Higher Education Students’ Performance and its Relation with

Digital Media Self-Efficacy and Socioeconomic Background

Abstract

Research suggests a link between students’ socioeconomic background, their

academic self-efficacy and their study achievement. However, although digital media
are prevalent in several areas of everyday, their relevance for academic achievement
have not yet been satisfactorily explored. Furthermore, whether digital media usage
depends on socioeconomic background factors has not yet been sufficiently
investigated in this context. In consequence, it is unknown whether existing
inequalities in higher education (HE) are stable, further enhanced, or even reduced
in the era of ‘digitalisation’. The present study explores the relationships between
individual and socioeconomic background factors, with a special focus on academic
and digital media self-efficacy. Data were collected at four German universities in
summer 2018 (n = 2039). The results of structural equation models indicate that
digital-media self-efficacy is related to students‘ academic performance while it is
not related to students’ socioeconomic backgrounds. In contrast, academic self-
efficacy is related to both. Overall, this study contributes to the literature on
students’ study behaviour in the digital era by examining students’ digital media
behaviour as well as their (media-related) self-efficacy.

Keywords: digital media self-efficacy, digital media use, higher education, academic
performance, academic self-efficacy, social cognitive theory

1. Introduction
In the past decade, digitalisation induced massive changes in higher education (HE) as study
programmes and university infrastructure attempt to match the emerging demands of the labour
market and technological development in general. In this respect, the COVID-19 crisis has sped
up the necessity for higher education institutions (HEIs) and their students to use digital media
for studying. Although digital media are prevalent in several areas of everyday life, their role in
academic settings and their relevance for academic achievement have not yet been satisfactorily
explored – while other factors (such as motivation and engagement) were identified as essential
for academic performance (e.g. 1, 2).
In this context, it is important to note the existing inequality in HE. In particular, students’
socioeconomic or educational backgrounds determine the likelihood to succeed in HE. For
Germany, research has indicated that the proportion of students with non-academic vs.

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academic backgrounds is 1:6 once the master’s level is reached and 1:10 during a doctoral degree
(3) Non-cognitive factors such as self-efficacy indirectly affect college retention, mediated by
social adjustment and GPA (e.g. 4). Furthermore, students’ self-efficacy (SE) expectations are also
found to affect academic attainment (e.g. 5- 8). In sum, the relationship between students’ SES
and their academic achievement may be mediated by SE (9). Students with lower socioeconomic
backgrounds show higher academic performance when indicating higher SE; however, lower-SES
students are often equipped with lower SE expectations (9). Therefore, in addition to the skills
needed to successfully master academic studies, SE expectations and motivation (e.g. 5) may be
important factors in the SES-achievement relationship.
Surprisingly, even after the expansive use of digital media during the Covid pandemic, it
remains largely unknown whether students’ media usage is related to socioeconomic
background factors and whether existing inequalities in HE are stable, further enhanced or
reduced through digital media use.
Therefore, the present study aims to address the question of inequality in academic
achievement with an interdisciplinary study approach. We will analyse students’ digital media
usage in relation to their (media-related) self-efficacy, at the same time applying sociological
constructs for inequality in educational contexts. Thus, we analyse the relation of different types
of media-usage behaviour with academic achievement. With our study including 1784 students
of four German universities, we contribute to research on individual differences in the HE system
in at least two ways: First, we bring together sociological, psychological, and media-related
research streams which have not been connected in the context of digitalisation. Second, we
shed further light on the relations between students’ digital media behaviour by going beyond
previous studies on students’ usage of digital media in HE.

1.1. Theoretical Background

For this study, both individual behaviour and social influences on the reproduction of social
(educational) inequalities, are important. Thus, we use Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT)
(e.g. 10-12) and Bourdieu’s (13) social reproduction theory.
Based on SCT, human behaviour, in general, is caused by personal, behavioural, and
environmental influences (11). As one major aspect of his theory, Bandura introduced self-
efficacy beliefs (SE), which are defined as ‘people’s judgement of their capabilities to organize
and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances’ (11: p. 391).
These self-efficacy beliefs help to determine how much effort students spent on a certain task or
how resilient a person is when confronted with problems (14: p. 544). In academic contexts, SE
may, for example, refer to the goal of successfully mastering exams; based on the students’
perceptions of their capabilities to reach this goal, SE determines how much learning effort and
also confidence during an exam is shown. Thus, focusing on SE may be useful in examining both

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learning behaviour and digital media use. Furthermore, the fact that SE depends on
environmental aspects according to SCT illustrates the importance of taking social factors into
account when analysing study outcomes.
Bandura (15) also stressed the importance of parental influence on children’s and adolescents’
development of SE. This points to a cultural reproduction that is primarily studied in sociological
research, for example in Lareau’s (unequal) childhood studies (e.g. 16). In line with Bourdieu and
Passeron (17), Lareau (18) argued that socialisation processes vary for individuals with differing
social backgrounds, resulting in different educational achievement and occupational chances.
One reason for this might be that students with lower-SES backgrounds experience a higher social
and cultural distance from the educational system and institutions (18).
Overall, socialisation shapes the individual’s internalised sense of natural behaviour and how
he or she perceives ‘the world’ (habitus) (13). The amount of cultural capital (next to social and
economic capital, see 19) – i.e. the resulting set of ‘skills’ that individuals acquire in the course of
their socialisation and against the background of their habitus – also differs according to
socioeconomic background. Thus, cultural capital is partly perceived as informal knowledge
about educational organisations’ rules that are necessary to suceed in educational institutions
(18).
Similarly, Lörz et al. (20) referred to cultural reproduction theories (17) in their study on the
transition from Bachelor’s to Master’s programmes in the German HE system. In a study with
1,822 students, they demonstrated that students’ varying socioeconomic backgrounds differed
in risk aversion and academic performance. The so-called ‘cultural frames’ might explain
differences regarding the familiarity with educational institutions, such as universities, between
varying socioeconomic backgrounds. These frames affect individual expectations and pathways
within the educational systems (21). In summary, the individuals’ educational success does not
only depend on institutional conditions and selection processes but also on their individual
expectations and decisions which are based on experiences, their knowledge and their parents’
knowledge about the (formal and informal) rules of the educational system.
To sum up, we combined Bandura’s approach and the often empirically found differences
regarding ASE and academic performance with a sociological approach of cultural reproduction
according to Bourdieu as our theoretical foundation. Based on these theories, we expect
students’ socioeconomic background, ASE expectations, and academic performance to be
related.
In contrast, we do not expect to observe a link between students’ socioeconomic background
and DMSE expectations (DMSE). The above-described mechanisms of passing on informal
knowledge about organisational rules, resulting in the familiarity with educational institutions
and processes – and presumably in higher confidence to meet the demands successfully – most
likely do not apply to digital media behaviour in the same way. Nevertheless, based on the SCT,

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we still assume that DMSE expectations are influenced by environmental factors in general,
especially since digital media usage is determined by parental knowledge, experiences and
regulation, particularly for younger children (e.g. 22, 23). However, the theoretical assumptions
and study results available so far show that neither parental knowledge and regulation nor
students’ DMSE should differ to a significant extent due to students’ socioeconomic background.
In this respect, it is important to note that media-related self-efficacy does not directly imply
competent and responsible usage of digital media but rather addresses the ‘successful’ handling
of digital media, for example, quick access to new applications or confident reaction to problems.
Furthermore, the institutional requirements of the education system change little and rather
slowly, making intergenerational transmission of certain aspects much more likely than can be
expected for the use of digital media where younger generations often show different behaviour
than older (parent) generations and quicker adaptation (e.g. 24). Nevertheless, we assume that
certain types of media behaviour are nowadays relevant to study successfully. In turn, this could
change the demands of studying to the extent that the aspects associated with cultural capital
become less important, at least temporarily, if our assumption concerning the independence of
DMSE and socioeconomic background holds. In summary, whether digital media usage and DMSE
expectations are related to socioeconomic backgrounds and academic performance needs to be
clarified empirically.

1.2. State of Research and Hypotheses

Different literature reviews and meta-analyses show that students’ SE predicts academic
performance and is related to other motivational constructs, e.g. motivation or goal-orientation
(7, 8, 14). For instance, in their meta-analytic review study of 217 articles published between
1997 and 2010, Richardson et al. (2) tested five cognitive and 42 non-cognitive constructs,
including motivational variables such as SE and goal orientation to determine whether they are
related with students’ GPA. For ASE, a medium positive correlation could be found (r = 0.31).
However, there was significant heterogeneity in effect size across studies (I2 = 90.94 %). Also, in
their meta-analysis based on 53 studies published between 2003 and 2015, Honicke and
Broadbent (25) found a moderate positive relationship between ASE and academic performance
(r = 0.33). Additional mediation analyses again identified motivational variables such as goal
orientations as crucial. The significant heterogeneity across studies may partially be explained by
inter-study differences in the operationalisation of academic self-efficacy (ASE) and academic
performance. Based on the theoretical argumentation and these findings, the following
hypotheses can be formed:
H1: Academic self-efficacy and academic performance show a positive correlation.
H2: Academic self-efficacy expectations are connected to mastery and performance goal
orientation, and these, in turn, are positively related to study achievement.

