ECE1049 - Special Topics in Energy Systems:

Electric Vehicle Systems & Energy Management

Fall 2023

Topic 3: Propulsion

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 Propulsion Power Model – Overview

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 Rolling Resistance

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 Tires and Road Surfaces

Tire Construction Impact of Road Surface Crr <0.004

Crr ~0.01

Clark, Samuel Kelly, Mechanics of Pneumatic Tires, 1971.

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 Aerodynamic Resistance
UofT BSSR B-7 down-scaled model wind-tunnel test

Source: Wikipedia
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 Aerodynamic Resistance

Nuna 3 Solar Car: Cd = 0.07

and low frontal area

Ehsani, Gao, and Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, 2010

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 Commercial Solar EVs

Aptera Lightyear 0

Target Cd = 0.15 Cd = 0.175

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 Dynamic Speed and Power Model

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 Propulsion Energy Consumption

‘Passenger’ Vehicle Specifications:

• Mass = 1500 kg
• Crr = 0.01
• Cd = 0.3
• A = 2.2

No road incline
No wind

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 Regenerative Braking Energy

‘FTP75’ urban driving cycle

Ehsani, Gao, and Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, 2010

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 Regenerative Braking Energy

Source: US EPA

ECE15 Drive Cycle

Ehsani, Gao, and Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, 2010

Source: EU

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 Passenger Car vs. Freight Truck

Semi Specifications:
• 37,300 kg
• Crr=0.01
• A=10.4
• Cd=0.36

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 Propulsion System Design

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 ICE vs. EV Hardware

ICE EV

• Single rotational power source • Multiple rotational power sources

• Mechanical power transmission • Mixed mech./elec. power transmission
• Mechanical power-splitting • Mixed mech./elec. power-splitting

Biček, M.; Connes, R.; Omerović, S.; Gündüz, A.; Kunc, R.; Zupan, S. The Bearing Stiffness Effect on In-Wheel
Motors. Sustainability 2020, 12, 4070. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12104070

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 Torque, Power, Speed, Efficiency

Example Speed Profile

Critical speed
Higher Torque/Power

WLTP Standard (highway)

Drive Cycle

Base speed
(city)

Higher RPM

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 Gearing in ICE vs. EVs

ICE EV
Tractive effort on wheel (kN)

Ehsani, Gao, and Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, 2010

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 ICE Fuel Consumption

Engine Power (%)

Ehsani, Gao, and Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, 2010

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 Sample Electric Propulsion Efficiency Curves

Typical car wheel:

~2m circumference
1000 RPM → 120km/h

Sarlioglu, Bulent & Morris, Casey & Han, Di & Li, Silong. (2015). Benchmarking of electric and hybrid vehicle
electric machines, power electronics, and batteries. 519-526. 10.1109/OPTIM.2015.7426993.

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 Maximising Efficiency for Mission Profile

Asef, Pedram & Lapthorn, Andrew. (2021). Overview of Sensitivity Analysis Methods Capabilities for Traction AC Machines in
Electrified Vehicles. IEEE Access. 9. 23454 - 23471. 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3056933.

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 Dynamic Power at Battery
▪ What energy conversions take place from battery to wheel?

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 Torque Vectoring Case Study

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 Oversteer and Understeer

Single-Track Vehicle Model ‘Oversteer’ ‘Understeer’

Source: Wikipedia

Mangia, A., Lenzo, B. & Sabbioni, E. An integrated torque-vectoring control framework for
electric vehicles featuring multiple handling and energy-efficiency modes selectable by the
driver. Meccanica 56, 991–1010 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11012-021-01317-3

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 Torque Vectoring Control

Control Objectives:
• Improve steering responsiveness through dynamic per-wheel torque allocation
• Do not cause a severe increase in energy consumption

Mangia, A., Lenzo, B. & Sabbioni, E. An integrated torque-vectoring control framework for electric vehicles featuring multiple handling and
energy-efficiency modes selectable by the driver. Meccanica 56, 991–1010 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11012-021-01317-3
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 Mechanical Implementation with ICE

Differential Gear

Straight-line

Left turn
Source: Wikipedia

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 Electro-Mechanical Implementation with Motors

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 Results – Control Objectives

Mangia, A., Lenzo, B. & Sabbioni, E. An integrated torque-vectoring control framework for electric vehicles featuring multiple handling and
energy-efficiency modes selectable by the driver. Meccanica 56, 991–1010 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11012-021-01317-3

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 Results – Double Lane Change

Mangia, A., Lenzo, B. & Sabbioni, E. An integrated torque-vectoring control framework for electric vehicles featuring multiple handling and
energy-efficiency modes selectable by the driver. Meccanica 56, 991–1010 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11012-021-01317-3

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