General diagram of closeo loop systems

error
convert to
system responds to What is being
controlled
Input value
reference error
↓ ↓ X
>O > output
Signat - controller ->
plant -> actuator 1 >

-
computes error)
coesired
State)

sensor

A
7
(A +
B) A > B < (AB)

(S)
TF =
2
->
8 C(S) >GCs) ->
t 1 +

GCS) CCS) GCS]

-
<
Q(S)

Transfer functions
Laplace transform Getting equation

·
f(t) FCs) &F milt)
mi(t)
=

ma = =

x any 2 Y
2 constant C
5 sum of acceleration
8(t) I forces
x(t) x (S)
x(t) SX(s) -X(0)
x "(t) 52xCS) -
SX(0) -
x"(0)

First Order Systems

san ~enga
A = YF -
YI
J =

time value that corresponds

- xF
xi -

-
I
to 0 .
63 x final value

! Change in input
time constant

For non-zero initial value

I :
y
=

0 .

63[y(x) yc0)) - +

y(0)
A(Is + 1)
values
Cuse IVT for 2

JS + 1
Secono Order Systems
Arun

fy ,

con A
s +

23wnS + =

gain
- A =

32f -
xi

use formulat
b2 4ac 0 ->
critically damped
->
& 0
fung
= =

to
-

b2 - 4ac >0 -> overdamped -> E>0 other

b2- Lac <O -> underoamped (can overshout) -> < <O parameters

3
-

(In (2 1) Yp
2 =

peak value

3
-

tp time of peak value

((n(2 1))2
=

+2 +
-

-Peren Settling time

Order
or
Settling Hme

reduction
Rule of thumb

① Remove a pole is 5x faster than another pole -> remove it

⑧ ti
IC10] /(10)
SP
X
D
X
e.g. so t To

↑ -
remove pole

Otherwise remove pole with smallest residual

Bode Plots

Constant =
k

IH(c)
(Hyw)

Pole Zero at
or
origin S jw
=

I I
d 179ws /
->

-
2H(jw)
S
-

ce
<H(w)
(Hyws/ 9 -

-
ZOOB
recade
-

900
 Real poles and zeros

Gan equation
Phase equation

(F) atan( )
-

-zolug

①c wo & w =
wo
Gain :
-2010g()
=
0 Gain :
-2010g((z) =
-30B
Phase atan (0) 0 Phase atan(-1) 450
: :
=
= -

③ c wo

Gain - 20l0g (Er) -Zoe

: :

2
Phase atan (8) =-90
Go
:

Se
-
200B/ 0 . I co 10 Wo &B->lincar
decade I
do M/20

45

...
-

-
10

Zeros

I will
200Bloecade
Ljw+ 900
las w -
0

(1 =
00) ⑳

⑧ (nom minimum
i phases
Lj00-1 180

(aS a -> O ,

L -
1 =

188%
96 -

Complex poles or zeros (symmetric about real line)

I -> avioe top and

Wo
button

52 +
23 wostwo =(ii) +

25(w) + 1

#I
1

1
23
=

-
wwo

1 =

00B
-
400B/ wo
⑧ I
decade

m
C Wo

Gain -
= 400B() -
90 - ⑳

C =

wo

2010g (25) - 180 -

2010g(23)
-

(when 320 . 5 there is a peak at wo

Complex zeros
creflection of poles

~
180

~
war

7
900

wo

Final value Theorem Initial value theorem

f(8) /im
F(S) im S F(S)
=
S .

F(0) =
.

S -
0 S -
x

Type number
=

no .
of poles at the
origin
(B)
Errors and disturbances

error constant

e(a) -Im (input) x

S > -

CS loop equation
(multiple Input ,

misO)
single output

9 on a Cy
di Limput disturbances
Disturbances do output
H(y
↓
n
e nee r e
=

x -
+ 0n) disturbance
Feedback loop
t V I W
t
I
> >x >O > 45 >O >
M

estaor
u

H(s) s Om
y# On (noise)
H(y 0n)
(3)
+

Step
(5) ramp (5) parabola

⑳
-
Typ O O finite &

finite
-

o ane

Type 3 O 00
 3
ici "-CH . acione !tac
...
=

x I dr
CICH

noise #but
2Gcitransfer
⑧
input
↑ unction
-

kP Kv Ka
lim
stos' Facsi im
S-0
see acs lim -
.
S
-
O acs

kp =
/im GCS) kv =

(im5Q(S) ka=lim S ? QCS)