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 According to, for example, Pekrun (26), Zeidner (27), and Lewis et al. (28), emotions can have
both positive and negative effects on academic goal setting and achievement. Hsieh et al. (29,
30) found that anxiety about not being able to meet the demands of study and SE expectations
are linked and lead to lower academic performance (similar: 31). This leads to the third
hypothesis:
H3: Academic self-efficacy is negatively related to anxiety, and this, in turn, is negatively related
to academic performance.
In research on students’ self-efficacy, gender differences are often found, indicating higher
self-efficacy beliefs for male persons. These differences occur in academic contexts (e.g. 7) as
well as concerning computer SE in general (32), and also regarding academic tasks and subjects
associated with technology and computers (33). Therefore, hypothesis four is formulated as
follows:
H4: Female students show lower academic and digital media self-efficacy than male students.
Weiser and Riggio (9) analysed a convenience sample of 93 undergraduate psychology
students from a US. university to explore the relationship between socioeconomic background,
SE, and academic outcomes. The results indicate a significant relationship between
socioeconomic background, measured by socioeconomic status (SES), quality of relationship with
both parents and parental involvement, and the students’ feeling of competence and perceived
academic abilities. Those were found to be related to grades and expectations of academic
performance. Only partial support was found for SE as a mediator in the relationship between
SES and academic outcomes since there was a significant mediation effect of SE and parental
involvement but not for the other background variables. Contrary to the theoretical assumptions,
higher SES was found to be linked to lower levels of self-efficacy. Weiser and Riggio (9) stated
that this may be due to the unique student population making up the sample which consisted
mainly of Hispanic-American, first-generation college students of lower SES.
In a study with adolescents from Hong Kong, Keung and Ho (34) used the capability approach,
which shares some similarities with SCT. Using multilevel modelling of data from the 2012 PISA
study and its longitudinal extension, the authors found a positive relationship between students’
SES and their expectation of earning a bachelor’s degree, which can be considered similar to a
measure of students’ ASE. For their final model, including family-related, school-related and
student capability factors, ‘school-mean SES [...] consistently exerts a great influence on
adolescents’ expectations of pursuing a bachelor degree’ (34: p. 289).
In line with the social reproduction theory and with this study, however, in contrast to Weiser
and Riggio’s study (9), we assume a positive relationship between SES and ASE, based on the
theoretical assumptions stated above, and also because our data includes a broader sample of
students stemming from different universities, subjects, and backgrounds.
H5: Students with higher socioeconomic backgrounds show higher academic self-efficacy.

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 Finally, as described above, there is no theoretical or empirical evidence for a link between
DMSE and socioeconomic background. Furthermore, the field of media-related SE, as well as the
newly developed scale, is still relatively unexplored, especially in terms of a relationship with
socioeconomic background. Thus, there is, at least to our knowledge, no empirical evidence so
far. Accordingly, we refrain from formulating a hypothesis:
Regarding digital media usage in the HE context, recent studies, for example, have focused on
social media use (35). Analysing a sample of 348 undergraduate students of a university in Hong
Kong, Lau (36) found that social media use for non-academic purposes and social media
multitasking were significantly negatively related to academic performance.
Nowadays, smartphones, laptops and other mobile devices allow students to use a large
variety of different media applications, for study purposes, socialising and for leisure activities.
We assume that the relation of media usage and study achievement depends on how students
use digital media. We, therefore, aim to explore the relationships of different types of media-use
behaviour and DMSE with academic performance, allowing for a potential mediation effect of
DMSE on academic performance through distinct media-user types. As there is hardly any
empirical evidence of this so far, we formulate the last hypotheses rather broadly as follows:
H6a: Digital media self-efficacy is related to media-user types.
H6b: Different media-user types are associated distinctly with academic performance.
H6c: Digital media self-efficacy is associated with academic performance.
A sketch of the assumed relationships is shown in Figure 1. In addition to the hypothesised
relationships, we also control for a direct effect of SES and gender on academic performance,
since we do not expect them to be completely mediated by SE expectations.
[place figure 1 here]

Fig. 1: Path diagram of the theoretically assumed relationship of constructs.

2. Methods
2.1. Instrument Design and Operationalisation of Constructs
To analyse these hypotheses, data were collected using a standardised online survey instrument
that captures SE and media use (37). The scales in the questionnaire are based on approved
scales, taken from instruments in current research in the subject area (38-41). Since, to our
knowledge, no up-to-date scale for assessing media-related SE in HE was available, we
constructed a new scale to capture students’ media-related SE (37; based on 42).
Aim and frequency of using different media applications (43, 44) were used to categorise
students’ digital media use in five categories: e-books (books and electronic articles), university
platforms (e.g. homepage, e-learning portal, online library services), communication tools (e.g.

6
Facebook, WhatsApp), study-related online tools (virtual lectures, literature databases,
cooperation tools such as google docs), and general online tools (search engines, Wikis, cloud
services).
Zawacki-Richter (44) also used and modified the Technology Usage Inventory (TUI) by
Kothgassner et al. (45) to measure attitudes towards digital media applications. For our data, we
found five factors using confirmatory factor analysis, describing the dimension’s
curiosity/interest, scepticism, anxiety, usefulness, and accessibility (37). Furthermore, self-
assessed knowledge and skills regarding digital media applications are included as well.
For all the above-mentioned scales, the students were each presented with statements and
were asked to indicate on a scale from 1 = ‘not at all’ to 7 = ‘fully’ the extent to which these
statements apply to them. For example, in the case of digital media self-efficacy (DMSE), one of
the statements was ‘If a problem arises concerning a media application, I can handle it on my
own’.
Furthermore, demographics were assessed (in alignment with 46). In addition to parental
characteristics (such as their education), data on the parents’ occupations were used to classify
the respondents’ SES according to the ‘International Socioeconomic Index of Occupational Status
(ISEI)’ (47). In case an ISEI value was present for both parents, the higher ISEI value was selected
to indicate SES by a single value for each person.
Academic performance is measured by average grades weighted according to the ECTS
(European Credit Transfer System) points achieved in relation to the number of ECTS points that
should have been achieved in the respective semester according to the study plan. This index has
been logarithmised due to its skewed distribution.

2.2. Sample
Data were collected in summer term 2018 at the Universities of W, X, Y, and Z. The students were
invited to participate in the online survey via e-mail and, additionally, via postings and flyers,
info-screens, and in lectures. In sum, 135,464 enrolled students were addressed and 3,342
participated (response rate approx. 2.5 %), of which 1784 cases remain after excluding cases due
to a large amount of missing values (> 60% of all questions unanswered). Table 1 shows the
absolute response number from each participating HEI. According to psychometric analyses, the
scales seem valid and reliable (37).
Table 1: Higher Education Institutions of the participating students.
University Count
W 1114
X 372
Y 685

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 Z 1171
The proportion of female participants in the sample was 59.6 %, and 39.6 % were male, with
female students being slightly overrepresented. The students’ mean age is M = 24.03 (S D = 4.01,
min = 18, max = 59).

2.3. Media User Typology

Based on the above-mentioned categorisation of the average frequency of usage of different
media applications (e.g. university platforms, communication tools), the attitudes towards digital
media according to the TUI dimensions (e.g. curiosity/interest, scepticism), and self-assessed
knowledge resp. skills (e.g. regarding media technology, office tools), a typology of media-user
types was created, using a latent profile analysis (see supplementary material Table 4 for more
information). This resulted in six different media-user types, which can be described as follows:

• marginal users (mean class probability (MCP) 40 %) show the lowest interest in digital
media tools and also rate their accessibility as low. Additionally, these students use e-
books least frequently and consider their skills with media technology and programming
lower than the other media-user profiles.

• medium users (MCP 5 %) consider digital media as relatively accessible, use e-books, study-
related online tools and the university platforms frequently. These students rate their own
abilities regarding social research tools comparatively high.

• frequent users (MCP 21 %) are highly interested in digital media tools and consider them
generally useful and accessible. Moreover, they use e-books most often and rate their skills
regarding media technology and literature databases high. They show the lowest value for
scepticism.

• inexperienced sceptics (MCP 20 %) consider digital media tools quite useful but show high
scepticism. These students consider their skills regarding literature databases and social
research tools lowest.

• experienced sceptics (MCP 9 %) are interested in digital media tools but show high
scepticism as well. They also indicate low values for usefulness of digital media and the
usage of university platforms or study-related online tools. However, these students assess
their own skills regarding media technology and programming relatively high.

• study-oriented users (MCP 5 %) focus on the usage of university platforms and study-
related online tools and rate their skills regarding literature databases, social research tools
(e.g. for statistical analyses) and programming high.

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 Based on this categorisation, a variable was constructed to mirror the profile membership of
each person.

2.4. Data Analysis

In order to analyse the assumed relationships as shown in Figure 1, we conducted structural
equation model (SEM) analyses for n = 1784 cases, using the software package lavaan (48) in the
free software environment for statistical computing and graphics R (49). We used full information
maximum likelihood estimation to deal with missing values. Due to the otherwise sharp increase
in complexity in model estimation from adding several binary endogenous variables representing
the six media user types, we decided to test H6 separately, using regression analyses.
In a two-step approach, we first applied multinomial regression to model the relationship of
media user types and DMSE (H6a) and, secondly, multiple linear regression analysis of digital
media user types, DMSE, and academic performance (H6b and c). For DMSE, we used the
predicted value of the latent variables based on the fitted SEM.
Due to missing values in the variables of interest, the sample was reduced to n =1146
observations for this analysis. We kept the sample constant for all models in the stepwise
approach. R (49) was used for the analyses.
3. Results
In our analyses, we aimed to explore the assumed relationships, especially concerning digital
media usage, SE expectations, SES, goal orientation and study performance. Below, some
descriptive results, the results of the SEM and the subsequent regression analyses are provided.
3.1. Descriptive Results
Digital devices are common among students as nearly everyone (96% of the sample) owns a
smartphone and a notebook (94%). These devices differ in the amount of usage on campus and
regarding applications: smartphones are used very often on average (M = 6.2), laptops less often
(M = 4.1) and tablets the least often (M = 3.6). On campus, laptops are mainly used for visiting
the university (e-learning) platforms and for writing tasks. Smartphones, in comparison, are often
used for text messaging, social networks (in particular, WhatsApp and Facebook), or internet
searches. Independent of the device, those students who used social networks for study
purposes (81 %) mostly exchange questions (77 %), also regarding exams (82 %), and send each
other class and study materials (88 %).
Regarding their SE, the students in our sample tended to trust their ability to deal with digital
media applications (M(DMSE) = 4.8, SD = 1.14). This value was slightly higher than their self-
assessed ability to successfully deal with academic tasks (M(ASE) = 4.6, SD = 1.22).

