CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO
RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSORS

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Reciprocating Compressors

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 INTRODUCTION TO RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSORS

1.1 Introduction

Compressors are used whenever it is necessary to flow gas from

a low pressure system to a higher pressure system. Flash gas from low-
pressure vessels used for multi-stage stabilization of liquids, oil
treating, water treating, etc.; often exist at too low a pressure to flow
into the gas sales pipeline. Sometimes this gas is used as fuel, and the
remainder is flared or vented. In many instances it is economically
attractive to compress this gas to a high enough pressure so it can be
sold.

Compression may also be required for environmental reasons.

Flash gas which might otherwise be flared may be compressed for
sales, or gas produced with oil (associated gas) may be compressed for
re-injection to avoid , flaring or to help maintain reservoir pressure. In
some marginal gas fields, and in many larger gas fields that experience
a decline in flowing pressure with time, it may be economical to allow
the wells to flow at surface pressures below that required for gas sales.
In such cases a booster compressor (one where the ratio of discharge
to suction pressure is low) may be installed. Booster compressors are
also used on long pipelines to restore pressure drop lost to friction.

The use of large compressors is probably more prevalent in oil

field facilities than in gas field facilities. Oil wells often require low
flowing surface pressures and the gas that flashes off the oil in the
separator must be compressed. Often, natural gas is, injected into the
tubing of the well to lighten the column of liquid and reduce downhole
pressure. This "gas lift" gas is produced back with the well fluids at low
pressure. Compressors are used so the lift gas can be recirculated and

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 injected back into the well at high pressure. Gas lift compressors are
characterized both by high overall ratio of discharge to suction pressure
("pressure ratio") and relatively high throughputs

The project engineer must be able to select the type of

compressor to use for each application, determine horsepower
requirements, design the piping system associated with the
compressor and specify materials and details of construction for
bearings, seals, etc. On standard applications, the project engineer
may allow the vendor to specify materials and construction details for
the specified service conditions. Even in these instances, the project
engineer should be familiar with different alternatives so that he can
better evaluate proposals and alternative proposals of vendors. The
purpose of this design guideline is to provide the project engineer with
a basic understanding of how to select a reciprocating compressor.
The reader is referred to the design guideline on centrifugal
compressors for information

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 1.2 Compressor Types

Compression involves forcing the flow of gases from low pressure to

high pressure systems by mechanical means using one of several
mechanisms. The energy input required depends on the characteristics of
the gas and the service conditions.

Compressors are classified as either "kinetic" or "positive dis-

placement" compressors. In a kinetic compressor, energy is added
continuously to increase the velocity within the compressor to values in
excess of those that exist in the discharge pipe. Passageways in the
compressor then reduce the velocity until it matches that in. the discharge
pipe. From Bernoulli's law, as the velocity head of the gas is reduced the
pressure head must increase.

Therefore, in a kinetic compressor the kinetic or velocity energy of

the gas is first increased and then converted to potential or pressure
energy. Almost all kinetic compressors used in production facilities are
centrifugal compressors, in which the kinetic energy is imparted to the gas
by a rotating impeller causing centrifugal force.

In a positive displacement compressor, the volume containing the

gas is decreased until the resulting gas pressure is equal to the pressure
in the discharge system. That is, the gas is compressed mechanically
causing a direct rise in potential energy. Most positive displacement
compressors are reciprocating compressors where the displacement is
accomplished by linear motion of a piston in a cylinder.

Rotary compressor is another common type of positive

displacement compressor, where the displacement is caused by the
circular motion of a screw or vane. Centrifugal and rotary compressors are
beyond the scope of this chapter.

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 1.3 Process in Reciprocating Compressors

A reciprocating compressor is a positive-displacement machine in

which the compressing and displacing element is a piston moving linearly
within a cylinder. Figure 1.1 shows the action of a reciprocating
compressor.

Figure 1.1 – Schematic diagram showing the action of a reciprocating

compressor

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 In Position 1, the piston is moving away from the cylinder head and
the suction valve is open, allowing gas to enter the cylinder at a pressure
slightly less than suction pressure. The discharge valve is closed. At
Position 2, the piston has travelled the full stroke within the cylinder and
the cylinder is full of gas at suction pressure.

The piston begins to move to the left, compressing the gas to

slightly more than suction pressure and thus closing the suction valve. In
moving from Position 2 to Position 3, the piston moves towards the
cylinder head and the volume is reduced. This increases pressure until the
cylinder pressure is slightly higher than the discharge pressure and the
discharge valve opens. The piston continues to move to the end of the
stroke near the cylinder head, discharging gas.

Pressure in the cylinder is slightly higher than discharge pressure

from Position 3 to Position 4. As the piston reverses its travel, the
discharge valve closes and the remaining gas within the cylinder expands
until it is slightly lower than suction pressure and the piston is again in
position 1.

