is called cardiac cycle.
Double circulation: In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one cardiac
cycle. This type of circulation is called double circulation. It ensures complete segregation of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood which is necessary for optimum energy production in
warm-blooded animals.
Note - Since ventricles have to pump blood into various organs, they have thicker muscular walls
than that of atria.
Blood Vessels: Blood vessels carry blood all through the human body. There are three types of
blood vessels:

(i) Arteries - carry oxygenated blood

(ii) Veins - carry deoxygenated blood

(iii) Capillaries - site of gaseous exchange between blood and cells.

Bleeding: It refers to the leakage of blood when a blood vessel ruptures. Bleeding is stopped by
the platelets that help in clotting of blood at the site of the injury.

Transportation in plants: Plants have specialized vascular tissues for transportation of water
and minerals. There are two types of vascular tissues in plants.
(i) Xylem: It is responsible for transportation of water and minerals from roots to the different
parts of the plant. Xylem tissue consists of vessels and tracheids.
(ii) Phloem: It is responsible for transportation of food from the leaves to different parts of the
plants.
Transpiration: Loss of water in the form of water vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is
known as transpiration. It helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals
dissolved in it from roots to the leaves.
Excretion: The biological process involved in the removal of harmful metabolic wastes from the
body is called excretion.
Excretion in Human Beings

Excretory system of humans consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder and
urethra.
➡ Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters and gets collected in the urinary
bladder from where it is expelled out through urethra as and when required.

➡ The basic filtration unit of the kidneys is known as nephrons.

➡ Nephron is the structural and functional unit of kidney.

➡ Each nephron consists of two parts- glomerulus and renal tubule.

➡ Glomerulus consists of a bunch of capillaries.

➡ Blood enters the kidney through afferent arteriole and filtered blood leaves the glomerulus
through efferent arteriole.

➡ The renal tubule starts with a cup-like structure called Bowman’s capsule that encloses the
glomerulus.

➡ Capillaries of kidneys filter the blood and the essential substances like glucose, amino acids,
salts, and the required amount of water are reabsorbed.
➡ Amount of water reabsorbed depends on how much water is there in the body.

➡ Excess water and nitrogenous waste in humans are converted to urine.

➡ Urine thus produced is passed to the urinary bladder via the ureters.

➡ Ureter is a tube emerging from the median surface of each kidney and connects the kidney to
the urinary bladder.

➡ Urinary bladder is a muscular bag which is meant for temporary storage of urine and connects
to urethra from where urine is discharged.

Hemodialysis

Any failure in the kidney activity leads to accumulation of poisonous wastes in the body, which
can even lead to death. In such situation, an artificial kidney can be used. An artificial kidney is a
device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis. Artificial kidneys
contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended in a tank filled with dialysing
fluid. This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as blood, except that it is devoid of nitrogenous
wastes. The patient’s blood is passed through these tubes. During this passage, the waste
products from the blood pass into dialysing fluid by diffusion. The purified blood is pumped
back into the patient.

Excretion in Plants

➡ Carbon dioxide, excess water and nitrogenous compounds are the major excretory products in
plants.

➡ Excretion of gaseous waste in plants takes place through stomatal pores on leaves.

➡ Oxygen released during photosynthesis is used for respiration while carbon dioxide released
during respiration is used for photosynthesis.

➡ Excess water is excreted by transpiration.

➡ Waste products may be stored in leaves that fall off.

➡ Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem.

➡ Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.

Questions for self-assessment:

Q. Why is diffusion insufficuent to meet the oxygen requirements of multicellular organisms like
humans?

Q. In mammals and birds why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood?

Q. Mention the role of hydrochloric acid in stomach.

Q. Write the final product of digestion of protein.

Q. Write two points of differences between Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respiration.

Q. List three differences between arteries and veins.

Life Processes Class 10 Notes Biology

Science Chapter 6
Introduction
What is living ?

‘Living’ is something that is alive, something that can grow, move, reproduce, respire,
made up of cells and are capable of carrying out various cellular activities.

Biology is the study of life and all living organism that have the potential to carry out the
basic process which may be called as the characteristics of life or life processes.

Some Of The Life Processes In The Living Beings Are

Described Below:
Nutrition: The process of obtaining energy through consumption of food is called as
nutrition.
Respiration: The process of acquiring oxygen through breathing and make it available to
cells for the process of breaking down of organic substances into simpler compounds is
called as respiration.

Transportation: Transportation is the process by which the food and oxygen is carried
from one organ to other organs in the body.

Excretion: It is the process by which the metabolic waste by-products are removed from
the different organs and released out from the body

In unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a single cell.

In multicellular organisms, well-developed systems are present to carry out the processes.

Nutrition
“Nutrition is the process of taking in food and converting it into energy and other
vital nutrients required for life.”

What Is The Need Of Nutrition ?


 Organisms need energy to perform various activities. The energy is supplied
by the nutrients.
 Organisms need various raw materials for growth and repair. These raw
materials are provided by nutrients.
What Are Nutrients ?

 Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients.
 Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are the main nutrients and are called
macronutrients.
 Minerals and vitamins are required in small amounts and hence are called
micronutrients.

Types Of Nutrition:
Autotrophic Nutrition:
 The mode of nutrition through which an organism prepares its own food is called
autotrophic nutrition.
 Green plants and blue-green algae follow the autotrophic mode of nutrition. These
organisms are called photosynthetic because they process raw materials in presence
of sunlight to make food.
 Some organisms process certain raw materials through chemical reactions, without
utilising the sunlight. Such organisms are chemosynthetic.
Heterotrophic Nutrition:
 The mode of nutrition through which an organism takes food from another
organism is called heterotrophic nutrition.
 Organisms, other than autotrophs, follow heterotrophic mode of nutrition. These
organisms directly or indirectly depend on autotrophs for food.
 For example, almost all the animals directly or indirectly take food from plants.
Animals which eat plants are called herbivores, while flesh-eating animals are
called carnivores.
 Heterotrophic nutrition can be further divided into three types, viz. saprophytic
nutrition , holozoic nutrition and parasitic nutrition.

Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the organism secretes digestive juices

on food. The food is digested while it is still to be ingested.

Digestion involves converting complex molecules into simple molecules so that they can
be utilised by the organism. The digested food is then ingested by the organism.
All the decomposers follow saprophytic nutrition. Saprotrophs feed on dead remains of
different organisms. By doing so, they help in decomposition of organic waste. This is an
important process during various biogeochemical cycles.

Many bacteria and all the fungi follow saprotrophic mode of nutrition.

Parasitic Nutrition : Organisms that lives in or on other organisms and also acquire food
of its host are known as parasites.

Most parasites are harmful to the hosts health and sometimes, they even kill the host.
Both animals and plants may serve as a host. Unlike commensalism, the parasite causes
some harm to its host. A few examples of parasites are louse on a human head, Cuscuta
plant.

Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition, the digestion happens inside the body of the
organism, i.e. after the food is ingested. Animals and protozoa follow this mode of
nutrition.

Nutrition in plants
Photosynthesis:
Green plants are capable of manufacturing their own food in the form of carbohydrate in
presence of light by using water and carbon-dioxide, this process is called photosynthesis.

Such mode of nutrition is termed as autotrophic nutrition. Carbohydrates provide energy

to the plant and the ones not used are stored in the form of starch. Starch is the reserve
food of plants whereas reserve food in case of animals in glycogen.

Photosynthesis is the process by which green parts of the plant synthesize organic food in
the form of carbohydrates from CO2 and water in the presence of sunlight.