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3.2. Analyses Using Structural Equation Models
Figure 2 shows a simplified representation of the model, including only the path model but not
the measurement model, and is based on the visualisation of the theoretical assumptions in
Figure 1 (for a complete illustration see Figure 4 in the supplementary material). Table 6 contains
mean values, standard deviation, and internal consistency measure Cronbach’s Alpha, with
composite reliability and average variance extracted (AVE).
The model (Figure 2) is based on 1,784 observations and the fit indices attest to an acceptable
model fit according to the comparative fit index (CFI = 0.965), Tucker Lewis index (TLI = 0.96), and
root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA= 0.040;95 %CI[0.038,0.043]) and standardized
root mean square residuals (SMRM= 0.041) value, which are all below or above the common
thresholds (e.g. 50). In the SEM, we allowed the residual variances of ASE and DMSE to correlate,
due to the moderate correlation of both variables (r = 0.41), which also led to a better model fit.
Since both scales measure types of self-efficacy, this correlation was expected. However, as was
tested in exploratory (pre-test data) and confirmatory factor analyses (full scale data), academic
and digital media self-efficacy are two distinct factors for different self-efficacy beliefs (37).
Following H1, ASE should be significantly related to academic performance. Based on the
correlation analysis (see Table 5, supplementary material), this can be confirmed. However, after
including anxiety and goal orientation in our overall SEM, the direct relationship between ASE
and academic performance is weakened. Hypothesis 2 is partially supported by our results since
ASE is significantly related to mastery-goal orientation (MGO) and also to performance goal
orientation (PGO). This implies that students who trust their academic abilities also show higher
interest, for example, in the learning contents (in the case of MGO) and in achieving good grades
(in the case of PGO). PGO is also significantly positively linked to academic performance. In
contrast, no such relationship is found for MGO and academic performance. The third hypothesis
is fully supported by our empirical results: Anxiety is significantly related to ASE, in the sense that
higher ASE expectations are associated with fewer worries of not meeting the study demands.
Furthermore, anxiety is significantly negatively related to academic performance. As assumed
(H4), female students showed significantly lower SE expectations than male students, both
regarding academic matters and digital media. In addition, as assumed in H5, our results suggest
a significant relationship between ASE and SES but not between DMSE and SES, resulting in
slightly higher ASE expectations of persons with higher SES.
In addition to the hypothesised relationships, there was also evidence for a significant direct
relationship between SES as well as gender and academic performance. Higher SES and being
female are significantly linked to higher academic performance.
[place figure 2 here]

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Fig. 2: Simplified representation of the SEM with path models only (dotted lines for non-modelled
relationships), regression coefficients, standard errors in parentheses, significance
levels represented by asterisks (∗∗∗p < 0.001; ∗∗p < 0.01; ∗p < 0.05; .p < 0.1) and R squared
values of the depended variables.

3.3. Results of Regression Analyses

To analyse the relationship of DMSE, media-user types, and academic performance – as
described in H6 and shown in Figure 3 – we modelled the variables using regression in a
multistage analysis. First, we analysed the relationship between DMSE and media-user types.
Then we analysed the effects of DMSE and digital media user types on academic performance
simultaneously in a separate analysis. Note that we only focus on significant effects and changes
in coefficients here and do not perform a path analysis or full calculation of indirect and direct
effects in the assumed mediation due to the limited (cross-sectional) nature of the data and the
complexity due to the multicategorical mediator variable of media use.
[place figure 3 here]

Fig. 3: Assumed relationship of DMSE, media-user type and academic performance.

3.3.1. Digital Media User Types and Digital Media Self-Efficacy

The results of the multinomial logistic regression analysis of media-user type on DMSE are
displayed in Table 2. We chose the category “marginal users” in media-user types for the baseline
model since it is the most frequently occurring category. Table 2 shows the estimated
coefficients, standard errors, relative risk values, Wald values and the corresponding p-values.
Overall, a significant (p-value < 0.05) relationship of the probability to belong to a certain profile
in comparison to the baseline profile and digital media self-efficacy could be found in each case.
The biggest relative risk ratio occurred for frequent users (exp(β) = 3.870), followed by
inexperienced sceptics (exp(β) = 2.080). However, since the relative risks are all > 1, this means a
higher DMSE, in general, leads to a higher probability for any other group in comparison to the
baseline category of marginal users. These results are in line with H6a, which assumes a
relationship between DMSE and media-usage behaviour.

Table 2: Results of multinomial regression analysis of media-user types on DMSE (n = 1146).

Effect Estimate SE exp(Beta) Wald p-Value
𝑃(𝑌𝑖 = 𝑀𝑒𝑑. 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑟. ) Intercept -1.899 0.137 0.150 -13.873 0.000
𝑃(𝑌𝑖 = 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔. 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑟)
DMSE 0.411 0.140 1.510 2.928 0.000
𝑃(𝑌𝑖 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞. 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑟. ) Intercept -0.839 0.100 0.432 -8.423 0.000
𝑃(𝑌𝑖 = 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔. 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑟)
DMSE 1.353 0.104 3.870 13.068 0.000

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 𝑃(𝑌𝑖 = 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑝. 𝑆𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡. ) Intercept -0.731 0.090 0.481 -8.262 0.000
𝑃(𝑌𝑖 = 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔. 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑟)
DMSE 0.733 0,093 2.080 7.869 0.000
𝑃(𝑌𝑖 = 𝐸𝑥𝑝. 𝑆𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡. ) Intercept -1.380 0.111 0.252 -12.453 0.000
𝑃(𝑌𝑖 = 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔. 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑟)
DMSE 0.553 0.115 1.740 4.810 0.000
𝑃(𝑌𝑖 = 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦. 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑟) Intercept -1.924 0.139 0.146 -13.856 0,000
𝑃(𝑌𝑖 = 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔. 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑟) DMSE 0.560 0.144 1.751 3.880 0,000

3.3.2. Digital Media User Types, Digital Media Self-Efficacy, and Academic Performance
For the next step, we modelled academic performance, DMSE and media-user types. We used
stepwise model-building, starting with a model containing only DMSE, successively only media-
user types and finally both at the same time. As was to be expected on the basis of the rather
low effect in the SEM, DMSE does not show notable explanatory power and the effect on
academic performance for this subsample is even smaller than it is for the bigger sample in the
SEM. Additionally, in this case the effect is non-significant. In the second model, the media-user
types do not show any significant effect on academic performance either, just as in the overall
model with both variables. In summary, the two variables for DMSE and media-user types do not
appear to be related with academic performance, either considered individually or together,
therefore, H6b and c are not supported. Thus, there is also no evidence for a possible effect of
DMSE mediated by media-user types, at least not for the present reduced sample and the
modelling applied here via media use categories.

Table 3: Multiple regression analyses of academic performance on DMSE and media-user types
(n = 1146).
DMSE Model Media User Model Full Model
B (SE) B (SE) B (SE)
1.570*** 1.584*** 1.229***
(Intercept)
(0.084) (0.035) (0.088)
-0.018 -0.023
DMSE
(0.021) (0.023)
0.066 0.080
exp. sceptics
(0.080) (0.081)
0.024 0.050
frequent users
(0.058) (0.06)
-0.105 -0.089
inexp. sceptics
(0.062) (0.064)
-0.079 -0.070
medium users
(0.101) (0.101)

12
 -0.074 -0.062
study users
(0.101) (0.102)

𝑅2 0.000 0.000 0.000

(adjusted)

4. Discussion and Conclusion

Based on comprehensive data from four German universities, our multi-stage analyses examined
the relationship between academic performance, two types of goal orientation (mastery and
performance), anxiety in studying, ASE and DMSE, media-user types, gender, and SES.
With its complex and interdisciplinary design, our study contributes to further examining the
intertwined relationship of these different variables and their relation to academic performance.
Concerning the relation of academic performance and ASE, we found mixed results. In line with
Honicke and Broadbent (25), our study indicated a mediated effect of ASE on academic
performance via goal orientation (GO). However, only performance GO was significantly related
to academic performance (H2), leaving the potential indirect effect of ASE on this goal orientation
factor (and not on the theoretically also assumed mastery GO). Nevertheless, there was a
significant positive relationship between ASE and both PGO and MGO (5). In line with other
research (26-28, 31, 51), the results suggest that negative emotions such as anxiety negatively
affect academic goal setting and achievement (H3), and they are in turn connected to ASE (29,
30).
Our study confirms the significant gender-related difference in SE expectations, both regarding
academic tasks (see e.g. 7) and digital media (see e.g. 32, 52). Female students show higher
academic performance on average but at the same time lower values of ASE, they therefore
benefit less from the positive relation between ASE and academic performance.
According to the theoretical assumptions based on Bandura (11), Bourdieu and Passeron (17),
and Lareau (18) (see Hypothesis 5a), we found a significant positive relationship between
parents’ SES and ASE in the data, again confirming the impression that students with higher SES
appear to feel slightly more competent than students with lower SES. While this result
contradicts the rather surprising outcome of Weiser and Riggio (9), it is based on a broad(er)
student population and is in line with the theoretically expected outcome.
Additionally, there is a significant direct link between SES and academic performance, again in
line with the theoretical assumptions (17, 18) and many empirical studies (e.g. 53).
In the case of DMSE (H5b), we assumed no relation to socioeconomic background since the
mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of informal knowledge about institutional rules
cannot equally be applied to DMSE as for ASE. For digital media-related skills and experiences as
well as for DMSE, at least for today’s HE students, these mechanisms are not likely due to the
fast development of new technologies. This hypothesis (5b) is supported by our empirical results.

13
However, a general DMSE scale of this kind has, to our knowledge, not yet been analysed, so this
result is rather explorative in nature and should be confirmed in further empirical studies, in
particular now after the extensive use of digital media during the Covid19 pandemic.
Finally, a significant relationship between DMSE and all media-user types was found (H6a). In
the analysis of academic performance, DMSE, and digital media user type, in our final model,
none of the media-user types was significantly related with academic performance. Furthermore,
there was only a rather small but significant negative relationship between DMSE and academic
performance in the SEM, however, none could be found in the regression analysis for the
reduced sample. This effect in the SEM, if it could be replicated in further analyses, implies that
students with higher trust in their abilities to deal with problems associated with digital media
surprisingly show lower academic performance. One reason for this could be that these
individuals use digital media more frequently for purposes besides studying, which can have a
negative effect on study performance (35, 36). However, this result should be interpreted with
caution as there are indications that this may be a statistical artefact since the link between DMSE
and academic performance seems to be influenced by the other covariates included in the SEM
but not in the regression analyses and in a way that goes beyond the implied (partial) mediation
through the differentiated media-user types. Accordingly, it is advisable to re-address this
question if possible, using a different (longitudinal) data basis, with an additional focus on the
mediation and a potential suppressor effects. Also, a different operationalisation of media-user
types can be considered a pathway for future studies. It would be worthwhile to further
distinguish between study-oriented behaviour and leisure or social networking activities to gain
more insights in the nature of DMSE and its link with academic performance (36).