5 -
0 5 -> 5 -> 0

(same value as w =
o on

Bode plot)
 +K
~
only consider

Root Locus
It [parameter of intrest] [+ f].
=
0

1 +
ka(s) - >

GCs)
=
D(S) KNCS) K 0 loop poles
->
starting point
+

open is
-

k -
x -> ends at zeros

Rule I

1 Closed loop poles the open-loop the

.
move to
poles to

open loop zeros or to -0 If zero is unqualiable

-X X >O

Rule 2

Pole paths not overlap

may
Rule 2 1.

If are n zeros or poles to make pair then

there
enoug
not a ,
extra line to ⑳
&

goes
Rule 3
** *

Root loci must be

symmetrical about real axis

Rule 4
mingles rectantes
magnitude
k(k -
zi)(x -
22) ....

=-1
(x -pi)(X -

P2) ....

[sum of zeros
angle) -

[sum of pole angles] =

(2k + 1) T
↳ [loseo loop pole for some
gain If satefises this property)
Odd
Anyreal
*
section of the real axis with an
will
number

of poles or zeros on its right be part

of root locus

A Complex pules or zeros do not contribute to

angle sum

for points on real axis

- x
Op -Op =

0
-
-

>OP
&
-

..
 Rule 5 -

Asymptotes
(n - m)
Number of asymptotes =
number of poles
-
number of zeros
sor

Angle of
asymptote
=

Oa =

(2k-1)
n -
M
T

-
1800

X X
......
-- X

Rule 6-Centralo Cantersection of asymptotesl

↳
....... o

X value of pole and

Ja =
Spoles- [zeros zeros

- M
x
number or poles and zeros

Rule 7- Breakaway points

④ System is
critically damped
breakaway point
points (correspond
C
at these
↓ (maximum gain)
curere response
0 X
to
gain
-
X
Y transitions from over damped
break in
point to underdamped and back)
(minimum
gain)

1
as
zi=
=
0 KCS) =-

L(S)

i
Fr Is values are
breakaway
I
and breakin
pts
-> X will be break-in or
breakout point
Rule 8- (the
boundary of stability and
Imaginary intercepts
instability)
① Subsitute C
into characteristic eq -> Intercepts indicate
systems
Jw
Maximum
gain
② Solve for K and w
for which real highest stable
frequency of

and are zero

osculation
Imaginary part

↳ value of
use
Imaginary part
to
get
k Or w

[
kL(S)
DCs)]
+ 1
↳ sub into real part kN (s +

real 0 0
imag
= =
 complex zero

~approaches
Rule 8 Departure
:

Angle of arrival or
2 leaves
complex pole
* The arrival or depature information gives info about possible

damping and
frequency characteristics

A
bigger angle =
less oscillations

C2k-13T -

Langle from poles +

Langle from Zeros

Rule 9

If two lines of
there are at least to
infinity then the sum all the roots
(Good
is constant
for understanding)

x1 xz

~-
+ +

x3 =
-
6

- Why this matters ?

-
EX X X xX
-
3
-
-
2
-
I
Destabilizing I
the
as fast as you
-3
are
stablising root

Designing with root Locus

->
put poles in places we desire .

->
damping 2
----
·
ratio cost
!
= =

M
I

↳
-I want

-
&
3 >0 7
X- X -

!
.

want to ->

keep cos0)0 . 7
~
poles X
X
inside Camping reto

-
-
specification
/ V

↳ -
speed
increased

(Settung time

((S)

-
- 1 CL pole target
=

get at

(C) π
I
k
=

~assure unity feedback ①(St) K (st)

e
1kGCS)1 1 of loop system
magnitude
=

open .

