Closed loop (feedback) control system: a system that compares the output (e.g.

(e.g. armature control dc servomotor) The dynamic behaviour of the 2nd order system described in terms of
and reference input. damping ratio (ζ) and undamped natural frequency (ω n)
Open loop: system where the output has no effect on the control action. The char. Equation’ roots are given by
1.2s
Cos θ = ζ ; where θ = angle of the roots of C.E.
    j d
(PID controller) note: T = K (Ia)
P (Kp) – improve the output response (reduce rise time, reduce steady state Ra = armature resistance; La = armature inductance 2nd order with step response (R(s) = 1/s)
error) Ia = armature current; If = field current 1. undamped (ζ = 0)
I (Ki/s) – eliminate steady state error ea = applied armature volt; eb = back emf - the response would be oscillatory and
D (Kd s) – reduce the overshoot continue indefinitely
Linearization: the math model for the nonlinear system, near the operating - system has complex conjugate poles that lie
Complex function point of x = x_ and y = y_. ( _ means ‘bar’)Example: on Im-axis
1.The EOM: Mx’’ + B x’ + fK(x) = fa(t)
K ( s  z1 )( s  z 2 )...( s  zm )
- c(t) = 1- cos ωn t
2. to find operating point, replace fa(t) by fa_ and x by x_. 2. underdamped (0<ζ<1)
G(s) 
zeros: s = -zm poles: s = -pm 3. we get, M x’’_ + B x’_ + fK(x_) = fa_(t) - the transient response is exponential decay
( s  p1)( s  p 2)...( s  pn )
there may be exist double/multiple pole i.e. (s+p1)k 4. noting that x’’_ = x’_ = 0 = fa_, we get fK(x_) = 0
5. thus the operating point is at x_=0 and fK(x_) = 0 -
oscillation
the system poles are complex and lie in LHP
Laplace Transform -
Definition: 6. rewrite equation  n t
e  1   2
1 e-at 1/(s+a) c(t )  1  sin   t  tan 1 
δ(t) impulse 7. the linearized model (δ is often dropped) 3.
1 
critically2damped, ζ = 1 d
 