6CO2+6H2O→ChlorophyIILight�6�12�6+6�2(�������)6C
O2+6H2OLightChlorophyII(Glucose)C6H12H6+6O2
Mechanism Of Photosynthesis

 Light reaction – Thylakoids of Grana
 Dark reaction – Stroma

Events Occurring During Photosynthesis

 
 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
 Reduction of CO2 into carbohydrate.

Steps Of Photosynthesis :
During the process of photosynthesis, the following events occur :


 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
H2O→2H++2e−+12O2H2O2H++2e−+21O2
The above processes are considered as light reaction as it can take place only in the
presence of light.


 Reduction of carbon-dioxide to carbohydrates. This is also known as dark
reaction as it does not require light.
Desert plants take up CO2 at night and prepare an intermediate which is acted upon by the
energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day.

Conditions Necessary For Photosynthesis


 Sunlight
 Chlorophyll
 Carbon-dioxide
 Water
These conditions are needed for autotrophic mode of nutrition.

Site of Photosynthesis: Leaf in the organ where maximum photosynthesis takes place. If
you see the cross section of a leaf you will find some green dots. These green dots are
cell organelles called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll.

Chlorophyll containing organelles (chloroplasts) are found in large numbers in plant and
algal cells.
Raw Materials For Photosynthesis
1. Carbon dioxide: It is a gas, which is released into the atmosphere
during respiration by all living organisms. This gas is utilized by autotrophic plants
which enters the leaf through the stomata present on its surface during the process
of photosynthesis.
2. Water: It is another requirement for photosynthesis which is transported upward
through xylem tissues to the leaves, from where it reaches the photosynthetic cells.
Elements such as N, P, Fe and Mg are required by the plant to build their body is
taken up from the soil along with water by roots. Nitrogen is the most important
constituent of amino acid and nitrogenous bases. This is taken up in the form of
inorganic nitrates or nitrites. It can also be taken as organic compounds which have
been prepared by bacteria from atmospheric nitrogen.
3. Chlorophyll: It is a green pigment in plants which act as a catalyst. It is responsible
for absorption of sun’s energy. The chlorophyll pigments are photoreceptor
molecules which play a key role in the photosynthetic process. The different types
of chlorophyll molecules are chlorophyll a, b, c, d and bacteriochlorophyll; of which
chlorophyll a and b are most common.
4. Light: It affects the rate of photosynthesis by its intensity, quality and duration. In
green light, the rate of photosynthesis is minimum, while in red and blue lights the
rate of photosynthesis is maximum. Rate of photosynthesis is higher in plants
getting average light of 10-12 hrs a day.
5. Gaseous exchange during photosynthesis : Stoma are tiny pores present on the
surfaces of the leaves (more on the lower surface and less on the upper surface).
Stomata function in gas exchange between the plant and the atmosphere during
 photosynthesis. Each stoma is bordered by two bean / dumbbell shaped guard cells
in dicots and monocots respectively. However exchange of gases also occurs across
the surface of stems, roots etc.

Opening and Closing of Stomatal Pore : The opening and closing of the stomata is the
function of guard cells. The guard cells swell when water flows into them causing the
stomatal pore to open. Similarly the pore closes if the guard cells shrink. Since large
amounts of water can also be lost through stomata the plant closes these pores when it
does not need CO2 for photosynthesis.

External Factors Affecting Photosynthesis


 There are number of factors which affect the process of photosynthesis
thereby affecting the productivity of a plants.
 Each factor has three principal values i.e., minimum, optimum and
maximum. Optimum means the process is taking place at its highest rate.
 Maximum value means beyond which the process is adversely affected.
Important External Factors Are :

 Light
 Temperature
 Water
 Carbon dioxide
Light

  In photosynthesis light is converted into chemical energy in the form of food.
 The rate of photosynthesis is affected by quality, intensity and duration of
light.
 The chlorophyll absorbs mostly the blue and red regions of the spectrum.
 The green light has inhibitory effect. The low intensities of light increase the
rate of photosynthesis while the higher intensities retard the rate of
photosynthesis.
 Plants getting average light of 10-13 hours a day exhibit higher rate of
photosynthesis.
Temperature

 Temperature acts as a limiting factor under field conditions particularly on
cool days.
 The influence of temperature on photosynthesis depends on both light
intensity and availability of CO2.
 An increase in temperature above 30oC results in a fall in the rate of
photosynthesis. Changes in temperature do not affect the light reactions of
photosynthesis but markedly influence the rate of enzyme-mediated dark
reactions.
 However, the effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis varies from
plant to plant.
Water

 Water deficiency may retard the rate of photosynthesis as it is one of the raw
materials for the process.
 Under water deficient conditions stomata remain closed to reduce the
transpiration thereby affecting the entry of CO2.
Carbon dioxide

 Carbon dioxide is present in low concentration and forms about 0.032% of
the atmosphere. It enters the leaves through stomata.
 The rate of photosynthesis increases with an increase in CO2 concentration
up to a certain limit. Higher concentration of CO2 may prove toxic to plants.

Internal Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Chlorophyll
Photosynthesis does not occur in etiolated and chlorophyll less leaves. In the variegated
leaves, photosynthesis occurs only at the places which possess chlorophyll.

Anatomy of leaf
The amount of CO2 that reaches the chloroplast depends on structural features of the
leaves like the size, position and behaviour of the stomata and the amount of intercellular
spaces Some other characters like thickness of cuticle, epidermis, presence of epidermal
hairs, amount of mesophyll tissue, etc., influence the intensity and quality of light
reaching into the chloroplast.

Nutrition In Human Beings

Human beings are heterotrophic omnivorous organisms. They obtain their food from
plants, animals and their products by holozoic modes of nutrition.


 Ingestion: Process of taking food inside the body through mouth.
 Digestion: Process of conversion of complex food particles into simpler ones
by the action of enzymes.
 Absorption: Process of diffusion of soluble food particles into the blood.

 Assimilation: Process of utilization of absorbed food by the body cells.
 Egestion: Process of removal of undigested food from the body.

Human Digestive System

 
 The organs which are responsible for ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion constitute the digestive system.
 The digestive system comprise the alimentary canal and associated digestive
glands.
 It consists of mouth, buccal cavity, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine, rectum and anus.
 Digestive glands are salivary glands, liver and pancreas.

Alimentary Canal
Alimentary canal in man is 9 meters long and consists of the following parts :
Mouth:

 It leads into buccal cavity. Palate forms the roof of the buccal cavity and is
differentiated into anterior hard and posterior soft palate.
 The floor of the buccal cavity has a tongue bearing taste buds. Mucous
membrane of the tongue contains taste buds which contain receptors
sensitive to sweet, salty, bitter and sour taste.
Teeth:
There are 32 teeth of four different types, in human adult. These are:

Types of teeth Function Numb

Incisors Used for biting

Canines Used for tearing

Premolars Used for grinding

Molars Used for grinding

Pharynx:

 It is a short, conical region that lies after the mouth cavity and connects it to
the esophagus.
Oesophagus:

 It is a long, narrow, muscular tube which leads to the stomach. No digestive
glands are present in the oesophagus. It conveys the food (bolus) to stomach
through peristalsis.
 Peristalsis is a series of wave of contraction of muscles that passes from one
end to the other. This pushes the food forward.
Stomach:
 
 It lies below the diaphragm on the left side of abdominal cavity and is J-
shaped.
 It is divisible into cardiac and pyloric part. The food is stored and partially
digested in the stomach.