4.1. Limitations
Although many of the hypothesised relationships were supported by our data analyses, there
were also limitations in this study, some of which were already mentioned above. The assumed
mediated effects are supported by our results except for DMSE and media-user types but should
be confirmed with longitudinal data. Generally, due to the cross-sectional nature of our database,
we can only make statements about correlations and can only assume causality theoretically.
Therefore, all causal assumptions should also be tested with the help of longitudinal data sets.
Another limitation was the non-representational character of the data. Although the sample
was of reasonable size, we cannot generalise the results found for this sample to a German
student population. Additionally, we only used self-reported data. Especially in case of our
academic performance measurements, the resulting variable may be biased. However, since
Kuncel et al. (54) found in their meta-analysis that the reliability of self-reported results is related
to students’ actual school performance, it can be assumed that self-reported grades are
appropriate measures of actual grades for students with good grades but possibly not for those

14
with low grades. In consequence, other measures for students’ academic performance are
needed.

4.2. Conclusion: Theoretical and Practical Implications

Despite its limitations, this study demonstrated that digital media devices and many different
media applications are widely used for various purposes. Separate types of media users were
identified which contributes to further developing empirical research on students’ usage of
digital media, enhancing previous studies on students’ media usage (e.g. 43, 44, 55).
Nevertheless, it would be worthwhile to further examine these types of media users. In a future
step, a comparison of universities in different national contexts could provide relevant insights
into country-specific variation in the relevance of digital media use for success in HE.
Above all, the study was able to connect three different research streams: sociological and
psychological research were interlinked with research on digital media in HE. This interrelation
of different research approaches made it possible to demonstrate how students’ SES and
students’ ASE are related. A similar relation was examined in a qualitative study (18), and has
now been confirmed in a quantitative study. Accordingly, our study contributes to further
theoretical development regarding the relation of students’ socioeconomic background, their SE
and their academic performance.
From a practical point of view, this connection can be used, for instance, by supporting
students’ SE early on in their studies in order to counteract social inequalities (56). In addition to
students from lower SES, female students, in particular, should be addressed in such endeavours
because the present study once again confirmed the gender-related differences.
Beyond that, it was shown that DMSE may influence study performance in a way that, unlike
other non-cognitive factors, is independent of SES. Therefore, including DMSE in future analyses
of HE students’ academic performance seems promising since it represents a contemporary
extension of the traditional attitude and motivation scales, usually used in HE research.
Overall, this study combines research on digital media in HE and the ‘classical’ approaches to
investigating academic performance. In this respect, Bandura’s SCT is extended in two ways:
First, we included digital media usage in the academic context by adding DMSE as a potentially
relevant antecedent for academic performance. Second, we extend SCT by linking it with the
more sociologically-oriented theory of cultural capital. Our results highlight the importance of
considering students’ SES, thus, offering some starting points for further interdisciplinary
research. This research could focus on directly measuring cultural capital instead or in addition
to SES and also include a more in-depth analysis of the relationship between cultural capital and
ASE. In any case, interdisciplinary research in this field of research on academic success and
digital media use in HE appears promising.

15
Acknowledgments
Will be included in final non-blinded manuscript.

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20
A. Additional Tables

Table A.1: Absolute proportions, mean class probabilities and scale means for the six profiles of digital
media usage behaviour and attitudes.
medium inexp. study frequent marginal exp.
users sceptics users users users sceptics
absolute proportions 81 321 84 349 706 143
mean class probabilities 0,05 0,20 0,05 0,21 0,40 0,09
curiosity/interest 3,93 3,85 3,98 4,97 3,16 4,18
usefulness 5,48 5,98 5,38 7,00 5,88 4,99
accessibility 4,14 4,07 3,99 4,39 3,61 3,99
scepticism 3,73 3,94 3,90 3,60 3,82 4,08
university platforms 3,82 3,47 3,77 3,58 3,47 3,34
e-books 3,77 3,29 3,65 3,78 2,79 3,01
study related online tool 2,99 2,32 3,47 2,84 2,20 2,02
media technology 3,32 2,90 3,26 3,60 2,05 3,32
literature databases/research 4,43 3,82 4,61 4,78 4,23 4,49
methods of soc. research tools 3,05 1,00 3,06 2,49 1,36 2,92
programming 2,80 3,12 4,29 3,48 1,00 3,51

Table A.2: Bivariate Pearson Correlation of Factor Values for DMSE, ASE, anxiety, PGO and MGO as well as
Academic Performance and ISEI (asterisk indicate significance levels).
Academic
Perf. DMSE ASE ISEI anxiety PGO MGO
Academic
Perf. 1 -0.03 0.24*** 0.1** -0.26*** 0.21*** 0.17***
DMSE -0.03 1 0.41*** 0.01 -0.08* 0.06* 0.13***
ASE 0.24*** 0.41*** 1 0.05 -0.64*** 0.26*** 0.44***
ISEI 0.1** 0.01 0.05 1 -0.01 0.04 0.04
anxiety -0.26*** -0.08* -0.64*** -0.01 1 -0.07* -0.29***
PGO 0.21*** 0.06* 0.26*** 0.04 -0.07* 1 0.37***
MGO 0.17*** 0.13*** 0.44*** 0.04 -0.29*** 0.37*** 1
Significance codes: ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; * p < 0.05; . p < 0.1.

21
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

5.12 4.93 4.58 4.67 4.81 4.85 5.06 1.61 63.46 6.21 5.92 5.98 5.58 5.67 5.95 6.14

0.61 0.58 0.89 0.66 0.76 0.78 0.63 0.24 -0.15347.27 0.69 0.72 0.69 0.87 0.99 1.03 0.81

EnstUnStdII_w EnstUnStdII_br EnstUnStdII_s EnstUnStdII_kl EnstUnStdII_l EnstUnStdII_ns EnstUnStdII_kr

Sex SES MdEnsSWII_w MdEnsSWII_b MdEnsSWII_s MdEnsSWII_l MdEnsSWII_n MdEnsSWI_kl MdEnsSWI_kr

1.00 1.12 1.20 1.26 1.14 1.01 1.01 -0.26 0.00 -0.66 0.00 1.00 1.01 1.17 1.24 0.95 1.03 1.03

0.39

1
0.00 ASE DMSE 0.00 1

0.96 1.08
1.51
0.47 0.10
0.300.00 -1.02
0.93 1.83

1 0.00 MGO 0.06 EGO-0.05 0.00 1

ANX 0.00 1

1.00 1.16 0.84 0.00 0.12 1.00 1.07-0.11 0.91 1.00 0.69 0.88

EnstUnStdI_n EnstUnStdI_v EnstUnStdI_g Ac_Pr EnstUnStdII_nt EnstUnStdII_bs EnstUnStdII_z EnstUnStdI_b EnstUnStdI_l EnstUnStdI_p

0.59 0.45 0.86 0.49 1.26 1.47 1.85 0.79 2.06 1.03

5.48 5.04 5.62 1.14 4.39 4.97 4.74 3.07 4.22 3.37

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Figure A.1: Illustration of the full SEM including measurement models and residual variances.

22
Table A.3. Mean, standard deviation, and internal consistency measures Cronbach’s Alpha, composite
reliability and average variance extracted (AVE), of the used scales.
Constructs Item Mean Standard Cronbach’s Composite AVE
Deviation alpha Reliability
Anxiety (in studying) ANX_1 3.279 1.905 0.814 0.823 0.613
ANX_2 4.251 1.855
ANX_3 3.562 1.805
Mastery Goal Orientation MGO_1 5.394 1.311 0.836 0.842 0.642
MGO_2 4.940 1.404
MGO_3 5.552 1.282
Performance Goal PGO_1 4.323 1.686 0.755 0.756 0.510
Orientation PGO_2 4.912 1.819
PGO_3 4.672 1.782
ASE ASE_1 4.906 1.262 0.921 0.923 0.633
ASE_2 4.694 1.343
ASE_3 4.323 1.529
ASE_4 4.403 1.490
ASE_5 4.566 1.428
ASE_6 4.627 1.325
ASE_7 4.843 1.278
DMSE DMSE_1 5.195 1.366 0.916 0.917 0.615
DMSE_2 4.912 1.382
DMSE_3 4.801 1.520
DMSE_4 4.338 1.637
DMSE_5 4.726 1.431
DMSE_6 4.898 1.517
DMSE_7 5.088 1.449
ISEI 63.44 18.670
Academic Performance 1.549 0.761

The measures are based on a number of cases of n= 1753 − 1813, depending on the number of missing values for each item.

23
 behavioral
sciences
Article
Effects of a New Soft Skills Metacognition Training Program
on Self-Efficacy and Adaptive Performance
Chantal Joie-La Marle 1, * , François Parmentier 1 , Pierre-Louis Weiss 2 , Martin Storme 3 , Todd Lubart 1
and Xavier Borteyrou 1
Citation: Joie-La Marle, C.;
Parmentier, F.; Weiss, P.-L.; Storme,
M.; Lubart, T.; Borteyrou, X. Effects
of a New Soft Skills Metacognition
Training Program on Self-Efficacy
and Adaptive Performance. Behav.
Sci. 2023, 13, 202. https://doi.org/
10.3390/bs13030202
Academic Editor: Scott D. Lane
Received: 22 January 2023
Revised: 16 February 2023
Accepted: 17 February 2023
Published: 24 February 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13030202
1 LaPEA, Université Paris Cité and Univ Gustave Eiffel, 92100 Boulogne-Billancourt, France
2 Laboratoire Mémoire Cerveau et Cognition, Université Paris Cité, 71 Avenue Edouard Vaillant,
92100 Boulogne-Billancourt, France
3 CNRS, UMR 9221—LEM—Lille Economie Management, IESEG School of Management, Université Lille,
59000 Lille, France
* Correspondence: chantal.joielamarle@gmail.com
Abstract: Although soft skills training is called for by many scholars and managers, empirical
studies on concrete training programs are scarce and do not always have the methodological rigor
that is necessary to draw meaningful conclusions about their impact. In the present research, we
investigate the effects of a new soft skills metacognition training program on self-efficacy and adaptive
performance. To test these effects, we conducted an experiment with a sample of employees of a large
firm (n = 180). The experiment included pre- and post-measurements and a control condition. The
results suggested that participating in the training led to an increase in soft skills metacognition, self-
efficacy, and four dimensions of adaptive performance, compared to a control condition. Mediation
analyses suggested that an increase in soft skills metacognition led to an increase in self-efficacy,
which led, in turn, to an increase in adaptive performance. Theoretical and practical implications are
discussed, as well as limitations.
Keywords: soft skills; professional training; metacognition; self-efficacy; adaptive performance
1. Introduction
Soft skills are commonly defined as transversal and non-technical skills [1–3]. The
non-technical nature of soft skills was highlighted since the emergence of this term [4] and
this characteristic has been remarkably consensual ever since) [5,6]. Since the introduction
of the concept in the literature, scholars and practitioners have considered soft skills to
be an important asset at work and beyond for several reasons [4]. First, soft skills have
been shown to contribute to individual health, success, and well-being, as well as collective
progress [2,7,8]. In a work context, soft skills are considered as crucial in the context
of globalization and change in the work environment. In an ever-changing world, that
requires an important plasticity in terms of skills [9,10], the transversality of soft skills is an
outstanding asset [3,11–14]. Nevertheless, soft skills cannot be considered as synonymous
with transversal skills that encompass technical skills used in a large range of contexts, jobs
and fields, such as IT skills and numeracy [15,16].
Soft skills contribute to performance in the workplace, which is why employers
consider them as highly desirable [1–3,13,14,17–19]. For example, soft skills play a decisive
role in managerial outcomes and success attainment, especially when risk management [20]
and project management implementations [21–23] are involved in the tasks. The major
relevance of soft skills as management success factors has been recognized in many work
contexts, even in so called “hard skills” domains such as IT [24,25]. They are viewed as
particularly essential in human centered management and leadership [26,27].
In spite of their importance, soft skills are also considered to be underdeveloped in
higher education, creating a gap between employers’ expectations and employees’ acknowl-
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 2 of 21