u(t) step 1/s Sin ωt ω / (s2 + ω2) - the 
system has 2 real poles at the same 
t u(t) ramp 1/s2 Cos ωt s / (s2 + ω2) Obtaining time response c(t) location on Re-axis (either LHP or RHP)
½ t2 u(t) 1/s3 t e-at 1 / (s+a)2 1. obtain the math model of system, G(s) 2. Express the output system as - c(t) = 1 – e-ωn t (1+ ωn t)
C(s) = G(s) R(s) where R(s) is the reference input 3. use partial fraction 4. overdamped, ζ >1
t f(t) -F’(s) e-at f(t), shifting F (s+a) expansion to factor C(s) 4. take inverse LT to get c(t) - the system has 2 real and unequal (distinct)
sF(s) – f(0-) F(s) / s poles
d t c(t) = forced (c(t)) + natural (c(t)) = trans(c(t)) + ss(c(t)) - can be approximated by neglecting the
f (t )
dt 
0
f (t ) dt transient ct(t): steady state css(t):
-
furthest poles from Im-axis
c(t )  1  exp(   1   ) t )
(approx.)
2
n
let TF given by
K ( s  z1 )( s  z2 )...( s  z m ) N ( s )
FVT G (D(s)s ) =0 
( stheyarepcomplex  p 2)...( s  pn ) D( s )
characteristic equation:
relates steady state behaviour of f(t) to sF(s) in the neighborhood of s = 0.
IVT
The poles/zeros have to be in pair of 1)( spoles/zeros.
the poles  determine the stability of a system, the general nature of
transient response and the shape of the dynamic response.
Remarks on poles and zeros:
The zeros  determine the magnitude and sign of each transient mode,
 If points at infinity are included, TF would have: n finite
establish the shape of the transient and the steady state value of the output.
poles, m finite zeros and (n-m) infinite zeros. remarks: two 2nd order system having same ζ but different ωn will exhibit
(1) stable system  TF with poles only in the LHP
 Highest power of s in denominator of TS  order of the (2) unstable  TF with min. 1 pole in RHP and/or more than 1 same overshoot and oscillatory pattern but different speed of response
system pair of poles on imaginary axis ζ = 1 (critically damped) has the fastest response.
 TF: full description of dynamic characteristics of the system, (3) marginally stable  the oscillation of the output continues
independent of magnitude and nature of input, doesn’t reveal any forever subjected to I.C.  TF with only 1 pair of poles on Performance characteristics of control system are given in terms of: (1) unit
information about internal structure of the system. imaginary axis (point O is marginally stable). step response of 2nd order, underdamped (2) transient response
parameters
Obtaining TF for dummies:
1. apply knowledge in physiscs, dynamics (Newton’s law) to these parameters are:
obtain differential equations of the system 1. delay time (td); time to reach half of steady state
2. identify the input and output of each sub-systems. marginally stable 2. rise time (tr) time to ‘cross’ 100% tr = (π-θ)/ ωd
3. take LT of the equations of sub-systems and re-arrange as 3. peak time (tp) time to reach 1st peak of overshoot
‘main’ input & output. abc formula s1.2 = 4. max. overshoot (Mp)
4. assume zero I.C., obtain the Transfer Functions. b b 2  4ac 5. settling time (ts) = 4T (for 2%criterion) = 3T (5%criterion)
Methods of determining stability: 1. Routh Hurwitz (algebraic) 2. Root 6. time constant T = 1/ σ – time constant of an underdamped 2 nd
Remember this, don’t play2!! OLTF vs CLTF
Given a system G(s) with feedback function H(s)
2a
Locus plot (graphical) 3. Nyquist diagram (graphical) order system.
Note: Mp and tr can’t be made small simultaneously
Routh’s for beginners: For rapid transient response, ωn must be large
OLTF = G(s) H(s) CLTF -ve (+ve) feedback =G(s) 1. write the char. Equations of system, D(s) = a 0 s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s1 To limit Mp and to make ts small, ζ shouldn’t be too small.
+...+ an = 0
1  G ( s) H ( s)
Signal flow graphs & Mason’s gain for beginners 2.
a a  a aaa  a0 a5 The steady state error component due to D(s)
b1  1 b2 2  0 1 3 4
nd
(at the end of 2 page)
highlights: G1-controller, G2 – plant
- node = sytem variable b a a a bba a a b
- branch = the associated TF/gain c1  1 c3 2 1 1 12 5 1 1 3 Classification of control system  based on OPEN LOOP TF!!
- path (P) connecting input to output without
crossing any branches twice. 3. make the Routh’s array till only 1 element
b12
b1 left in the last
N
s , type 0 if N=0, etc.
As the type number is increased, accuracy improved yet stability worse.
- Loop (L) closed path, could be anywhere, rows of 1st column.
can’t ‘against’ traffic 4. special case 1: the 1st element of any row is zero  replace 0
Type of controllers
output P11  P2  2  ...
with ε>0
Mason’s Gain Formula - if the sign above 0 (ε) = below it  there are Kp (P) u(t) = Kp e(t) Improve Too high will
 a pair of imaginary roots transient lead to
obtained from Δ by removing the
cofactor of P , input
touches
P .1 
Where 1 loops that - if not the same  there is a sign change. resp, reduce instability
1 5. special case 2: entire row of zero, meaning: there exist pairs ess
of roots which are mirror images wrt imaginary axis. Ki/s (I) u(t) = Ki Increase More