Small Intestine:

 From the stomach the food is moved to the small intestine. It is a very long
tube (7 mt. long and 2.5 cm. diameter) which originates from the distal end
of the stomach and extends to the large intestine.
 The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal and is greatly
coiled and twisted. The small intestine is subdivided into three sections: the
duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.
Duodenum:
 
 The duodenum (about 10 inches ) part of the small intestine is the main seat
of digestion in the gut. The acidic chyme in the duodenum receives the bile
secreted from the liver, the pancreatic juice secreted from the pancreas and
the intestinal juice from the glands of the intestinal wall.
 Bile is a yellowish-green in colour, bitter in taste, slightly alkaline fluid
secreted from the liver.
 Bile being alkaline in nature neutralises the acidic chyme. Bile emulsify fat
into microscopic droplets and thus helps in the digestion and absorption of
fat. So bile is called digestive juice though it does not contain enzyme.
 Again the pancreas, a large gland located below the stomach, secretes
pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. There are
three enzymes namely amylase, pancreatic lipase and trypsin, in pancreatic
juice that break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins respectively.
 Glands of intestine are present in the mucous layer of the intestinal wall.
These glands secrete intestinal juice, which contains various enzymes.
 The enzymes present in it finally convert the carbohydrates into glucose,
proteins to amino acids and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Jejunum:

 The jejunum is about 8.2 feet (2.5 meters) long. The digested carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, and most of the vitamins, minerals, and iron are absorbed in
this section.
 The inner lining of the small intestine is composed of up to five million tiny,
fingerlike projections called villi. The villi increase the rate of absorption of
nutrients into the bloodstream by greatly increasing the surface area of the
small intestine.
Ileum:

 The ileum, the last section of the small intestine, is the longest, measuring 11
feet (3.4 meters). Certain vitamins and other nutrients are absorbed here
Large Intestine

 It has three parts – caecum, colon and rectum.
 Large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes.

Digestive Glands

Salivary Glands
 
 The salivary glands secrete the first of the digestive juices, the saliva.
 There are three pairs of salivary glands, namely the parotids, sub-maxillary
and sublingual glands.

Gastric Glands:

 They are branched tubular glands which lie in the mucus membranes of the
stomach.
 They secrete gastric juice, which is acidic, containing HCl, enzymes and
mucus.
Liver:

 It is the largest gland in man and lies below diaphragm in the right upper part
of abdomen.
 Liver comprises of two lobes, right and left, the right lobe is much larger
than the left lobe.
 The cells of liver, i.e., hepatic cells, produce bile juice, which is stored in the
gall bladder via cystic ducts.
Bile juice flows out of liver through hepatic ducts forming common bile duct and opens
into the duodenum.
Pancreas:

 It is a soft lobulated gland present in between the loops of duodenum.
 It secretes pancreatic juice containing enzymes which is poured into
duodenum with the help of pancreatic duct.

What Are Life Processes ?

 Living beings are complex organisations of molecules which perform various life processes like growth,
respiration, digestion, reproduction, excretion etc., which makes them different from non-living.
 The basic processes or functions performed by living organisms to keep them alive are called life
processes.

Nutrition is defined as the process of intake of nutrients and its utilisation by an organism
in various biological activities.
 In autotrophic mode of nutrition, organisms prepare their own food and they are called autotrophs.
Organisms prepare food by the process of photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis is the process by which chlorophyll containing cells prepare glucose using carbon
dioxide and water in presence of light energy and oxygen gas is released as a by product during this
process.
 6CO2 + 12H2O Sunlight/Chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O [Equation for photosynthesis]

Steps of nutrition in human beings

Organs of the digestive system
Nutrition in amoeba
Respiration
 Respiration is a biological process by which glucose is oxidized to release energy in the form of ATP
which is the energy currency of the cell.

C6H12O6 + 6O2→Sunlight6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy [Equation for respirat

ion]C6H12O6 + 6O2Sunlight6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy [Equation for respiration
]
 During aerobic respiration, 38 molecules of ATP are released whereas during anaerobic respiration only
2 molecules of ATP are released.
 Tobacco is a plant and its leaves are smoked, chewed, or sniffed for a variety of effects. Tobacco
contains nicotine, an addictive substance. Smoked tobacco products include cigarettes, cigars, bidis, and
kreteks.
 Smoking can destroy the cilia or tiny hairs in the airway that keep dirt and mucus out of lungs.

Breathing process in human beings

Transportation
 The essential substances like food, water, oxygen etc., need to be carried from one part of the body to
another which is done by transport system.
 Arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery.
 Veins carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein.
 Capillaries are thin walled blood vessels where exchange of gases and materials like food occurs.
 Valves allow the blood to flow in one direction i.e., they prevent back flow of the blood.
 When blood flows from atria to ventricles atria contracts and ventricle relaxes, this is called ventricular
diastole.
 When blood flows from ventricles to blood vessels, ventricles contract and atrium relaxes, this is called
ventricular diastole.
 The force exerted by blood on the walls of blood vessels is called blood pressure.
 The normal blood pressure of human beings is 120/80 mm of Hg.
 As blood flows in our heart twice so circulation in human beings is called double circulation.

Double Circulation
 Excretione

 The process of removal of mainly nitrogenous waste substances from our body is called excretion.
 In case of kidney failure due to infections or injury or other factors artificial kidney is used.
 Artificial kidney is a device that removes nitrogenous wastes from our body by dialysis.
 Organ donation is the donation of biological tissue or an organ of the human body, from a living or dead
person to a living recipient in need of a transplantation. Organ transplantation is the only option to save
lives in patients affected by terminal organ failures and improve their quality of life.

1. Life Processes: The processes like 9. Holozoic nutrition: It is the mode of

nutrition, respiration, growth, excretion
etc. which together keep the living
organisms alive and perform the function
of body maintenance are called life
processes.
nutrition in which an organism feeds on
solid food which is a complex organic matter
by the process of ingestion, then the food is
subsequently digested and absorbed and
finally undigested residue is removed from
the body.

2. Autotrophic nutrition: It is the mode 10. Peristalsis: The contraction and

of nutrition in which organisms prepare expansion movement of muscular wall of
their own food by utilising the raw oesophagus when food (bolus) passes from
materials from the surroundings and thus, mouth to stomach.
do not depend on others for their food.
3. Photosynthesis: It is a biological
process in which organisms prepare their
own food by using inorganic raw
materials like water, carbon dioxide in
presence of chlorophyll and sunlight or
light energy and oxygen is evolved as a
byproduct during this process.
4. Chlorophyll: It is a green pigment
found within the chloroplasts of green
plants and some algae which traps solar
energy for the process of photosynthesis.
5. Light reaction: The series of reactions
which occurs only in presence of light
inside the granum of chloroplast where
there is formation of oxygen molecule
due to photolysis of water and production
of assimilatory powers like NADPH and
ATP
6. Dark reaction: The series of reactions
in which carbon dioxide is converted to
glucose in absence of light utilising the
assimilatory powers like NADPH and
ATP in stroma of chloroplast.
7. Photolysis: The reaction in which
water splits to produce hydrogen ,
protons, electrons and oxygen by using
light energy trapped by chlorophyll.
8. Heterotrophic nutrition: It is the
mode of nutrition in which the organisms
depends upon other organisms for food
i.e., they obtain their food from
11. Chyme: It is the semi solid paste formed
by the churning of partially digested food
from the stomach mixed with gastric juice
secreted by the stomach.
12. Respiration: It is a complex process
which involves gaseous exchange i.e.,
oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is
given out as well as oxidation of glucose in
cells to release chemical energy in the form
of ATP.
13. Transportation: It is a life process in
which a substance synthesized or absorbed
in one part of the organism is carried to the
other parts of the body.
14. Excretion: It is a biological process
where there is removal of nitrogenous
wastes from our body produced due to
metabolism.
15. Osmoregulation: The process of
maintaining a constant osmotic condition in
the body by regulating the water and solute
concentration of body fluids.
16. Dialysis: It is an artificial process of
removal of metabolic wastes and excess
water from the body by using a machine in
order to maintain the normal water and
 autotrophs. solute concentration in our body.