edged soft skills [2,3,14,15,17–19,28–31]. The development of skills is thus considered a

priority to foster employability [13,14,32–35]. As soft skills may contribute to many positive
outcomes in today’s world, their development and effective implementation appears to be
a crucial matter, related to achievement and psychological capital at work. In the present
paper, we investigate the effectiveness of a new soft skills training program that targets
soft skills metacognition. We investigate the extent to which the program has effects that
extend to self-efficacy and adaptive performance.

1.1. The Challenges of Training Soft Skills

Research on the development of training modules to foster soft skills faces important
challenges. A first challenge relates to the way soft skills should be trained, notably because
of what could be called the “transferability challenge”. Many scholars have expressed
skepticism concerning the very possibility of training soft skills. First, the transversal
property of soft skills raises questions about the possibility to train these skills as such [36].
For example, some scholars have suggested training soft skills through a specific task or
context, to foster transferability to real-life settings [12,37,38]. However, even with contex-
tualized training programs, there remains a doubt about the transferability of soft skills
training, because implementing soft skills in real-life conditions can be complex [38,39].
Consequently, soft skills training might not have any observable effect on important work
outcomes such as performance.
Another concern is related to the cost of the time of training soft skills. Soft skills
training usually takes the form of long-term programs [39,40], and uses experiential modes
of training, such as mentoring [37] or virtual reality [41]. Therefore, some scholars raised the
issue of balancing costs and benefits of soft skills training [38]. Especially when considering
that the effectiveness of such training programs depends on external factors. For example,
Cornford [42] and Hurrell et al. [43] found that soft skills performance and development
also depends on contextual and organizational determinants, such as autonomy or support;
consequently, individual soft skills training may not be a sufficient means to develop soft
skills. Short and effective training programs might not be easy to create.
Other challenges faced by scholars interested in developing soft skills are more method-
ological. For example, assessing soft skills can be challenging [13,28,38,44–46]. The diffi-
culty to assess soft skills has been acknowledged since the origin of the concept [4], and is
sometimes considered as what defines soft skills [47,48]. To remedy this difficulty, some
scholars have proposed to use behavioral scales and assessment centers [4,49,50]. However,
this type of assessment is typically expensive and time-consuming [48]. Instead, soft skills
training studies generally rely on ad hoc measures, which do not always have satisfactory
psychometric properties [40,51–53].
In sum, soft skills training is a subject that deserves to be investigated, due to the
growing importance of soft skills in the world of work, their transversal value and the gap
between employers’ expectations and employees’ estimated level [2,19,32]. A major goal for
enterprises, employees, and universities is to find a relatively easy way to train soft skills
that would allow transferability from the training program to specific work contexts in such
a way that it has measurable effects on work outcomes [5]. Nevertheless, research on ways
to train soft skills remains scarce because of the methodological challenges described above,
and when studies exist, they often have methodological limitations such as the absence of
measurement before the training [40,52,53] or the absence of a control group to provide a
baseline allowing a true measure of the effect of the training program [40,41,51,53,54].

1.2. A New Approach to Training Soft Skills

Our aim with this paper is to contribute to bridging the gap in the literature on soft
skills training by developing and validating a relatively frugal training program that would
have observable effects on important work outcomes such as self-efficacy and adaptive
performance. To circumvent the core problem of transferability, we propose to target the
development of metacognition concerning soft skills’ existence, definition, implementa-
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 3 of 21

tion, and value [52,55]. In other words, we propose an intervention aimed at developing
metacognitive knowledge on soft skills, moving from implicit to explicit knowledge.
Metacognition is a concept introduced by [56] which has since been widely studied
in different areas of psychology including experimental and cognitive psychology [57].
Metacognition, defined as “cognition about cognition” [58] is commonly considered as a
multidimensional construct divided into knowledge of cognition and regulation of cogni-
tion [59]. In the present research, we focus on metacognitive knowledge, which includes
declarative knowledge—that is, the ability to formally define a given skill—procedural
knowledge—that is, knowing how to implement a given skill—and conditional knowledge—
that is, knowing the circumstances under which a skill is useful [60]. Metacognitive knowl-
edge is indeed an essential dimension of metacognition that is closely linked to the activa-
tion of skills [61] and feeds the processes of metacognitive regulation [62]. Metacognition
malleability has been widely established as well as the possibility to enhance metacognition
using training procedures [59,63,64]. Given the impact of metacognition on performance in
different professional and educational fields [65–68], training metacognition appears as a
major means to enhance soft skills, particularly when complexity, novelty and adaptability
are at stake [69].
In the present research, we define soft skills metacognition as metacognitive knowl-
edge about soft skills—that is, one’s knowledge about soft skills definition, the way a
person practically implements soft skills, and the relevant circumstances in which the
individual decides to implement them. The importance of training soft skills metacogni-
tion derives from the implicit dimension of soft skills, which has been highlighted in the
prior literature [12,17,30,38]. More precisely, soft skills can be acquired and implemented
implicitly, that is, through experience and without requiring any formal teaching [70,71].
This implicit property of soft skills is well documented for different soft skills, such as
emotional regulation [72], social cognition [73–76] decision making, notably in complex
and urgent situations [73,77] and emotional intelligence and creativity [78]. As it is the case
for other implicit skills [66,78–82], soft skills’ explicitation is proposed to improve perfor-
mance [14,19,30,31,55]. Indeed, the conscious identification of one’s own soft skills and
their understanding appear to be a prerequisite for the development of soft skills [30,52];
enhancing metacognition of soft skills appears to be essential for self-assessment and the
implementation of effective self-regulation mechanisms in soft skills development.
A training approach aimed at developing soft skills metacognition would overcome
the difficulties currently faced in the soft skills training literature that we listed above. First,
it would represent a frugal way to train soft skills, as it could rely on existing experience
to support participants’ metacognition. Second, the metacognition of soft skills and their
transversality could promote transferability, by convincing participants of their relevance
in job contexts as well as the capacity to improve them, as highlighted by a literature
review [83]. This could, in turn, constitute a contribution to reduce the soft skills gap:
(1) by optimizing the level of implementation of soft skills [19,66,78,81], (2) by valuing
them, which could support the motivation to develop them, and by enabling managers and
employees to acknowledge more precisely the actual soft skills level at stake in professional
missions. The metacognition of soft skills among managers and employees could therefore
appear to be a prerequisite for their optimal evaluation and development [43].
In the present research, we aim to conduct an experiment to test the effectiveness
of a soft skills training program targeting metacognition. In the experiment, we aim to
compare a group of participants who followed a soft skills metacognition training program
(experimental condition) with a group of participants who did not (baseline condition).
In addition, our design includes a pre- and a post-treatment measurement to control for
potential pre-existing differences across conditions. Our main hypothesis is that the soft
skills metacognition training increases soft skills metacognition compared to a control
condition (H1). To show that the effect of the training module does not only concern soft
skills metacognition but also other important work outcomes, we study the effects of our
training module on self-efficacy and adaptive performance.
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 4 of 21

1.3. Effects on Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy, central to Bandura’s social cognitive theory, refers to a self-appraisal
of efficacy, defined as “how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with
prospective situations” [84]. Self-efficacy has been primarily conceptualized as specific to a
given task; nevertheless, Bandura noted that “once established, enhanced self-efficacy tends
to generalize to other situations” [85–88]. General self-efficacy is now used in numerous
research studies in various fields [89–93], and its relevance has been particularly observed
at work [94], as well as activities requiring multiple behaviors simultaneously, which is the
case of complex tasks involving adaptation [89]. For both these reasons, training targeting self-
efficacy has been developed in the literature and appears as a key variable in employment [95].
We propose that the development of metacognition and particularly metacognitive
knowledge of soft skills may enhance self-efficacy for different reasons. First, because soft
skills are often implicit, the way they contribute to performance is poorly known by lay
people [73,86,96,97]; thus, raising metacognition about one’s soft skills could increase the
perception of one’s capacities and, consequently, self-efficacy [66,69,78,85,86,94,98–100].
Second, because soft skills are transversal, their mastery can be useful in many situations,
which should lead to an increase in general self-efficacy [14,85]. Consequently, we hypothe-
size that training soft skills metacognition will lead to an increase in self-efficacy—mediated
by post-training soft skills metacognition—compared to a control condition (H2).