 e(t )dt
Solution: take the row above the ‘zero’ row as the auxiliary polynomial P(s) system type oscillatory,
  1   La   Lb Lc   Ld Le L  ...  1. the ‘mirror image’ roots could be obtained from roots of P(s) = 0
f 2. continue the Routh’s by taking dP(s)/ds factors.
by 1 eliminate ess
Kp(1+ u(t) = Kp e(t) + Ti : integral PI controller
Σ La = sum of all individual loops (1/Tis)) (Kp/Ti) time
Σ Lb Lc = sum of products of combinations of 2 non-touching loops etc. 1st order system  TF: C ( s) K
Steps: 1. listing all the P 2. listing all the L 3. express the Δ 4. express   e(t )dt
all the Δ1 for every P (i.e. 3 Ps = 3 Δs) 5. Mason’s gain formula
1.unit ramp response, R(s)R=(1/ss ) Ts  1
various responses of input:
2
Kp(1+Td u(t) = Kp e(t) + Kp Increase Amplify high
Block Diagram Reduction guidelines char: (i) for long t, the steady state error = T (constant throughout) s) Td (de/dt) damping frequency
1. the product of TF in the feedforward direction must remain (ii) the smaller the T, smaller error PD (effect of signals, lead to
the same at any time. (iii) no velocity error since the gradient for input r(t) and output c(t) are controller D), tends to saturation
2. the product of TF around the loop must always same. same. increase
3. the CLTF relationship often is very useful. stability
4. the ‘parallel’ branching TFs  simply add G1 and G2 !! 2. unit step R(s) = 1/s If the controller only I (instead of PI), the system will always be unstable
(slide 4.49) char: (i) At t = T, c(T) = 0.632 due to RHP poles.
(ii) for t >= 4T, remains within 2% of its final value
(iii) slope decreases from 1/T at t = 0 to zero at t = infinity
Mathematical modelling (iv) the steady state value css (t) = Kα
Lower order approximation
Poles in the expanded form of C(s) (= G(s) R(s)) i.e. after partial fraction
translational Rotational (v) definition of T (time constant): the time the responses takes to reach expansion which have very small residue , contribute little to transient
Mass (kg) Moment of inertia (kg.m2) 63.2% of its steady state value (Kα) response thus can be neglected.
(vi) large T – sluggish response, small T – fast
θ1 > θ2 The dominant closed loop poles: the closed loop poles nearest to jw-axis
x1 > x2 T = k (θ1 - θ2) don’t look T direction 3. unit impulse R(s) = 1 (dominate the transient response) & become the most important among
F = k (x1 – x2) other poles.
Unit ramp, 1/s2 c(t) = t – T + T e –t/T
Unit step, 1/s c(t) = 1- e –t/T
F=b(x1’-x2’) T=b(θ1’-θ2’) Unit impulse, 1 c(t) = (1/T) e –t/T
Note: 1. for inertia part (translational/rotational)  the Force (Torque) is
different, Δx (Δθ) is same.
2. for damping and spring  the Force (Torque) is the same, Δx (Δθ) is
different

gear train: w2/w1 = r1/r2 = N1/N2 and T1w1 = T2 w2

electrical systems:
R = V/I ZR = R
2

2nd order system K – static position/velocity/acceleration error constant
I = C (dV/dt); Farad ZC = 1/Cs
C ( s)
most of the system modelled by Newton’s 2nd law belong to 2nd order system
 2
V = L (dI/dt); Henry ZL = Ls n
TF is given:
Electromechanical system
R( s) s  2 n s  n 2
 K ( s  z1 )
Design assumptions: 7. for dB, draw line before corner frequency  keep ‘adding’
1. 2nd order system 2. dominant pair of poles 3. there are no the slope each time corner freq is passed.
system zeros on the RHP Given G(s)  8. for G, mark 1 decade above & below each corner freq 
Methods: 1. Root Locus 2. Frequency response ( s  p1)( s  p 2) draw contribution of each individual functions of G(s)  superposition
them.
System compensation: 1. Gain compensation (K) 2. dynaminc Then for s = jw 
compensation (Lead or Lag) 2 Make use of low frequency line (dB plot)
K w 2  z1
Sketching Root Locus for dummies:
1. make the C.E.: 1+ G(s) H(s) = 0
G ( jw)  1. type 0: Kp can be found when slope of dB is 0dB/dec @ low
2. seeing G(s) H(s) , find the zeros and the poles w 2  p12 w 2  p 2 2 2.
frequency (correspond to 20 log Kp)
type 1: project initial line of –20 dB/dec until cut 0 dB  w
list down: the starting pts (open loop poles of GH) and the ending pts (open = Kv
loop zeros of GH). Note: it may end at infinity (no finite zeros) And G(jw) =
3. type 2: project initial line of –40 dB/dec until cut 0dB  Ka
3. Locate the zeros and poles on the s-plane (o-zeros & x-
 w  w  w  = w2
poles). Note: RL has N branches, where N is the degree of
characteristics polynomial tan    tan 1 
1
  tan 1  
4. find angle of departure for each poles (the ‘starting pts’)  z  p1   p2 
II. Polar plot
Mapping of s-plane to G-plane for s=jw
departure = 180 – Σ  poles +Σ zeros General form
read: “stand on the other poles/zeros and see the particular poles”
5. determine the asymptotes of RL and intersection of RL on K ( s  z1 )( s  z 2 )...(s  z m )
real axis (n= number of poles, m = number of finite zeros) G(s) 
180 o ( 2k  1) s  ( s  p1)( s  p 2)...(s  p n )
asymptotes =  λ – system type number; relative degree (k) = λ+n – m general guidelines: (refer to basic form at FR above)
nm 1. starting (w = 0)  check λ. If λ = 0 (start from finite on