Chapter Notes – Life Processes – 1

Life Processes
All the plants and animals are alive or living things.

Properties of Living Beings Compared to Non – living –

1. Movement
2. Grow
3. Need Food
4. Excrete
5. Respiration
6. Reproduce
The major criterion which is used to decide whether something is alive or not alive is movement. The
movement in animals is fast and can be observed easily but the movement in plants is slow and
observed with difficulty. Animals can move from one place to another or they can move their body
parts. The plants can only move parts of their body such as leaves, flowers, roots and shoots.

Life Processes – Life processes are processes undergoing in living organisms to sustain life. For
example: Reproduction, Excretion, Respiration and Growth.
Nutrition –
The Process of taking of food inside the body and converting it into smaller molecules which can be
absorbed by the body is called Nutrition.

Need of nutrition: Nutrition is needed to provide energy for doing any activity and provide essential
nutrients for life processes.
Nutrients: Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients. For example,
 Carbohydrates and fats are the nutrients which are used by the organism mainly as a
source of energy. These nutrients are found in wheat, rice, corn, chocolates etc. So when
you eat them you feel energetic.
 Proteins, vitamins and mineral are nutrients used for making body parts like skin, blood,
bones etc.
Examples of these nutrients are keratin (protein), elastin (protein), collagen (protein), vitamin A,
vitamin B, vitamin E, iron (mineral), calcium (mineral) and many more. These nutrients are found in
onions, fish, potatoes, milk, beet root and in many other vegetables and fruits.

Mode of Nutrition –
Mode of nutrition means method of obtaining food by an organism. There are mainly two modes of
nutrition:
1. Autotrophic mode 2. Heterotrophic mode

a. Autotrophic Mode: As the name suggest `auto’ means ‘self’ and `trophe’ means ‘nutrition’.
In this mode of nutrition an organism does not depend on other living beings for food. Organism
makes (or synthesizes) its own food by photosynthesis.

Those organisms which can make their own food by photosynthesis are called Autotrophs. For
example: all green plants, autotrophic bacteria.

b. Heterotrophic Mode: As the name suggest ‘heteros’ means ‘others’ and trophe’ means
`nutrition’.
Heterotrophic nutrition is that mode of nutrition in which an organism cannot make (or

Not synthesizes) its own food and depends on other organisms for its food.

Those organisms which cannot make their own food and depends on other organisms for their food
are called Heterotrophs. For example: all the animals (man, dog, cat, lion, etc.), most bacteria and
fungi.

Now heterotrophs can be further divided into three types.

Carnivores: Organisms those eat only animals are called carnivores. For example: tiger, lion, snake,
frog etc.
Herbivores: Organisms those eat only plants are called herbivores. For example: cow, deer, rabbit,
elephant etc.
Omnivores: Organisms those eat both plant and animals are called omnivores. For example: crow,
human, dog, sparrow etc.
Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition:
Heterotrophic mode of nutrition is of three types:

(i). Saprotrophic (saprophytic) nutrition

(ii). Parasitic nutrition

(iii). Holozoic nutrition

(i) Saprotrophic nutrition: Saprotrophic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism obtains its
food from decaying organic matter of dead plants, dead animals and rotten bread etc. The organisms
having saprotrophic mode of nutrition are called saprophytes.
Saprophytes are the organisms which obtain food from dead plants (like rotten leaves) dead and
decaying animal bodies and other decaying organic matter. For example: Fungi (liker bread moulds,
mushrooms) and many bacteria.

(ii) Parasitic nutrition: The parasitic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism derives its food
from the body of other living organisms without killing it.
A parasite is an organism which feed on another living organism called its host. For example, some
animals like Plasmodium and roundworms, a few plants like Cuscuta (amarbel) and several fungi and
bacteria.

(iii) Holozoic nutrition: The holozoic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism takes the
complex organic food materials into its body by the process of ingestion; the ingested food is
digested and then absorbed into the body cells of the organism. For example: human beings and most
of the animal.
Nutrition in Plants –
Green plants prepare their own food. They make food from carbon dioxide and water in the presence
of sunlight and chlorophyll. This process is called photosynthesis.

Conditions necessary for photosynthesis:

The conditions necessary for photosynthesis to take place are:

1. Sunlight

2. Chlorophyll
3. Carbon dioxide

4. Water

(Glucose)

The process of photosynthesis can be represented as:

• The process of photosynthesis takes place in the green leaves of a plant.

• The food is prepared by the green leaves of a plant in the form of a simple sugar called glucose.

• The extra glucose is changed into another food called starch (carbohydrate). This starch is stored in
the fruits and leaves of the plant.

• Plants provide food for animals.

• The green plants convert sunlight energy into chemical energy by making carbohydrates.

How the plants obtain carbon dioxide?

• There are a large number of tiny pores called stomata present on the surface of the leaves of plants.

• The carbon dioxide gas enters into the leaves of the plant through the stomata present on the surface
of leaves.

• Each stomatal pore is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. The opening and closing of stomatal
pores is controlled by the guard cells.

• When water flows into the guard cells, they swell, become curved and cause the pore to open.

• On the other hand, when guard cells lose water, they shrink, become straight and close the stomatal
pores.

How the plants obtain water for photosynthesis?

• The water required by the plants for photosynthesis is absorbed by the root of the plants from the
soil through the process of osmosis.

• The water absorbed by the roots of the plants is transported upward through the xylem vessels to
the leaves where it reaches the photosynthetic cells.

• The plants also need other raw materials such as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium etc. for
building their body. Plants take these materials from the soil.
• Nitrogen is essential element used by the plants to make proteins and other compound.

Site of photosynthesis:
• The site of photosynthesis in a cell of the leaf is chloroplasts which contain Chlorophyll.

• Chloroplasts are mainly present in the photosynthetic cells (mesophyll cells) of green plants. These
cells contain more chlorophyll than other plant cells.

Experiment to show necessity of sunlight for photosynthesis –

1. Take a potted plant with green leaves and place it in a dark place for about 3 – 4 days to destarch
its leaves.

2. Take a thin strip of aluminium foil and wrap it in the centre of one leaf on both the sides so that
sunlight may not fall on this covered part of the leaf.

3. The remaining part of the leaf remains uncovered and exposed to sunlight.

4. Now keep the plant in sunshine for about 3 – 4 hours.

5. Pluck the partially covered leaf from the plant and remove its aluminium foil.

6. Remove its green colour chlorophyll by boiling the leaf in alcohol with the help of water bath.

7. Wash the decolourised leaf with water to remove any chlorophyll which may be sticking in it.

8. Pour iodine solution over the colourless leaf and observe the change in colour of the leaf.

Observation:
 On adding iodine solution covered part of the leaf does not turn to blue-black colour
showing that no starch is present in the middle part of the leaf.
 The uncovered part of the leaf which received light turns to blue-black showing that
starch is present in this part of the leaf.
Conclusion: Since the part of the leaf which was covered and hidden from sunlight does not contain
starch and the part of the leaf which was exposed to sunlight contains starch, therefore we can say
that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.
Experiment to show necessity of chlorophyll for photosynthesis –
1. Take a potted plant with variegated leafs (leafs having some part with chlorophyll and
some part with no chlorophyll) destarch.
2. Keep it in sunlight for few hours.
3. Do iodine test (follow steps 6 to 8 as shown in previous experiment).
Observation:
 On adding iodine solution, the part of leaf having chlorophyll turns to blue-black. While
other part of leaf does not turn to blue black showing that no starch is present in this part
of leaf.
Conclusion: Chlorophyll is also necessary for photosynthesis.
Experiment to show necessity of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis –
1. Destarch two potted plants.
 2. Put these potted plants in two bell jars. One with potassium hydroxide solution and other
with no potassium hydroxide solution.
3. Keep them in sunlight.
4. Potassium hydroxide solution in 1st jar removes all CO2 from it.
5. After 3 – 4 hours, do iodine test on leafs of both jars.
Observation:
 You will see that leaf of plant with potassium hydroxide solution does not turn to blue
black showing that no starch is present in this leaf.
 On the other hand, the leaf of plant with no potassium hydroxide solution turns to blue
black showing that starch is present in that leaf.
Conclusion: Since potassium hydroxide solution in 1st jar removed all CO2, it means that potted plant
in 1st jar does not have CO2 for photosynthesis. That’s why the plant with potassium hydroxide
solution does not turn to blue black and hence there is no starch. So it can be said that CO2 is also a
necessary material for photosynthesis.
Nutrition in Animals/ Heterotrophs –
Animals are heterotrophs and hence they depend on other organisms (plants and other animals) for
their food.