(Need to calculate error constant to check error

margins)
Increasing type numbers
starts off with first order

X system
& to

GCs)
gain
1 typed
o

I
make to
go unstable =
(moniter oscillations)
error constant

Emiss
+

lim
I
xI
* S
- -

want to
↓) accurately track
S ->0
↳ tends to 8
a Step
K
CiCS) =

add
-

Irack a
in S- ability O
integrator
ramp
I d
2
-
(e(s)

...
a
52 symptotes
=

+
X ⑧
M ↳
/
Xe I
↑
(introduced instabilty)
1) I

2)
3

-
I
* Stabilize by
I-
-

↳
S
L
3
-

adding 3
-

root locus

centralo ....
3)
3
a zero
=

Can correct
instability with a zero

none minimum
phase

zeropaneght
-> did not correct

instabilit
half

-
*
=

I
-
W be aware of where
0 *
- 8

E
-

4 0 centrolo 1S-

corrected and
=E 1
->

i
-

stabilized 2

L x- X
G - >

Iw ↓o
-
3
 Plots
Nyquist
Man Problem
:

Trying to
figure out if there are
zeros in RHP
For It GH

Need to have a contour that encloses the entire RHP

+
o

Nyquist
/
/
x Nyquist plot
x
⑳

contour
M

/
⑳

/
plug in
⑧
L
--
- W
values along

·/
JWaxS
·

x]
~
1 + GH

~ zeres are enopoies it =

Instead of (ItaH aH and look at
,
why not

- 1+

0 point (Shift orgin by -13 Chow

many
times - I is encircled
Step s

GH loop
① Nyquist plot of , open

② Count encirclements of -1
,
note direction

③ Figure out no . of pules and zerus

* To know now zeros RHP

many
in
,
know how many pules in RHP
we need to

open
GH =
loop poles

+GNIN Youp
1 +
GH =
It
a =

D X same open
poles)
loop
poles

Can use Nyquist plots for unstable plants

 plottingNyquist
Pot

7
a= X
W infinitely long
S -
plane d Center segment
- - maps to single
S

-
j
=

-
in
~ paint co

plane
- (c)
X
-
2
-

-
~
I
- L
->

-L effectively
a
frequency
plotting
response
Co-
-- -

((w)

Remember Phase =
I zero angles
-

Spole angles

I
Do -
Ox
⑳

Gain is proportional to magnitude

0 rox
⑦x mag of zero phasors
mag of pole phasors

Case (more poles than zerost

1
strictly proper
-

w-plane

· *
Pick this point at

0
gain
proportional
age
large -
⑧

/ at
origin
more poles so phase does
not matter

Case 2- proper (equal poles and zeros)

(tenos a) indicates les

·
to
guin it

-
Large I somewhere
along o
-

warge Large

-- .
gaina-1 (nonzero finite
values

of
Large

phase
= Oo-Ox (both
same
angle)
tend to
·
maps He
0 point
=

-> phase indicates it lies

real
on positive axs
Plotting needs 4 points

① cu =

0 (start point & Real intercept (p+2)

② w =
(end point) ④ Imaginary Intercept (p+ 3)

of encirclements of -1
~number
-> #
of
N = 2 -
P Unstable OL
poles
# of unstable CL poles

Sensitivity function
sensitivel
(system is

S =

Fais
(changes in Open loop will be
magnified in CL)
↳ plot bode plot find max
sensitivity point
on to
 Root Locus
Design

Specifications
Pole Specifications

① Stability RHP poles

:

Any or zeros

② Behaviour

e . 1 .

Damping ... (wd)

magnitude
imag (an

,
cost
I
=

0 ( ⑦(
real

2 2
. . Overshoot %

3 =

os --> overshoot
e
100 % (Im percents
overshoot
OSY

a
=
now

ra value
much

overshoot
final value

-
.
3 Speed
Settling time (for dominant pole)

52 = .
=
-

In (0 02) x5
.
=
55

55 % =
-
In (0 .
05) X5 =
35

example
* Settle within 5% Im <3 seconds

55 % 23535235511S =
-
I
4) Frequency of oscillation

i
-

* (n

-
maximum
wo s

r(cun)
* Maximum COA

....

Gain spec

*
accuracy
some with error
->
tracking signal
.

->
rejecting disturbances

e .

g . A must track step With <10 % error

. . 1 =

kacs
W
&calculate
error
gain for
value