1.4. Effects on Adaptive Performance

Adaptation is considered as an essential skill in the 21st century, characterized as
Volatile, Uncertain, Complex, and Ambiguous (VUCA), [101,102]. Adaptability and its
link with performance at work have given rise to a growing literature in the previous
decades [103,104]. In the wake of change accelerations in firms’ environment, employees
are required to cope with resistances, difficulties, and stress induced by transformations.
Progressively, tools and concepts have flourished to describe, conceptualize, and assess asso-
ciated skills such as agility [105,106], individual and behavioral adaptability [107], manage-
rial coping [108], and openness to changes [109]. Among concepts derived from research on
organizational and individual adaptation, adaptive performance appears to be among the
most scrutinized [110–114]. This concept, investigated extensively in the literature [110–117],
can be defined as “the proficiency with which an individual alters his or her behavior in
response to the demands of a new task, event, situation, or environmental constraints” [118].
Adaptive performance has a strong relationship with coping, as it contributes to adapta-
tion and resilience when faced with novelty [107,113,118]. However, it is more related with the
world of work, because it considers behaviors as factors of performance [110,113]. As a result,
adaptive performance is related to general performance and productivity, both at the indi-
vidual and the collective levels [103,104,107,113], and to other positive outcomes, such as job
satisfaction, lifelong learning, teamwork, customer-oriented practices, etc. [107,115,118–120].
Some observations may suggest a direct link between raising metacognition on soft
skills and the increase of adaptive performance. Indeed, soft skills are often mentioned
in research on adaptive performance, and named “adaptive skills” [2,13,19]. Conversely,
adaptive performance includes the use of several skills, which are considered as soft
skills, including stressful situation management, creative problem solving, tolerance of
uncertainty and unpredictability, and interpersonal skills [8,115,118,121]. Following the
impact of metacognition on performance as previously developed, the increase of soft skills
metacognition can contribute to the development of adaptive performance [19,122], by
enhancing the performance of soft skills implementation.
Additionally, soft skills metacognition may contribute to adaptive performance by
enlarging soft skills flexible regulation facing novel and unpredictable contexts. Metacogni-
tion about soft skills indeed focuses people’s attention and interest on implicit behaviors
and reactions linked with soft skills, enlarging their possible regulation [123,124]. Explicit
regulation of implicit mechanisms has been shown to be particularly important for adaptive
control of behavior [125] to increase flexible responses to novel and non-routine tasks [126].
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 5 of 21

Increasing consciousness of implicit processes at stake with soft skills, especially socio-
affective soft skills linked with social cognition, optimizes their mode of expression in
unexpected situations [73] and decision making [125]. Thus, we hypothesize that training
soft skills metacognition will lead to an increase in adaptive performance through induced
soft skills metacognition increase, compared to a control condition (H3).
Finally, self-efficacy has a strong impact on adaptive performance, which is potentially
causal, as proposed in a recent literature review [117]. Consistent with this prediction,
general self-efficacy has been shown to be related to coping at work [108,127,128], which is
conceptually close to some dimensions of adaptive performance, such as handling emer-
gencies and crisis situations [107], successful adaptation to uncertain and unpredictable
situations [89]. Given this relationship between self-efficacy and adaptive performance and
the fact that raising metacognition on soft skills may have a positive impact on self-efficacy,
as explained before, we can hypothesize that the effect of raising metacognition about
soft skills on adaptive performance will be mediated by self-efficacy. We hypothesize that
training soft skills will lead to an increase in adaptive performance compared to a control
condition, and that this effect is mediated by self-efficacy (H4).

1.5. Model Summary

The relationships between our variables and our hypothesis are summarized in the
following model (Figure 1 below).

Figure 1. Model for a Soft Skills Awareness Intervention.

2. Method
2.1. Participants
Participants were 180 employees of an international railway group involved in a global
organizational transformation during the research period. Among them, 148 attended a
training which consisted of a workshop concerning soft skills, and 32 took part in the
baseline group described below. All job categories and managerial levels were represented.
Participants had diverse types of occupations: train driving and trains driving management,
infrastructure building or engineering, passenger flow management, human resources
functions and management, central management, etc. Participants were recruited mostly
through voluntary participation and due to organizational operational constraints, were
not randomly assigned to the various experimental conditions. Our design must thus be
considered as a quasi-experiment. Note that the two groups were comparable in terms of
demographic characteristics, as well as prior soft skills metacognition, self-efficacy, and
adaptive performance, which ensures inter-group comparability (see Table 1).
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 6 of 21

Table 1. Between-groups comparison for demographic variables and prior levels of soft skills
metacognition, self-efficacy and adaptive performance.

Soft Skills
Baseline Group Metacognition Kruskal-Wallis
n = 32 Training Group Test
n = 148
Average: 42.28 Average: 40.68
χ2 (1) = 1.19
Age SD: 7.67 SD: 8.68
p = 0.28
NA: 0 NA: 2
Average: 14.68 Average: 15.31
χ2 (1) = 0.24
Tenure SD: 7.21 SD: 7.91
p = 0.88
NA: 1 NA: 8
Manag.: 19 Manag.: 93
χ2 (1) = 0.26
Manager Non-man.: 13 Non-man.: 52
p = 0.61
NA: 0 NA: 3
F: 14 F: 84
χ2 (1) = 1.75
Sex M: 18 M: 64
p = 0.18
NA: 0 NA: 0
Average: 3.31 Average: 3.22
χ2 (1) = 1.50
Prior self-efficacy SD: 0.33 SD: 0.37
p = 0.22
NA: 0 NA: 0
Average: 2.49 Average: 2.29
χ2 (1) = 2.43
Prior soft skills metacognition SD: 0.57 SD: 0.65
p = 0.12
NA: 0 NA: 0
Average: 5.31 Average: 5.14
χ2 (1) = 0.81
Prior adaptive Performance—Creativity SD: 0.81 SD: 0.91
p = 0.37
NA: 0 NA: 0
Average: 5.31 Average: 5.21
χ2 (1) = 1.27
Prior adaptive Performance—Reactivity SD: 0.79 SD: 0.80
p = 0.26
NA: 0 NA: 0
Average: 5.91 Average: 5.76
χ2 (1) = 1.56
Prior adaptive Performance—Training and learning effort SD: 0.79 SD: 0.75
p = 0.21
NA: 0 NA: 0
Average: 4.93 Average: 5.03
χ2 (1) = 0.46
Prior adaptive Performance—Interpersonal Adaptability SD: 0.95 SD: 1.07
p = 0.50
NA: 0 NA: 0
Average: 5.66 Average: 5.50
χ2 (1) = 0.72
Prior adaptive Performance—Managing work stress SD: 0.84 SD: 0.87
p = 0.40
NA: 0 NA: 0
Note. NA stands for Not Available and refers to missing values.

2.2. Experimental Design and Procedure

As this research examines the effect of a soft skills metacognition training module
on a series of psychological constructs, we designed two conditions to highlight this
effect (see Table 2 for an overview of the two conditions). The first one (referred to as
“Baseline condition”) is a set of diverse corporate meetings, which can be considered as
usual professional activity. More specifically, the Baseline condition consisted of corporate
meetings organized in the railway company involving interpersonal interactions in small
groups, and discussions about hard skills of different entities of the firm. They can be
considered as usual professional activities within this firm and their themes varied. They
always linked the participants’ professional experience with strategic issues for this railway
group. As a result, this condition appears to be very similar to the soft skills metacognition
training in terms of structure, length, and solicitation of self-efficacy determinants.
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 7 of 21

Table 2. Sequences for each experimental condition and respective time.

Baseline Soft Skills Metacognition Training

Measures pre-condition (self-efficacy, adaptive performance, metacognition of soft skills)
5 min
Introduction
10 min
Descriptive knowledge of soft skills
30 min
Conditional and procedural knowledge of soft skills (Quiz)
Corporate meetings (usual professional
15–25 min
activity)
Deepening the 3 dimensions of metacognitive knowledge (autobiographical
1 h 30 to 2 h
assessment and narrative about soft skills implementation)
35–50 min
Measures post-condition
5 min

The second condition (referred to as “Soft skills metacognition training”) was a single
soft skills workshop designed to optimally develop metacognition on soft skills. A 2-h
single workshop provided feasibility of data collection although employees were very
busy with their operational functions in a transformational context. It also ensured the
attribution of the measured effect to our intervention: the impact of a training consisting of
several workshops could also have differed according to participants’ very heterogeneous
work contexts.
Soft skills workshop facilitators followed a detailed, standardized set of instructions
to lead the different sequences. The soft skills metacognition training was presented as
a soft skills workshop aimed at developing knowledge and acknowledgement of these
skills, in relation to their essential contribution to adaptation in the workplace. The soft
skills training established the explicit value of soft skills execution in adaptive contexts.
The beginning of this training focused on a specific range of soft skills chosen to fit with
the participants’ transformational context and the culture of the firm. The chosen soft
skills were cognitive ones, such as intuitive and divergent thinking, conative ones, such
as ambiguity tolerance and perseverance, interpersonal ones, such as communication and
collaboration, and emotional ones, such as empathy or stress regulation. The selected
set of soft skills and their formal definitions were presented. This sequence therefore
started focusing on the descriptive part of metacognitive knowledge concerning soft skills.
To develop trainees’ conditional knowledge of soft skills in adaptive circumstances, we
asked them to participate in a serious game where they had to perform collectively a
contextual recognition of the different soft skills at stake in a story. The third sequence of
the training consisted of a quiz dedicated to deepening the conditional knowledge of soft
skills and addressing the procedural dimension of soft skills metacognitive knowledge.
Participants were then required to link their actual professional experience to the panel
of soft skills examined in the workshop in a pitch, to focus on the mastery of the three
dimensions of soft skills metacognitive knowledge, specifically on the precise awareness of
the circumstances and modalities in which soft skills are used in each person’s professional
tasks. The material used included a booklet defining the soft skills discussed, and cards
showing their definitions and displayed on a tray to facilitate pedagogical visualization by
all participants at any time during the workshop. These soft skills cards were also used to
support the participants’ vote at the end of the workshop for the soft skills identified in
their colleagues’ pitch; tokens were provided to the players so that they could carry out
this vote by placing them on the different cards. The workshop material also includes quiz
cards that are distributed in the first phase of soft skills recognition.
Participants who benefited from the soft skills metacognition training were clustered
in 12 different soft skills workshop sessions, meaning that 15 participants took part in each
session on average. These workshops have been homogenized by implementing a training
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 8 of 21

process for the facilitators, governed by a 4-step process: first the future facilitator takes
part in the workshop as a participant, then he/she attends the workshop as an observer
of a senior facilitator, participates in the animation of the workshop in pair with a senior
facilitator and finally conducts the workshop under the supervision of a senior facilitator.
Regardless of the condition, participants gave their consent and were asked to com-
plete an anonymous self-administered paper-and-pencil questionnaire, just before and
just after their participation. The questionnaires included the assessment of variables
reported in the current study, as well as other data not reported here but available in an
open repository available at https://osf.io/3s4bm/files/ (accessed on 21 January 2023).