Fruits, vegetable, milk, fish are some small substances which can be used by body to obtained
nutrients.

Nutrition in Simple Animals:

Amoeba and paramecium are two very simple unicellular animals. In unicellular animals, all the
processes of nutrition are performed by the single cell.

a. Nutrition in Amoeba:
• Amoeba eats tiny plants and animals as food which floats in water in which it lives.

• The mode of nutrition in Amoeba is holozoic.

• The process of obtaining food by Amoeba is called phagocytosis.

Steps involved in the nutrition of Amoeba:

• Amoeba captures food near its body through temporary finger-like projections called pseudopodia
to form food vacuole.

• Enzymes enter food vacuole from cytoplasm. The enzymes convert the taken food to smaller
substances which can be absorbed by body.

• The digested food diffuses out to reach to the entire body.

• Body uses the food for growth.

• Cell membrane of amoeba ruptures at any point to throw out waste material.

Enzymes: Enzymes are juice like substances secreted by organs in living organisms which act as
bio-catalyst in biochemical reactions inside the body.
There are five steps in the process of nutrition in animals.

1. Ingestion: The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion.

2. Digestion: The process in which the food containing large insoluble molecules is broken down into
small water soluble molecules which can be absorbed by body to get required nutrients is called
digestion.

3. Absorption: The process of distribution of digested food to body parts is called absorption.

4. Assimilation: The process in which the absorbed food is taken in by the body cells and used for
energy, growth and repair is called assimilation.

5. Egestion: The process in which the undigested food is removed from the body is called egestion.

b.Nutrition in Paramecium:
• Paramecium is also a tiny unicellular animal which lives in water. It has hair like structure called
cilia.

Ingestion: Paramecium uses cilia to sweep the food particles from water and put them into the mouth.

Ingestion is followed by other steps digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.

Nutrition in Human Beings (Digestive System in Human Body):

Basic organs of the human digestive system are:
1. Mouth (Buccal cavity),

2. Oesophagus (Food pipe),

3. Diaphragm (Sheet),

4. Stomach (J shaped),

5. Small intestine,

6. Large intestine,

7. Rectum,

8. Anus

 Alimentary canal/ Gut is the entire path of food from mouth to anus.
 Small intestine is longer than large intestine but still it is called small as it is thinner.
  Peristaltic movement: When the slightly digested food enters the food pipe, the walls of
food pipe start contraction and expansion movements to move the food along gut. This
movement of walls of food pipe is called peristaltic movement.
 Sphincters: These are circular muscular structures which control the movement of
substance through them. Normally, they remain closed. When movement is required,
they open. There are many sphincters in gut.
Glands of human digestive system are:
1. Salivary glands,

2. Liver,

3. Pancreas.

 Salivary glands in our mouth produce saliva (watery liquid) which contains enzyme
called salivary amylase which digests the starch (carbohydrate) present in the food into
sugar (Chemical digestion).
 Pancreas lies behind the lower portion of stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice which
contains many digestive enzymes (pancreatic amylase, trypsin, and lipase).
 Liver secretes greenish yellow liquid called bile. Bile is temporarily stored in gall
bladder before it is send to small intestine through bile duct.
Working of Digestive System –
Ingestion: In human beings, food is ingested through the mouth. The food is put into the mouth with
the help of hands.
Digestion:
1. Mouth:

 The digestion of food begins in the mouth itself.

 The teeth cut the food into small pieces, chew and grind it. (Physical digestion)
 The salivary glands in our mouth produce saliva (watery liquid) which contains an
enzyme salivary amylase which digests the starch (carbohydrate) present in the food into
sugar. (Chemical digestion)
 Our tongue helps in mixing this saliva with food.
 The digestion of food remains incomplete in mouth.
2. Oesophagus:

 The slightly digested food in the mouth is swallowed by the tongue and goes down the
food pipe called oesophagus.
3. Stomach:

 The stomach is a J-shaped organ present on the left side of the abdomen.
 The stomach walls contains three tubular glands in it walls which secrete gastric juice.
 The gastric juice contains three substances: Hydrochloric acid, the enzyme pepsin and
mucus.
 The hydrochloric creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme
pepsin i.e. digestion of protein.
 The mucus helps to protect the stomach wall from its own secretions of hydrochloric
acid.
 The partially digested food then goes from the stomach into the small intestine.
4. Small Intestine:

 From the stomach, the partially digested food enters the small intestine.
 The small intestine is the largest part (about 6.5m) of the alimentary canal.
 The small intestine is very narrow and arranged in the form of a coil in our belly.
 The small intestine in human beings is the site of complete digestion of food (like
carbohydrates, proteins and fats)
 The small intestine receives the secretion of two glands: Liver and Pancreas.
 Liver secretes bile (greenish yellow liquid made in the liver and stored in gall bladder).
Bile performs two functions:
1. Makes the acidic food coming from the stomach alkaline so that pancreatic enzymes can
act on it.
2. Bile salts break the fats present in the food into small globules making it easy for the
enzymes to act and digest them.
 The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like pancreatic amylase
for breaking down starch, trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down
emulsified fats.
 The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secretes intestinal juice.
 The enzymes present in it finally convert the proteins into amino acids, complex
carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. In this way the process of digestion
converts the large and insoluble food molecules into small water soluble molecules.

Absorption:
 The small intestine is the main region for the absorption of digested food.
 The inner surface of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi
which increase the surface area for rapid absorption of digested food.
 The digested food which is absorbed through the walls of the small intestine goes into
our blood.
Assimilation:
 The blood carries digested and dissolved food to all the parts of the body where it
becomes assimilated as part of the cells and is utilized for obtaining energy, building up
new tissues and the repair of old tissues.
Egestion:
 The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where villi absorb water from this
material.
 The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus.
 The exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal sphincter.
Tooth Decay / Dental Caries –
Tooth Decay / Dental caries is a demineralization of the tooth surface caused by bacteria.

Healthy teeth Tooth decay

Basic Structure of Tooth
Structure of tooth mainly contains three parts:
 1. Enamel: It’s a hardest part in the body, harder than bones.
2. Dentine: It is similar to bone.
3. Pulp cavity: It has nerves and blood vessels.
How tooth decays?
 Sugar is present in food we eat.
 When we eat the food, bacteria in our mouth reacts with sugar and makes acid.
 This acid can destroy enamel and dentine slowly.
 Saliva neutralizes the acid and thus our teeth are saved.
 Improper brushing leads to deposit of food along with bacteria in mouth on teeth. This is
called dental plague.
 Due to dental plague, saliva fails to protect corroding of tooth by acid and thus tooth
decays.
Effect:
When acid comes in contact with nerves in pulp cavity, it creates toothache and inflammation.