 poles   zeros
axis), otherwise from infinity in 0,-90, -180 or –270 direction
2. ending (w= infinity)  check (λ+n –m). If = 0 (end at finite
a  note: N poles on axis), otherwise end at origin from 0,-90, -180 or –270 direction

nm I. Bode plots

1. magnitude plot: 20 log G(jw) = dB vs w (rad/s)  multiple
3.
4.
crossing real axis?  set Im[G(jw)] = 0 find w.
crossing imaginary axis?  set Re[G(jw)] = 0 find w.
= N asymptotes 5. to know where the polar plot ‘locate’ , substitute w = 0.
of 20dB/dec
6. ask ‘Do you expect any collision?’  break in/ break out on
real axis 2. phase plot : G(jw) vs w (rad/s)  multiple of 45o/dec
Nyquist Stability criterion
 break out: between 2 open loop poles GH(jw) < 1 when GH(jw) = -180
Bode plots for standard functions
 break in: between 2 open loop zeros, only if
1. G(s) = 1/s
there’s finite zeros. Z=N+P
G dB  slope = -20dB/dec and G @ -90o with slope 0o/dec
How to find? Roots of dK/ds = 0 (from C.E.) note if the roots are Z = number of RHP zeros of GH(s) inside the countour
complex, no break in/break out exist. * G contribution –90o
P = typically 0; number of RHP poles of GH(s)
N= number of clockwise encirclements of Nyquist diagram of F(s) about (-
7. find where the RL may cross Im-axis using: a) Routh’s for 2. G(s) = 1/s2
1,0) of GH-plane.
marginally stable b) substitute s=jw in C.E. solving K and w. G dB  slope = -40dB/dec and G @ -180o with slope 0o/dec Z>0  closed loop system is unstable (intersection on left (-1,0) =
encirclement)
Z=0  closed loop system is stable (intersection on right (-1,0) = no
encirclement)
Important property: the gain (K) and point of intersection are proportional.
PD controller design
PD is one type of lead compensator.
Gain margin, Kg
1. form: Gc(s) = Kc (s + zc) with desired complex closed loop 3. G(s) = 1/(s+a) increase in G dB when G=-180 to make the closed loop system unstable.
poles s0 G dB  slope = -20dB/dec (start from a rad/s) and G  slope -45o/dec (we want to make G dB crossing 0 dB line)
2. put open loop poles of G(s) and s0 at s-plane. between 0.1 a and 10a. How? 1) locate w which G= -180 2) w = w gm, gain margin freq 3) see
3. angle criterion:  (G(so) Gc(so)) = ± 180 * G contribution: –tan-1(w/a) corresponding G dB 4) thus, Kg = - G dB
4. find contribution of all initial open loop poles/zeros
(achtung: double poles!!)
Phase margin, γ
 (G(so)) = zeros -poles
Additional phase lag added to G when G dB = 0 to make the closed loop
5. find Gc(so) from angle criterion: Gc(so) +G(so) = -180
system unstable. (we want to make G crossing the –180 line)
6. draw θ3 = Gc(so) on s-plane  find zc
How? 1) locate w which G dB = 0 dB 2) w = w pm, phase margin freq 3) see
1 1 corresponding G 4) thus, γ = G + 180
7. find Kc = (substitute s= Note: * small damping ζ means low γ * low wpm means slow response
G ( s ) ( s  zc ) 4. G(s) = s+a
G dB  mirror wrt to 0dB and G  mirror wrt to 0o In Bode plot -- Stable vs unstable closed loop: (Kg and γ +ve) vs (Kg and γ
so) –ve)
* G contribution: +tan-1(w/a)
For other combination, refer to Nyquist stability criterion.
Lead compensator design
By equal angle contribution from zero&pole Relationship between ωb (closed loop bandwidth), wpm, wn, γ and ζ  for 2nd
1.form: Gc(s) = Kc (s + zc)/ (s+pc) with zc<pc and desired s 0 order
2.put open loop poles of G(s) and s0 at s-plane.
3. find angle contribution of Gc(s) (which is zc - pc)
4. could simply choose zc (near origin) or Ogata’s way
w pm   n  2 2  4 2  1 for the others,