2.3. Measures
Soft skills metacognition scale. We assessed the development of metacognition on
soft skills using a purposely designed scale. The scale comprises 3 × 5 items, measuring
the 3 dimensions of metacognitive knowledge (declarative, conditional, procedural) [59,60]
for 5 different soft skills, chosen for their functional diversity, their importance in the pro-
fessional activities and their different degree of prior metacognitive mastery, as measured
on a panel of trainees during the first sessions of the soft skills metacognition training: com-
munication (interpersonal skill—high prior metacognitive knowledge), mental flexibility
(cognitive skill—low prior metacognitive knowledge), ambiguity tolerance (cognitive skill—
low prior metacognitive knowledge), openness (conative skill—high prior metacognitive
knowledge), cognitive empathy (emotional skill—average prior metacognitive knowl-
edge) [129]. For declarative metacognition, the item used was “I know when and how to
use [the soft skill X]”; for procedural, “I know how to implement [the skill]”; for conditional,
“I know when and why use [the skill]”. Participants responded on a four-point rating scale
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The observed scores range between
1 and 4.
The structure of responses showed that: (1) for each soft skill, measures of procedural,
conditional, and descriptive metacognition were strongly inter-correlated; (2) the global rat-
ings of metacognition for each soft skill were strongly inter-correlated. These observations
thus suggest a hierarchical structure with a unique second-order factor; this model was
tested and appeared to fitF data, whereas more complex models produced Heywood cases:
χ2 (170) = 95.54, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, SRMR = 0.05, RMSEA = 0.05. Internal consistency
was also satisfactory with an observed Cronbach’s α of 0.92. We therefore considered that
this scale allows us to obtain a unique soft skills metacognition score.
Validity studies were conducted to support the use of this new scale. First, a concurrent
and discriminant validity study was run, based on 70 participants. The analysis revealed
moderate correlations between our metacognitive subscales (declarative, conditional, proce-
dural) and the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory [60], respectively, Spearman’s $ = 0.29,
p = 0.02; $ = 0.24, p = 0.04 and $ = 0.32, p < 0.01. We also measured the link between each
soft skill subscale in our soft skills metacognition scale and a psychometric test measuring
its auto-evaluated performance, as metacognition in a given domain is correlated to per-
formance in the same domain [100,130]. More specifically, we found that, as expected, the
Communication subscale was correlated with the Workplace communication scale [131],
$ = 0.43, p < 0.001. The Mental Flexibility subscale did not significantly correlate with the
Cognitive Flexibility Inventory [132], $ = 0.08, p = 0.53. This result can be explained by
the specificity of mental flexibility inventories, that weakly correlate with neuropsycho-
logical approaches to mental flexibility. This could suggest that mental flexibility includes
dimensions that are apprehended differently by the scales that measure this variable [133].
Finally, there was a correlation between the Empathy subscale of the metacognition scale
and the Empathy subscale of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index [134], $ = 0.44, p < 0.001.
Second, a study of content validity involving six researchers in cognitive and work
psychology revealed a good adequation and formulation of items to measure the 3 facets
of metacognition. Concerning the selected skills panel, two of them were not deemed
essential by experts: openness and tolerance of ambiguity. This fact induces the decision
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 9 of 21

to discard these two skills from the global soft skills metacognition score. The other skills
were all judged important or useful to detect metacognition on soft skills, which leads us to
keep them as relevant items.
Measurement invariance checks showed a time and experimental condition configural
invariance for the resulting scale after openness and tolerance of ambiguity discard.
Considering all these elements, we can conclude that our soft skills metacognition
scale has satisfactory psychometric properties.
Self-efficacy. We assessed self-efficacy before and after the condition using a self-
reported self-efficacy scale. The General Self-Efficacy scale is a ten-item scale that assesses
generalized self-efficacy, especially regarding adaptation and coping abilities [89]. Due to
comprehension issues with the existing French version of the General Self-Efficacy Scale,
the original English version was retranslated in French using a back translation process.
A sample item was “Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen
situations”. Participants responded on a four-point rating scale ranging from 1 (totally
untrue) to 4 (totally true) to the items of the General Self-Efficacy Scale. The observed scores
range between 1 and 4.
We checked the structural validity of the self-efficacy scale using a Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA), following the recommendations of Schumacker and Lomax [135]. The CFA
revealed a good monofactorial structure: χ2 (70) = 59.10, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.93, SRMR = 0.05,
RMSEA = 0.06. The reliability was satisfactory with an observed Cronbach’s α of 0.85.
We also checked for measurement invariance checks based on the method of Satorra
and Bentler [136]. We found a strict time and condition invariance for this scale, when
comparing the factor structure between measurements before and after the session, in the
soft skills metacognition training and in the baseline condition. This method of measure-
ment invariance compares the fit of diverse models in a confirmatory factor analysis across
diverse groups (here, before and after the session, as well as experimental and baseline con-
ditions). The first degree of measurement invariance, called configural, is verified when the
four groups have the same factorial structure. The second degree, metric invariance, adds
to the latter model the equality of item loadings across groups; this model did not show
any significant decrease in fit indices, as compared to the former. The third degree, scalar
invariance, is based on a model constraining both items’ loadings and intercepts; this third
model did not display a significant change in fit. Finally, strict measurement invariance
was verified by showing the good fit of a model constraining items loadings, intercepts,
and residuals across groups. Thus, each step of measurement invariance (configural, met-
ric, scalar, strict) was validated through the observation of fit indices on corresponding
constrained models, which was not significantly impaired at each step. This means that the
self-efficacy scores derived from the scale can be compared across time and conditions.
Adaptive performance. We assessed adaptive performance using the French version
of the Adaptive Performance Scale [113]. The adaptive performance scale is composed of
19 items measuring five dimensions of behavioral adjustment to work conditions or new
situations. A sample item was “I do not hesitate to go against established ideas to propose
an innovative solution”. Participants responded on a seven-point rating scale ranging from
1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The observed scores range between 2 and 7. We
used the same criteria of CFA to assess the factor validity of this scale, which appeared to
be good: χ2 (284) = 271.42, CFI = 0.89, TLI = 0.87, SRMR = 0.07, RMSEA = 0.06. Internal
consistency was also calculated for each subscale and was found to be satisfactory with
observed Cronbach’s α of 0.81, 0.79, 0.79, 0.83, 0.77, for, respectively, creativity, reactivity,
training and learning effort, interpersonal adaptability, and managing work stress.
Measurement Invariance checks showed a strict time and experimental condition
invariance for this scale, using the procedure described previously. Additionally, due to the
proximity of self-efficacy and adaptive performance items, a confirmatory factor analysis
was run to check that the scales load on two separate sets of factors. It resulted in good fit
indexes: χ2 (724) = 585.50, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.92, SRMR = 0.06, RMSEA = 0.04.
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 10 of 21

2.4. Data Analytic Strategy

For our main analyses, we relied on the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) approach.
In this framework, the post-measurement of the variable of interest is regressed on both
the treatment variable (baseline vs. treatment) and the pre-measurement of the variable of
interest. As soft skills metacognition workshops, though standardized, were facilitated by
different persons, our analyses considered the effect of this clustering by modeling random
effects, using linear mixed models. Outliers were detected using Q-Q plots and several tests
of the “DHARMa” R package [137]. Using this package, we checked model assumptions
such as the normality of residuals, the homoscedasticity through graphical exploration
(as no test was available for linear mixed models), the independence of residuals using a
Durbin–Watson test (“car” R package) [138], and the absence of multicollinearity, using VIF
from the “car” R package. Finally, post-hoc power analyses were conducted, using “simr”
R package [139] and showed good power (>80%), except when indicated.
To increase the power of our analyses, data imputation was performed using R “miss-
Forest” package (v. 1.4), which uses random forest algorithms to estimate missing data [140].
The number of missing observations for each variable ranged between 0 and 8 (i.e., 4.44%),
globally resulting in less than 1% of missing data. After imputation, the variable-wise
out-of-bag (OOB) error was controlled, to ensure estimation reliability. The out-of-bag error
corresponds to the prediction error of the algorithm, as evaluated on observations that
have not been used to train it: it is thus a measure of the quality of imputation. Self-efficacy
imputations showed a low error rate (0.16 < MSE < 0.36) and an acceptable for adaptive
performance (0.52 < MSE < 0.88); conversely, age was more uncertain (MSE = 49.66) as well
as tenure (MSE = 49.31)—they were consequently not imputed. This manipulation led to the
imputation of less than 1% of total data, in line with recommendations of the literature [141].
Data were analyzed using R for all analyses (R v. 4.0.3; RStudio V. 1.4.1103). Addition-
ally, Linear Mixed Effect Models were used, due to the nested design of this experiment—
“lmerTest” R package [142]. Data and analysis code are available at https://osf.io/3s4bm/
files/ (accessed on 21 January 2023).

3. Results
Descriptive statistics are reported in Table 3.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of the main variables.