Respiration –
The process of releasing energy from food is called respiration. The process of respiration involves
taking in oxygen (of air) into the cells, using it for releasing energy by burning food, and then
eliminating the waste products (carbon dioxide and water) from the body.

Food + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

The process of respiration which releases energy takes place inside the cells of the body. So, it is also
known as cellular respiration.

Respiration is essential for life because it provide energy for carrying out all the life processes which
are necessary to keep the organism alive.

Types of Respiration –
In most of the cases, the organisms carry out respiration by using oxygen. However there are some
organisms which carry out respiration without using oxygen. Based on this, we have two types of
respiration:

1. Aerobic respiration 2. Anaerobic respiration

1. Aerobic Respiration: The respiration which uses oxygen is called aerobic respiration.
In aerobic respiration, the glucose food is completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water by
oxidation. Aerobic respiration produces a considerable amount of energy for use by the organism.

Glycolysis O2 (Kreb’s cycle)

Glucose Pyruvate 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cells. Thus, the breakdown of pyruvate to give
carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in mitochondria.

2.Anaerobic Respiration: The respiration which takes place without oxygen is called anaerobic
respiration.
The microscopic organisms like yeast and some bacteria obtain energy by anaerobic respiration
(which is called fermentation). In anaerobic respiration, the microorganisms like yeast break down
glucose (food) into ethanol and carbon dioxide, and release energy.

Anaerobic respiration produces much less energy.

Glycolysis In absence of oxygen

Glucose Pyruvate 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energy

In cytoplasm Yeast (Fermentation) (Ethanol)

Sometimes, when there is lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, another pathway for the breakdown of
pyruvate is taken. Here the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid (which is also a three-carbon
molecule) with the release of small amount of energy.

Glycolysis In absence of oxygen

Glucose Pyruvate 2 Latic acid + energy

In cytoplasm Muscle tissue

ATP (Energy Currency)

The energy produced during respiration is stored in the form of ATP molecules in the cells of the
body and used by the organism as when required.

ADP (Adenosine Di-Phosphate, low energy content), Inorganic Phosphate (Pi) and ATP (Adenosine
Tri-Phosphate, high energy content) are the substances present inside a cell.

The energy released during respiration is used to make ATP molecules form ADP and inorganic
phosphate.

ADP + Phosphate + Energy ATP

(Low energy) (For respiration) (High energy)

Thus, energy is stored in the form of ATP.

When the cell needs energy, then ATP can be broken down using water to release energy.

Thus:

ATP ADP + Phosphate + Energy

(For use in cells)

The energy equivalent to 30.5KJ/mole is released in this process.

ATP is known as energy currency of cells.

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

In this respiration, oxygen is required. In this respiration, oxygen is not required.
Large energy is produced. Less energy is produced.
In aerobic respiration, CO2 and H2O are In anaerobic respiration, ethanol, Lactic acid are
produced. produced.
Exchange of Gases during Respiration –
Different organisms use different methods for exchange of gases. Diffusion is the method which is
utilized by unicellular and some simple organisms for this purpose. In plants also, diffusion is
utilized for exchange of gases. In complex animals like human, respiratory system does the job of
exchange of gases.

Animals Respiratory Organ

Unicellular animals like Amoeba, Planaria Cell membrane
Earthworm Skin
Aquatic animals like Fish, Prawns Gills
Insects like Grasshopper, Cockroach Spiracles and tracheae
Land animals like human, birds Lungs
Respiratory System in Humans –
In human beings, many organs take part in the process of respiration. These organs are called organs
of respiratory system.

The main organs of human respiratory system are: Nose, Nasal passage, Trachea (wind pipe),
Bronchi, Lungs and Diaphragm.

The human respiratory system begins from the nose. The air then goes into nasal passage.

The nasal passage is lined with fine hair and mucus.

When air passes through the nasal passage, the dust particles and other impurities present in it are
trapped by nasal hair and mucus so that clean air goes into lungs.

The part of throat between the mouth and wind pipe is called pharynx.

From the nasal passage, air enters into pharynx and then goes into the wind pipe. Trachea does not
collapse even when there is no air in it because it is supported by rings of soft bones called cartilage.
The trachea runs down the neck and divides into two smaller tubes called bronchi at its lower end.

The bronchi are connected to the two lungs. The lungs lie in the chest cavity or thoracic cavity which
is separated from abdominal cavity by a muscular partition called diaphragm.

Each bronchus divides in the lungs to form a large number of still smaller tubes called `bronchioles’.

The pouch-like air sacs at the ends of the smallest bronchioles are called alveoli.

The walls of alveoli are very thin and they are surrounded by very thin blood capillaries. It is in the
alveoli that gaseous exchange takes place.

Mechanism of Respiration:
When we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten our diaphragm and the chest cavity becomes larger as
a result. Because of this, air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli.

The alveoli are surrounded by thin blood vessels called capillaries carrying blood in them. So, the
oxygen of air diffuses out from the alveoli walls into the blood.

The oxygen is carried by blood to all the parts of the body. As the blood passes through the tissues of
the body, the oxygen present in it diffuses into the cells.

The oxygen combines with the digested food present in the cells to release energy.

Carbon dioxide gas is produced as a waste product during respiration in the cells of the body tissues.
This carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood.

Blood carries the CO2 back to the lungs where it diffuses into the alveoli.
When we breathe out air, the diaphragm and muscles attached to the ribs relax due to which our chest
cavity contracts and becomes smaller. This contraction movement of the chest pushes out CO2 from
the alveoli of lungs into the trachea, nostrils and then out of the body into air.
Note: During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a residual
volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to
be released.
Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported in the
dissolved form in our blood.

Rate of breathing:
The process of breathing pumps in oxygen into our body (and removes CO2).

Breathing occurs involuntarily but the rate of breathing is controlled by the respiratory system of
brain.

The average breathing rate in an adult man at rest is about 15 to 18 times per minute. This breathing
rate increases with increased physical activity.
Oxygen required for breathing and respiration is carried by hemoglobin pigment present in our blood.
The normal range of hemoglobin in the blood of a healthy adult person is from 12 to 18 grams per
deciliter of blood.

The deficiency of hemoglobin in the blood of a person reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood
resulting in breathing problems, tiredness and lack of energy.

Activity to show production of carbon dioxide during respiration:

Take some freshly prepared lime water in a test tube.

Blow air from our lungs into this lime water.

You will see that lime water becomes highly milky.

Use a syringe or pichkari to pass air through some fresh lime water taken in another test tube.

Now you will see that lime water in second test tube becomes slightly milky.

Thus we can conclude that CO2 when passes through limewater, limewater turns milky.
when we blow air through lime water, the lime water becomes more milky as compare to
atmospheric air, It means that atmospheric air have less CO2 and air released from our lungs have
more CO2.
Exchange of gases in other organisms:
Respiration in Amoeba:
Amoeba is single-celled animal. Amoeba depends on simple diffusion of gases for breathing.

The exchange of gases in Amoeba takes place through its cell membrane.

Amoeba lives in water. This water has oxygen dissolved in it. The oxygen from water diffuses into
the body of Amoeba through its cell membrane.

Since the amoeba is very small in size, so the oxygen spreads quickly into the whole body of
Amoeba.

This oxygen is used for respiration inside the Amoeba cell. The process of respiration produces
carbon dioxide gas continuously. This carbon dioxide gas diffuses out through the membrane of
amoeba into the surrounding water.

Respiration in Earthworm:
The earthworm exchanges the gases through its skin. The earthworm absorbs the oxygen needed for
respiration through is moist skin.