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 1.4 High-Speed vs. Slow-Speed

Reciprocating compressors are classified as either "high-speed" or

"slow-speed." Typically, high-speed compressors run at speeds of 900-1,200
rpm and slow-speed units at speeds of 200 to 600 rpm. High-speed
compressors are available in sizes ranging from 50 to 2,500 HP. Must are
equipped with 2, 4 or 6 compressor cylinders.

The advantages of high-speed compressors over slow-speed com-

pressors are that they can be skid mounted and self-contained for easy
installation; they are lower in cost than comparably sized low-speed units;
they are available in sizes suitable for field gathering offshore and onshore;
and they are easily moved to new locations.

Most slow-speed units are in the 1,500 HP to 6,000 HP range, and

sizes are available up to 13,000 HP.

The advantages of slow-speed units over high-speed units are lower

fuel consumption, longer operating life and lower operating and maintenance
costs. However, slow-speed units require heavy foundations and a larger
degree of vibration and pulsation suppression. The larger sizes are usually
built in the field, and thus have higher installation cost.

Figure 1.2 shows a high-speed compressor frame and cylinders. The

upper compressor is called a two throw machine because it has two cylinders
attached to the frame and running off the crankshaft. The lower compressor is
a four throw machine because it has four cylinders attached to the crankshaft.
(Technically, the number of "throws" refers to the number of cylinders, as
more than one cylinder may be attached to a crank shaft. However, as
practical matter, the number of crank throws and the number of cylinders will
normally be the same.)

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 Figure 1.2 – Example of high speed reciprocating separable compressor

A compressor may have any number of stages. Each stage normally

contains suction scrubber to separate any liquids that carry over or condense
in the gas line prior to the compressor cylinder (or case for centrifugal
compressors). When gas is compressed, its temperature increases.
Therefore, after passing through the cylinder the gas is usually cooled
before being routed to another suction scrubber for another stage of
compression. A stage of compression thus consists of a scrubber, cylinder
and after-cooler. (The discharge from the final cylinder may not be routed
to an after-cooler.)

The number of throws is not the same as the number of stages of

compression. It is possible to have a two-stage, four-throw compressor.
In this case there would be two sets of two cylinders working in parallel.
Each set would have a common suction and discharge.

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 1.5 Integral Engine Compressors

Low-speed units are typically integral in design. "Integral" means

that the power cylinders that turn the crankshaft are in the same case
(same housing) as the cylinders that compress the gas. There is one
crankshaft with engine pistons and compressor pistons attached. A typical
very large integral compressor will range from 2,000 hp to 13,000 hp size.
Obviously one of these large integrals would require a very large and
expensive foundation and would have to be field erected. Even the com-
pressor cylinders must be shipped separately from the frame due to
weight and size limitations. The figure below shows a typical large integral
engine compressor.

Figure 2.3 – Typical large integral compressor

Large integrals are much more expensive both to purchase and to

install than either high-speed separables or centrifugals. For this reason,
even though they are the most fuel efficient choice for large, horsepower
needs, large integrals are not often installed in oil and gas fields. They are

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 more common in plants and pipeline booster service where their fuel
efficiency, long life and steady performance outweigh their higher initial
investment.

There are some low horsepower (140 to 360) integrals that are
normally skid mounted as shown in Figure 1.4 and used extensively in
small oil fields for flash gas or gas-lift compressor service. In these units
the power cylinders and compressor cylinders are both mounted
horizontally and opposed to each other.

Figure 1.4 – Example of skid mounted low horse power integral compressor

There may be one or two compressor cylinders and one to four

power cylinders. They operate at very slow-speed. Their cost and weight
are higher than similar sized separable units, but they have lower
maintenance cost, greater fuel efficiency and longer life than high-speed
compressors.

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 1.6 High-Speed Separables

High-speed units are normally "separable." That is, the compressor

frame and driver are separated by a coupling or gear box. This is opposed
to an "integral" unit where power cylinders are mounted on the same
frame as the compressor cylinders, and the power pistons are attached to
the same crankshaft as the compressor cylinders.

High-speed units are typically engine or electric motor driven,

although turbine drivers have also been used. Engines or turbines can be
either natural gas or diesel fueled. By far the most common driver for a
high-speed compressor is the natural gas driven engine.

Figure 1.5 shows a high-speed engine-driven compressor package.

The unit typically comes complete on one skid with driver, compressor,
suction scrubbers and discharge coolers for each stage of compression
and all necessary piping and controls. On large units (>1,000 hp) the
cooler may be shipped on a separate skid.

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 Figure 1.5 – Example of high speed separable reciprocating compressor

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