Descent with Modification and
Development
of Evolutionary Thoughts
General Biology II
Objectives:
Describe the evolutionary mechanisms of
descent with modification;
Identify major historical events to the
development of the theory of evolution; and
Enumerate the scientists who contributed in
the development of evolutionary thoughts.
Evolution
Charles Darwin defined evolution as "descent
with modification," which refers to the
process by which species change over time
through the mechanisms of natural selection,
genetic drift, and mutation.
His book "On the Origin of Species," Darwin
proposed that all species on Earth have
descended from a common ancestor, and that
the diversity of life we see today is the result
of gradual changes that have accumulated
over millions of years.
Darwin also proposed that natural selection is
the primary mechanism driving evolution, by
favoring individuals with advantageous traits
that enable them to survive and reproduce in
their environment.
According to Darwin, evolution is a
continuous and ongoing process that has
occurred throughout the history of life on
Earth. He also argued that the mechanisms of
evolution are consistent with observable facts
and are supported by a wide range of
evidence from multiple scientific fields.
Mutation
Alteration in the sequence of nucleotides in
DNA.This change can affect a single
nucleotide pair or larger gene segments of a
chromosome.
Types of Mutation
Point Mutation
The most common type of gene mutation.
Also called a base pair substitution, this type
of mutation changes a single nucleotide base
pair. Point mutations can be further divided
into three types: Silent, Missense and
Nonsense
Silent Mutation
occurs when a change in the DNA sequence
does not result in a change in the amino acid
sequence of the protein that the gene codes
for
Missense Mutation
occurs when a change in the DNA sequence
results in a different amino acid being
incorporated into the protein that the gene
codes for
Nonsense Mutation
occurs when a change in the DNA sequence
creates a premature stop codon in the protein-
coding sequence, resulting in a truncated and
often non-functional protein
Base-Pair Insertion
occurs when one or more nucleotides are
added to the DNA sequence, resulting in a
longer sequence
Deletion Mutation
occurs when one or more nucleotides are
removed from the DNA sequence, resulting in
a shorter sequence.
Gene Flow
is the transfer of genetic material from one
population of organisms to another, this
transfer can occur through movement of
individuals or gametes between population
Migration
refers to the movement of individuals or
populations from one geographic location to
another, it is a common phenomenon
observed in many different species, including
birds, mammals, insects, and fish
it can be triggered by various factors, such as
changes in seasons, availability of food or
water, or the need to find suitable breeding
grounds or habitats
Genetic Drift
occurs when the frequency of a particular
allele (variant of a gene) in a population
changes randomly over time due to chance
events
Types of Genetic Drift
Bottleneck effect
occurs when a population experiences a sharp
reduction in size due to a random event, such
as a natural disaster, disease outbreak, or Allopatric Speciation
human intervention, the resulting population occurs when a population of organisms
is smaller than the original population becomes geographically isolated from the rest
Founder Effect of its species, often as a result of a physical
occurs when a small group of individuals barrier such as a mountain range, river, or
from a larger population establishes a new ocean
population in a new geographic area or habitat the isolated population then undergoes genetic
divergence from the main population due to
Natural Selection of Darwin differences in selective pressures and random
states that individuals with advantageous mutations
traits are more likely to survive and reproduce over time, the genetic differences can
in a given environment, while those with accumulate to the point where the two
disadvantageous traits are more likely to die populations can no longer interbreed, even if
off and not pass on their traits to the next the physical barrier is removed, this can lead
generation, over time, this leads to the gradual to the formation of two distinct species.
accumulation of beneficial traits in a
population and the evolution of new species.
according to Darwin, natural selection is the
primary mechanism of evolution, and it
operates on the variation that exists within a
population
Darwin's concept of natural selection was
based on several key observations:
Traits are often heritable. In living organisms,
many characteristics are inherited, or passed
from parent to offspring. (Darwin knew this
was the case, even though he did not know
that traits were inherited via genes.)
More offspring are produced than can survive.
Organisms are capable of producing more
offspring than their environments can support. Sympatric Speciation
Thus, there is competition for limited occurs when new species arise within the
resources in each generation. same geographic area or population without
Offspring vary in their heritable traits. The any physical barrier to gene flow
offspring in any generation will be slightly it means that even though organisms are
different from one another in their traits living in the same area, they become
(color, size, shape, etc.), and many of these reproductively isolated from each other and
features will be heritable. diverge into separate species
it can occur through a variety of mechanisms,
Speciation such as polyploidy (when an organism has
refers to the process by which new species more than two sets of chromosomes) etc.
arise from existing ones
it occurs when a group of individuals
becomes isolated from the rest of the species
Parapatric Speciation
and begins to evolve separately
occurs when members of the population are
over time, the genetic differences between the
separated by an extreme change in their
two groups can accumulate to the point where
habitat or when two subpopulations of a
they can no longer interbreed, leading to the
species evolve into distinct species while in
formation of two distinct species
contact along a common border or boundary
there are three modes of speciation, namely
the members may interbreed, but they are
(1) allopatric speciation, (2) sympatric
unlikely to mate with their geographic
speciation, and (3) parapatric speciation
neighbors
Development of Evolutionary Thoughts
The groundwork for the modern theory of
evolution was laid during the 1700s and
1800s. Charles Darwin developed the
controlling idea of evolution by natural
selection, but others before and during his life
influenced his thinking.
The theory of evolution was a controversial
idea during its early beginnings as it opposes
religious beliefs. However, findings and
pieces of evidence over time up to the present
establishes this theory as a fact. Several
scientists played a significant role in shaping
the theory of evolution based on their findings
and observation.