The oxygen is then transported to all the cells of the earthworm by its blood where it is used in
respiration.
The carbon dioxide produced during respiration is carried back by the blood. This CO2 is expelled
from the body of the earthworm through its skin.

Why simple respiratory systems can not be used in humans?

Surface moist: If humans would have used simple respiratory system then our skin would be more
moist.
If gases diffuse through skin in human, they will not receive sufficient oxygen.

If gases were to travel in human body through diffusion, it will take years to reach from one end to
another.

Respiration in Fish:
The fish has special organs for breathing called ‘gills’. The fish has gills on both the sides of its head.

The fish lives in water and water contains dissolves oxygen in it. The fish breathes by taking in water
through its mouth and sending it over the gills.

When water passes over gills, the gills extract dissolved oxygen from this water. The water then goes
out through the gill slits.

The extracted oxygen is absorbed by the blood and carried to all the parts of the fish.

The carbon dioxide produced by the respiration is brought back by the blood into the gills for
expelling into the surrounding water.

Note:
Human die under water, because their lungs are made to work in air not in water.

Terrestrial animals can breathe in the atmosphere, but animals that live in water (aquatic animals)
need to use the oxygen dissolved in water. Since the amount of dissolved oxygen in water is fairly
low compared to the amount of oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much
faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms.

Exchange of gases in plants –

Like animals, plants also need energy. The plants get this energy by the process of respiration. Plants
also use oxygen of air for respiration and release carbon dioxide.

The respiration in plants differs from the animals in three respects:

Respiration in plants Respiration in animals
All the parts of a plant (like root, stem and leaves)
Animal performs respiration as a single unit.
perform respiration individually.
Respiratory gases are usually transported over
During respiration in plants, there is a little transport of
long distance inside an animal during
respiratory gases from one part of the plant to the other.
respiration.
The respiration in plants occurs at a slow rate. The respiration in animals occurs at a much
 faster rate.
Plants get Oxygen by Diffusion:
Plants have a branching shape, so they have quite a large surface area in comparison to their volume.
Therefore, diffusion alone can supply all the cells of the plants with as much oxygen as they need for
respiration.

Diffusion occurs in the roots, stems and leaves of plants.

Respiration in Roots:
Air occurs in soil interspaces. Root hairs of the roots are in direct contact with them.

Oxygen of the soil air diffuses through root hair and reaches all internal cells of the root for
respiration.

Carbon dioxide produced by root cells diffuses in the opposite direction.

In water-logged conditions, soil air becomes deficient. In the absence of oxygen, metabolic activity
of the root declines and the plant may wither.

Respiration in Stems:
The stems of herbaceous plants have stomata. The oxygen from air diffuses into the stem of a
herbaceous plant through stomata and reaches all the cells for respiration.

The carbon dioxide gas produced during respiration diffuses out into the air through the same
stomata.

In woody stems, the bark has lenticels for gaseous exchange.

Respiration in Leaves:
The leaves of a plant have tiny pores called stomata. The exchange of respiratory gases in the leaves
takes place by the process of diffusion through stomata.

Net gaseous exchange in the leaves of the plant:

I. During day time when photosynthesis occurs oxygen is produced. The leaves use some of this
oxygen for respiration and rest of the oxygen diffuses out into air. Again, during the day time, carbon
dioxide produced by respiration is all used up in photosynthesis by leaves. Even more carbon dioxide
is taken in from air. Thus, net gas exchange in leaves during day time is: O2 diffuses out; CO2 diffuses
in.
II. At night time, when no photosynthesis occurs and hence no oxygen is produced, oxygen from air
diffuses into leaves to carry out respiration. And carbon dioxide produced by respiration diffuses out
into air. Thus, net gas exchange in leaves at night is: O2 diffuses in; CO2 diffuses out.
CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 5 Life
Processes
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The process that all living organisms perform to maintain their life is
called life processes. Living creatures must keep repairing and sustaining their structures.
Different maintenance functions are required to regulate the proper functioning of a body.
Thus, the process which maintains the body’s functions and is necessary for survival are
called life processes. Let’s have an overview of all these life-maintaining processes
which describe the qualities of organisms, whether alive or not.
Life Process in Animals
 Life Process in Animals

If the cell is working or in its rest state still cell does all the essential activities. All those
activities that the cell does for proper functioning are known as Life Processes. The basic
life processes common to all living organisms are nutrition, respiration, transportation,
and excretion. Unicellular cells complete all these processes in one cell whereas in
multicellular organisms a well-developed system is evolved.
What is Nutrition?
Nutrition is the process of an organism acquiring the food which is needed for its
nourishment and for the sustenance.
Nutrients are defined as the substances required for proper growth and maintenance of
the living body, i.e., the materials, which provide energy to organisms. All living
organisms do not obtain food by the same method, e.g., plants and some bacteria have the
green pigment chlorophyll to help synthesize food through the process
called photosynthesis. Likewise, animals, fungi, and other bacteria depend on plants and
other organisms for food. Based on this, there are two main types of nutrition,
i.e, autotrophic and heterotrophic.

Autotrophic Nutrition

The mode of nutrition in which organisms synthesize their food from simple inorganic
substances like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight is
called autotrophic nutrition.
For example green plants and some bacteria. This mode of nutrition is called
the autotrophic mode of nutrition.
 Plants synthesize their for via using light energy, they are known
as photoautotrophs.
 Bacteria synthesize their food by using chemical energy, they are known
as chemoautotrophs.
Photosynthesis
It is a complex process by which green parts of the plant synthesize organic food. This
food is prepared by green plants from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll. It involves the given reaction:
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2
The following events occur during the process of photosynthesis:
 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules
into hydrogen and oxygen.
 Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
Site of photosynthesis: Chloroplasts
 The organelles in the cells of the green plant which contain chlorophyll are
called chloroplasts.
 Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis, as they contain chlorophyll
pigment.
 Stomata are the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. Massive
amounts of gaseous exchange take place in the leaves through these pores for
the purpose of photosynthesis.

Stomata

Stomata are the open pores present on the lower epidermis of the leaf surface. Stomata
are covered with guard cells. Guard cells help in closing and opening of stomata. As the
water concentration increase in the guard cell, it results in the opening of the stomata.
Heterotrophic Nutrition
Organisms cannot prepare their food on their own. These organisms are
termed heterotrophs.
For example human beings, animals, non-green plants, etc. Heterotrophs obtain energy
from organic molecules already produced by autotrophs.
Three main types of Heterotrophic modes of nutrition are:
1. Holozoic nutrition is a type of heterotrophic nutrition that is characterized by
the internalization (ingestion) and internal processing of liquids or solid food
particles.e.g. Amoeba, cow, dog, etc.
2. Saprotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition in which organisms feed on
dead and decaying matter. Example fungi.
3. Parasitic nutrition is nutrition in which an organism derives its food from the
body of another living organism called its host without killing it. Example:
Plasmodium and roundworms obtain food through parasitic nutrition.
Nutrition in Amoeba
Nutrition in an Amoeba occurs through a process called phagocytosis, where the entire
organism pretty much engulfs the food it plans on eating up. The mode of nutrition in
amoeba is known as holozoic nutrition. It involves the ingestion, digestion, and egestion
of food material.

Nutrition in Paramoecium
Paramoecium takes food via a Holozoic mode of nutrition. Cilia are present over the
body which helps to engulf the food particle. The food vacuole contains all the food
particle which moves around the cytoplasm known as cyclosis. Digested food particle
nutrients are absorbed in the cytoplasm. Waste food is then excreted from the body via
tiny pores or cytopyge.
Nutrition in Human Beings
In human beings, the process of intake of essential nutrients in the form of food takes
place through an entire system known as the digestive system. The human digestive
system constitutes a long tubular structure called the alimentary canal and
various digestive glands.

