Notes: Science

Heat & Temperature

Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of all particles in a substance.

Heat is a measure of the total kinetic energy of an atom in an object. SI unit is Joule & Calorie

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of atoms in an object. It is also the
degree of the hotness/coldness in an object. SI unit is Celsius, Farenheit and kelvin

Kinetic energy is the energy a substance has because of its movement.

Conduction is the heat transfer between objects by direct contact.

(example: Touching a hot pan)

Convection is the transfer of heat through movement of liquids and gas

(example: Hot air rise in balloon)

Radiation is the heat transfer occurrence through electromagnetic waves without involving a
medium

(example: Microwave oven heating up dinner)

The materials which allow heat to pass through them easily are conductors

The materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are poor conductors of
heat such as plastic and wood. Known as insulators

Direction of Heat transfer = Hot < to <Cold object

What is the relationship between temperature and kinetic energy?

When the temperature of an object increases, the average kinetic energy of its particles
increase, as heat increases particles get excited and start to move apart, due to which kinetic
energy increases.

Digestive system
Digestion is the process where in which the food we consume gets broken down into
nutrients that can be used to provide energy.

2 types of digestion-

Mechanical digestion: Crushing and mashing food, increasing surface area.

 Chemical digestion: Complex molecules get broken down into smaller molecules,
Enzymes break down proteins, fats, and carbs. An enzyme is a biological chemical that
the body uses to help in chemical digestion.

Mouth: Digestion starts with chewing and saliva.

Esophagus: Hollow tube, peristalsis moves food to the stomach. (Peristalsis=wave of muscle
contracts that push food)

Stomach: Crushes food, contains acids and enzymes.

Small Intestine: Main site of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption.

Large Intestine: Absorbs water and nutrients, eliminates waste.

Rectum: Stores feces.

Anus: Exit point for stool.

Glands and what they secrete:

Salivary glands: Secrete saliva which contain salivary amylase

Small intestine: Secrets intestinal juice that convert protein into amino acids, carbohydrates
to glucose

Liver: Secrets bile juice (bile helps in emulsification <breaking down> of fat)

Gastric glands: Secrete gastric juice which contain HCL (hydrochloric acid), mucus and pepsin

Gall bladder: Stores and releases bile into the duodenum.

Pancreas: Secrete pancreatic juices which contains trypsin (digest protein), & lipase (digest
liquid)

HCL is useful as it activates an enzyme called pepsin. Pepsin is responsible for breaking down
proteins in the food we eat into smaller pieces called peptides, also useful for killing chemical
bacteria in the stomach and the acidic environment created by HCL also helps in breaking
down the food into a semi-liquid mixture called chyme.

Five steps of digestion in humans are:

Ingestion – refers to the intake of food. Ingestion takes place through Mouth
Digestion – refers to the breakdown of ingested food into simpler forms.
Absorption – refers to the process in which digested food is absorbed into the body
fluids (Blood & lymph). Small intestine plays a major role in Absorption
Assimilation – refers to the process in which absorbed food is transported to different
cells of the body
Egestion – refers to the process of removal of undigested food from the body. Large
intestine plays a major role in Egestion.
What are villi?

Villi are finger-like projections which are supplied with blood and lymph vessels, present in
the inner lining of the SI and help in the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area
for absorption.

Excretory system
Excretion is the process of removing metabolic waste from the body.
The excretory system eliminates cellular wastes from the body through the lungs, skin,
kidneys and digestive system & prevents the accumulation of harmful chemicals in the body,
maintains Osmoregulation in body.

Homeostasis is a self-regulating process by which a living organism can maintain internal

stability while adjusting to changing external condition, osmoregulation is a homeostasis
mechanism that regulates the optimum temperature of water and salts in the tissues and
body fluids. It maintains the internal environment of the body.

Renal artery: brings blood to the kidney from heart

Renal vein: carries blood from the kidney to the heart and urethra
Each kidney consists of thousands of nephrons which are basic structural and functional
units, responsible for urine formation
Glomerulus is the network of large number of capillaries that filter blood,

Metabolic Wastes:
Nitrogenous waste (Amino, Urea & Uric acid) - Kidney
Co2 - Lungs
Ho2 - Skin

Kidney Dialysis
A procedure to remove waste products and excess fluid from the blood when the kidneys
stop working properly. Artificial kidneys are used in this process

Excretion in plants
•Happens through gaseous exchange, stomata play an important role as is the site for gaseous
exchange and transpiration
•Storage, waste product stored in leaves Some waste products are released in form of resin,
gums
•Transpiration Excess water is eliminated

Nutrition in animals
Nutrition in Ruminants - Process is called rumination
Rumination is the process in which certain animals, called ruminants, regurgitate and re-
chew their partially digested food, known as cud.

(Ruminants are grass eating animals with a four-chambered stomach, ex=cow, sheep, goat)

The cow's stomach has four parts:

Rumen: The first part, connected to the esophagus, stores chewed vegetation and forms cud.

Reticulum: Holds heavy objects like metal pieces and rocks, trapping large feed particles. It
aids in regurgitation and contains digestive bacteria.

Omasum: Features folds that absorb water and nutrients after the second round of chewing.
It's smaller than the rumen and reticulum.

Abomasum: Known as the "true stomach," it resembles a non-ruminant stomach. Lined with
glands, it releases hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes to break down feed and plant
material.

Grass contains cellulose:

Cellulose is a type of carbohydrate found in the cell walls of plants.

Cellulose is the main substance in the walls of plant cells, helping plants to remain stiff and
upright. Humans cannot digest cellulose, as we lack the necessary enzymes, specialized
stomachs and microorganisms that break it down. The rumen helps in digestion of the
cellulose in ruminants.

Cud (partially digested grass) is stored in the rumen and eventually comes back in the mouth
when the ruminant is hungry again.

Nutrition in Amoeba:

They are single celled microscopic organisms. They contain a cell membrane, nucleus,
vacuoles and cytoplasm. Cytoplasm- food vacuoles - They dont have a definite shape.

For movement and capturing food they have finger-like projections which is called
Pseudopodia (False feet of Amoeba) Pseudopodia captures the bacteria and engulfs it.