5. connect so to origin  make line parallel to Re-axis crossing so  bisect refer to appendix
the angle of origin-so-infinity
6. find zc & pc by draw ½ Gc(s) to the left and right of bisecting line. Good design criterion: i. High gain at low frequency (small ess) ii. wpm<
(use trigonometry)

1 ( s  pc )
1 wgm (stable system iii. Slope at wpm approx. –20 dB/dec iv. Low gain
@high frequency (high noise reduction)
5. second order G(s) =
2
7.find Kc =
G ( s ) ( s  zc )
(substitute s=so)
s  2 n s   n
2 Step 1: Gain (static) compensation  using Kc
Use 1—reduce ess: 1. given required Kp, Kv or Ka 2. calculate initial Kp,
G dB  start 0 dB, slope –40 dB start at ωn Kv or Ka (refer to formula of ‘lag compensator design’) 3. Kc = Kv2/Kv1
4. shift G dB by δG = 20 log Kc.
 2 w  Use 2 – improve transient response: 1. for specified %O.S. or ζ, find desired
tan 1  2 n 2  (for w <=ωn) =
* G =
γ 2. locate w on G plot that gives desired γ 3. ‘make’ the G dB =0, by

n  w 
Lag compensator design ‘adding’ 4. find Kc, δG = 20 log Kc
1. form: Gc(s) = Kc (s+zc)/(s+pc) with zc>pc and desired s 0
2. put open loop poles & so on s-plane Step 2a: Lag compensator (dynamic)

 2 w 
3. finding zc/pc ratio from desired Kv or Kp and assume Kc =1 Why? We want to keep transient response (achieve desired γ and wpm)
K z1 zc 180  tan 1  2 n 2  (for w>= ωn) 1 s  zc
Kc Format: Gc(s) = where zc > pc
 w  n 
type 0: Kp = type 1: Kv =
p1 p 2 pc  s  pc
1. listed all the design & initial specifications
K z1 zc 2. assume Gc = -5 till –12 degree (typical –6o)
Kc 3. calculate the the phase of compensated system (G1)
p1 pc G1 = γ2 –180 + Gc
4. choosing zc & pc near the origin to keep contribution of 4. choose appropriate γ2, (from required design)
Gc(s) small enough (<5o) 5. with G1, find from graph, w = new phase margin freq,
5. checking the phase contribution of Gc(s) (should be <5) wpm
6. additional part: finding roots of the new C.E; it should have: 6. with w= wpm, look G dB on graph  δG(w) = 20 log β
- complex conjugate pair almost same with so 7. let zc = 0.1 w, find pc and β
- settling time (ts) calculated from real pole 6. multiplication by a /division by a
nearest to origin, as the dominate closed loop poles (ts = 4/σ) Step 2b: Lead compensator (dynamic)
G dB  shift up by 20 log a / shift down by 20 log a Why? We want to speed up the transient response (also get desired γ and
G  not affected at all. wpm)
PD lead Lag
Increase ζ Same as PD so never change Step by step Bode plots: 1 s  zc
Speed up transient Same as PD Keep the dynamic 1. substitute s= jw Format: Gc(s) = where zc < pc
response
Tends to amplify high Solve this
response
ts become longer
2. find equation of magnitude of G(jw)  20 log G(jw)  G  s  pc
dB
frequency noise problem (=lagging) 1. listed all the design & initial specifications
3. find equation of phase G (see the *) – combine linearly!!
Doesn’t improve ess same Reduce ess 2. assume Gc = +5 till +12 degree (typical 10o)
4. find corner frequency
3. calculate the max phase
5. choose the range; typically [0.01 – 1000]
FREQUENCY RESPONSE фm = γ2- γ1 + Gc (γ2 and γ1 are given/specified)
6. mark the start, ending and corner frequencies (w=a or w= ωn
nd
for 2 order)
 1  sin  m
4. calculate α,  or
1  sin  m
1
sin  m 
1
5. find Gc dB at фm, given by Gc dB =
 20 log  dB
6. find for the compensated system G1, G 1 dB = - Gc dB 
look for corresponding w (w= ωm), the frequency where фm occurs.
7. find zc & pc from: zc = α(pc) and

m  zc  pc
note: if Kv, Kp or Ka already satisfied  Kc =1
additional thing: after finish the design, plot the compensated system
KcGcG(s)!!

Kc Lag Lead
Reduce ess (main) Resulting cross over Higher than wpm
freq. < wpm
More ‘plot’ More calculation

Refer to Mason’s gain