Alimentary Canal
  Mouth: It is the first part of the digestive system from where the food enters
the alimentary canal. It is mainly composed of two major parts: Tongue and
Teeth.
 Pharynx: It is a small funnel-shaped chamber located below the oral cavity.
 Oesophagus: It is a thin and long muscular tube that leads into the stomach.
 Stomach: The stomach is a large organ that expands when food enters it.
 Small intestine: It is the longest part of the alimentary canal. It is the site of
the complete digestion of food into different components.
 Large intestine: Although shorter, it is a large intestine because it is wider in
diameter than the small intestine.
 Rectum: It is the last and broad chamber-like structure.
 Anus: It is the end point of the alimentary canal.
Various glands are associated with the alimentary canals such as salivary glands, gastric
glands, liver, intestinal glands, and pancreas.
Physiology of Digestion
The food we eat contains various components like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals, etc. Various steps involved in the digestion of these nutrients are given below:
1. Ingestion: It is the process of intake of food by mouth.
2. Digestion: The process of breaking down large organic molecules into smaller
molecules is called digestion.
3. Absorption: It is the process by which digested food passes from the
alimentary canal into the blood.
4. Assimilation: It is the distribution of digested food particles to various cells of
the body.
5. Egestion: It is the removal of undigested food materials.
Respiration
It is defined as the process of the biochemical oxidation of nutrients at the cellular level.
It occurs in the presence of specific enzymes at optimum temperatures in the cells to
release energy for various metabolic activities.
The process in a complete way can be written in the form of an equation:
Food + oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
Types of Respiration
There are two types of respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration: It is the process in which a large amount of energy is released in
the presence of oxygen (air) from the breakdown of food substances. The equation
of Aerobic respiration is given below:
Anaerobic respiration: It is the process in which a small amount of energy is released in
the absence of oxygen (air) from the breakdown of food substances. It takes place in
yeast, bacteria, and in human muscles.
On the basis of products form, it is of two types:
Alcoholic Fermentation: An incomplete breakdown of sugar into ethanol and carbon
dioxide to release energy is called as alcoholic fermentation.
Lactic Acid Fermentation: It is the process of the incomplete breakdown of sugar into
lactic acid and energy in some bacteria, is called Lactic acid fermentation.
Stages of Respiration
Generally, respiration consists of the following two basic stages:
 External Respiration: It is of two types, as follows
 Breathing: It is the process by which air rich in oxygen is taken
inside the body of an organism and CO2-concentrated air expelled
from the body.
 Gaseous Exchange: It involves the diffusion of O2 from the lungs to
blood and CO2 from the lungs to the blood.
 Internal Respiration: It refers to the gaseous exchange between the arterial
blood and the body cells.
Also Read: Respiration in Plants
 Exchange of Gases in Plants Exchange of Gases in Animals

Animals have evolved different organs for

In plants exchange of gases occurs through
the uptake and out of gases. These organs
stomata and large intercellular spaces
work together and constitute the
present throughout the plant body.
respiratory system of an organism.

The aquatic organisms utilize oxygen

In leaves, gaseous exchange takes place by
dissolved in water for respiration where
diffusion of oxygen through stomata into
the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly
the cells of the leaf.
low then the amount of air oxygen.

Terrestrial organisms use atmospheric

The exchange of gases in the roots of a plant
oxygen for respiration. This oxygen is
takes place by the process of diffusion from
absorbed by different organs in different
the air present in between soil particles.
animals.

Amoeba and planaria have cell

In woody plants, gaseous exchange occurs
membranes as their respiratory surface.
through the small pores found on stems
Birds, lizards, and terrestrial organisms
called lenticels.
have lungs for respiration.

All the parts of a plant perform respiration An animal performs respiration as a single
individually. unit.

Respiration occurs at a much slower rate. Respiration occurs at a faster rate.

Human Respiratory System

Like other animals, the respiratory system in human beings serves to provide fresh
oxygen to all body cells and removes harmful carbon dioxide from the body.
For more information read: Human Respiratory System
The parts of the human respiratory system are as follows:
 Nostrils: Air is taken into the body through the nostrils.
 Nasal passage: It is mainly the conducting zone for air.
 Pharynx: Nasal chamber opens into the pharynx. It passes it to the larynx.
 Larynx: is located in the neck region and in front of the trachea.
 Trachea: The air passes from the pharynx and gets into the trachea.
 Bronchi: The trachea divides into two smaller tubes called Bronchi.
 Bronchioles: Bronchi are subdivided into two smaller tubes called
Bronchioles.
 Alveoli: These are balloon-like structures located inside the lungs.
  Ribs: There are 12 pairs of bones that form a cage in the thoracic region.
 Lungs: These are the primary organs for respiration.
Transportation
During metabolism, a cell produces some useful and some waste products. The
substances that are useful, need to be transported to the other cells, while harmful
substances are to be eliminated. This is done by the process of transportation.

Circulatory System

Transportation in Human beings Transportation in plants

The transport system of human beings

Plants lack a regular transport system. The
also called the circulatory system,
conduction of some materials to short distances
comprises a blood-vascular system and
occurs through diffusion.
a lymphatic system.

For longer distances, a need for a proper

The blood-vascular system has three
transportation system arises. Two pathways
components- blood, blood vessels, and
have developed in plants which comprise
the heart.
Xylem and phloem tissues.
 The lymphatic system includes lymph, Two pathways have developed in plants which
lymph vessels, and lymph nodes. comprise Xylem and phloem tissues.

Blood supplies nutrients and oxygen to Xylem transports water and minerals obtained
all living cells. from soil and Phloem transports food.

The heart is a muscular organ that The loss of water in the form of vapors from the
plays the role of a pump. aerial parts of the plant is called transpiration.

Excretion
Excretion is the process by which organisms remove harmful metabolic wastes from the
body. The mode of excretion is completely different in unicellular and multicellular
organisms.

Excretion in Unicellular Organisms

Amoeba or other unicellular organisms excrete their waste material from the cell surface
via diffusion. Amoeba or paramecium excrete waste via contractile vacuoles. The
contractile vacuole fuse with the cell membrane and the waste material is exerted out.

Human Excretion System

Excretion in Plants
 Excretion in Human beings Excretion in plants

The main function of the human excretory

Plants also excrete various waste products
system is to remove nitrogenous wastes
during their life processes.
such as urea from the body.

The waste products are excreted by plants in

It includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of
completely different forms than those of
ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra.
animals.

The main organ of the human excretory

Plants release gaseous waste products such
system is the kidney. Its main function is
as carbon dioxide and water vapor at night
to remove excess water and nitrogenous
and oxygen in the daytime through stomata
wastes from the blood in the form of
in leaves and lenticels found in the stem.
urine.

Plants get rid of excess water produced as

Each kidney contains a large number of
waste during respiration by the process of
tiny filtration units called nephrons.
transpiration.

Kidney failures can be managed by Some plants store waste substances in the
artificial kidneys. It is a device used to cellular vacuoles and in tissues with dead
 remove nitrogenous waste products from
cells, e.g., in the heartwood.
the blood through dialysis.

Also Read: Excretion in Plants

FAQs on Life Processes
Q1: What do you understand by life processes?
Answer:
All those processes which are essential for the survival and maintenance of the organism.
All such processes are known as Life Processes.
Q2: What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?
Answer:
Digestive enzymes are present in the saliva. These enzymes start breaking the food from
the complex into a simple form.
Q3: Which organ plays the main role in excretion in humans?
Answer:
The main organ of the human excretory system is the kidney.