Variables n M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1. Soft skills Metacognition—Pre-condition 180 2.33 0.64 —
2. Soft skills
180 3.25 0.52 0.42 —
Metacognition—Post-condition
3. Self-efficacy—Pre-condition 180 3.24 0.36 0.22 0.21 —
4. Self-efficacy—Post-condition 180 3.35 0.35 0.19 0.37 0.70 —
5. Adaptive performance—Dimension
180 5.17 0.89 0.22 0.16 0.50 0.36 —
1—Pre-condition
6. Adaptive performance—Dimension
180 5.47 0.90 0.25 0.29 0.42 0.48 0.75 —
1—Post-condition
7. Adaptive performance—Dimension
180 5.23 0.80 0.20 0.18 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.35 —
2—Pre-condition
8. Adaptive performance—Dimension
180 5.62 0.75 0.05 0.26 0.42 0.58 0.28 0.42 0.70 —
2—Post-condition
9. Adaptive performance—Dimension
180 5.78 0.76 0.32 0.36 0.36 0.43 0.40 0.39 0.40 0.38 —
3—Pre-condition
10. Adaptive performance—Dimension
180 6.06 0.70 0.26 0.38 0.26 0.44 0.19 0.37 0.24 0.47 0.70 —
3—Post-condition
11. Adaptive performance—Dimension
180 5.01 1.05 0.37 0.30 0.25 0.25 0.37 0.41 0.37 0.32 0.51 0.39 —
4—Pre-condition
12. Adaptive performance—Dimension
180 5.34 0.97 0.18 0.29 0.15 0.27 0.32 0.44 0.31 0.41 0.35 0.43 0.77 —
4—Post-condition
13. Adaptive performance—Dimension
180 5.53 0.87 0.30 0.21 0.44 0.45 0.37 0.41 0.49 0.41 0.52 0.38 0.42 0.29 —
5—Pre-condition
14. Adaptive performance—Dimension
180 5.81 0.85 0.14 0.23 0.44 0.51 0.25 0.39 0.38 0.47 0.45 0.54 0.28 0.30 0.76 —
5—Post-condition
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 11 of 21

Main Analyses
We tested first the effect of the training program on the development of soft skills
metacognition (H1). Consistent with the ANCOVA approach, we regressed post-condition
soft skills metacognition on the dummy-coded training (vs. baseline) variable and on
pre-condition soft skills metacognition. Random intercepts and slopes were modelled for
each workshop series number because participants were nested in different workshops
facilitated by different people. In line with H1, we found a positive effect of our training
program on post-condition soft skills metacognition, t(3.01) = 6.73, b = 0.76, p = 0.006,
suggesting that the training program increased soft skills metacognition.
Then, we proceeded to test the effect of the training program on the development of
self-efficacy (H2). For this analysis, we regressed post-condition self-efficacy on the dummy
coded training (vs. baseline) variable and on pre-condition self-efficacy. Random intercepts
and slopes were modelled to account for possible variability across workshop groups. In
line with H2, we found a positive effect of our training program on post-condition self-
efficacy, t(139.23) = 4.50, b = 0.21, p < 0.001, suggesting that the training program increased
the level of self-efficacy of participants.
We relied on the three-step joint-significance method described by MacKinnon et al. [143]
and Yzerbyt et al. [144] to test whether soft skills metacognition mediates the effect of the
training on self-efficacy. Consistent with our mediation hypothesis, we found that (1) the
training predicted post-condition self-efficacy, (2) that the training predicted post-condition
soft skills metacognition, (3) introducing post-condition soft skills metacognition in the
model predicting that post-condition self-efficacy reduces the effect of training, although
the effect remained significant, t(150.99) = 2.13, b = 0.13, p = 0.03. This suggests that the
mediation is partial, which partially supports H2.
With our third and fourth hypotheses, we expected an effect of the training program on
the development of adaptive performance. For this analysis, we regressed each dimension
of post-condition adaptive performance on the dummy coded training (vs. baseline)
variable and on each dimension of pre-condition adaptive performance. Like in previous
analyses, random intercepts and slopes were modelled to account for possible variability
across workshop groups. The results are summarized in Table 4. Consistent with H3 and
H4, we found positive effects of soft skills metacognition training on each dimension of
adaptive performance, except for the Stress Management dimension where the effect was
positive but only marginally significant.
Note that we did not find support for the mediating role of soft skills metacognition in
the effect of the training on adaptive performance (H3). Indeed, introducing post-condition
soft skills metacognition in the model predicting post-condition adaptive performance
did not reduce the effect of training for any of the dimensions of adaptive performance.
Instead, we found that self-efficacy played a mediating role in the effect of the training
on adaptive performance (H4). These results are summarized in Table 5. The three-step
joint-significance approach suggested that introducing post-condition self-efficacy reduced
the effect of the training on each dimension of adaptive performance. This finding supports
H4 in which we hypothesized that self-efficacy would mediate the effect of the training on
adaptive performance.

Table 4. Outputs of models predicting post-condition adaptive performance sub-scores based on

prior adaptive performance and experimental condition.

Adaptive Performance Dimension Effect of Prior Adaptive Performance Experimental Condition

t(173.48) = 15.98 t(149.05) = 3.21
Creative Problem Solving b = 0.77 b = 0.36
p < 0.001 p = 0.002
t(176.96) = 13.85 t(126.47) = 3.61
Reactivity b = 0.68 b = 0.37
p < 0.001 p < 0.001
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 12 of 21

Table 4. Cont.

Adaptive Performance Dimension Effect of Prior Adaptive Performance Experimental Condition

t(175.98) = 13.57 t(129.49) = 2.82
Interpersonal Adaptability b = 0.66 b = 0.28
p < 0.001 p = 0.006
t(175.49) = 16.09 t(116.79) = 2.66
Training and Learning b = 0.70 b = 0.32
p < 0.001 p = 0.009
t(177.00) = 15.82 t(146.20) = 1.84
Working stress management b = 0.74 b = 0.20
p < 0.001 p = 0.07
Note. Experimental condition is dummy coded: 1 for soft skills metacognition training, 0 for Baseline. Tests in
bold are significant.

Table 5. Outputs of models predicting post-condition adaptive performance sub-scores based on

pre-condition adaptive performance, pre- and post-condition soft skills metacognition, pre- and
post-condition self-efficacy and experimental condition.

Adaptive Performance Post-Condition Soft Skills Post-Condition

Experimental Condition
Dimension Metacognition Self-Efficacy
t(172.87) = 0.44 t(173.00) = 4.26 t(155.30) = 1.32
Creative Problem Solving b = 0.05 b = 0.74 b = 0.19
p = 0.66 p < 0.001 p = 0.19
t(172.71) = 0.63 t(173.00) = 4.99 t(145.20) = 1.25
Reactivity b = 0.06 b = 0.77 b = 0.16
p = 0.53 p < 0.001 p = 0.21
t(170.84) = 0.47 t(171.90) = 2.98 t(156.93) = 1.07
Interpersonal Adaptability b = 0.05 b = 0.47 b = 0.14
p = 0.63 p = 0.003 p = 0.29
t(171.45) = 0.72 t(171.36) = 2.34 t(146.57) = 0.69
Training and Learning b = 0.09 b = 0.45 b = 0.11
p = 0.47 p = 0.02 p = 0.49
t(170.94) = 0.82 t(171.23) = 2.75 t(16.84) = 0.25
Working stress management b = 0.09 b = 0.46 b = 0.03
p = 0.41 p = 0.007 p = 0.80
Note. Experimental condition is dummy coded: 1 for Soft skills metacognition training, 0 for Baseline. Tests in
bold are significant.

4. Discussion
Despite a consensus on the importance of fostering soft skills [3,13], there is still debate
on the best way to do it [1,38,45]. We tested with a quasi-experimental design an approach
that targets metacognition about soft skills. Most of our hypotheses were supported by
the data. First, the soft skills metacognition training led to a significant increase in soft
skills metacognition. This finding suggests that it is possible to raise awareness about soft
skills in daily professional missions [28,38]. Furthermore, the effect of the training module
extended to self-efficacy and adaptive performance. This means that when the knowledge
about soft skills moves from tacit to conscious, it can contribute to improve performance
and development, especially in complex and volatile environments [78,145].
Our findings also suggest that training soft skills metacognition leads to increase in
participants’ self-efficacy. The evolution of self-efficacy observed in the study is consistent
with the fact that self-efficacy is a dynamic construct with a potential for short-term evolu-
tion, which can evolve “as new information and experience are acquired (sometimes during
actual task performance)” [146]. This is also consistent with previous research showing that
self-efficacy generally rises in training contexts [147–149], specifically research reporting
single workshop effects [150] and metacognition training [151]. The results of our study
support the idea that although self-efficacy is influenced by one’s performance, “people
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 13 of 21

are influenced more by how they read their performance successes than by the successes
per se” [84], especially concerning complex task performance [85]. Finally, it contradicts
the idea according to which soft skills training has a limited influence on self-efficacy, as
some scholars have argued before [38]; instead, it shows that metacognition concerning
soft skills has a strong impact on general self-efficacy.
Moreover, we found that our training module impacts four dimensions of adaptive
performance as well (Creative Problem Solving, Reactivity, and Interpersonal Adaptability,
Training and Learning), as conceptualized by Charbonnier–Voirin and Roussel (113). For
each of these dimensions, self-efficacy seems to mediate the effect of the training strongly
but partially. This is consistent with the close association between self-efficacy and adaptive
performance that has been described in prior studies [108,117,152]. Enhancing self-efficacy
may therefore raise at least some dimensions of adaptive performance, that are indeed seen
as connected to major soft skills [129,153,154].
Some of our findings were not expected and need to be discussed. First, the fifth
dimension of adaptive performance (Working stress management) did not seem to be
impacted by the training. This could indicate a specificity of this dimension; for example,
it could be more predicted than other dimensions by non-metacognitive determinants,
such as trait emotional stability [155]. Second, the model testing the mediation between
experimental condition, soft skills metacognition, and adaptive performance failed to
reach significance. It suggests that an important part of the training effect on adaptive
performance is not mediated by soft skills metacognition, but by other constructs, such
as self-efficacy. It can be explained by the effect of the training on other general self-
efficacy predictors, such as the ability to deal with corporate transformation, the vicarious
experience acquired during the training session, etc. Finally, the relationship between
metacognitive knowledge and feeling of competency in a specific domain (here, adaptation)
is not necessarily linear, as emphasized by the Dunning–Kruger effect [156,157], which may
also explain why more power is required to detect this effect.

4.1. Implications
Several practical implications can arise from this study, in the scope of human resource
challenges to design effective soft skills training programs. First, this study contributes
to the debate about the development of soft skills [38] and the complex issue of soft skills
assessment [1]. More specifically, our findings suggest that soft skills metacognition is a
promising approach to training soft skills, but also that it can be measured by the assessment
that we have developed and validated.
Regarding the impact of soft skills metacognition on self-efficacy, one should first
remember the positive effects of self-efficacy in the professional world as “self-efficacy can
enhance or impair performance through their effects on cognitive, affective, or motivational
intervening processes” [158]. Earlier studies demonstrated a positive relationship between
self-efficacy and other variables contributing to organizational performance [147,159] such
as entrepreneurship [160–162], adaptability to new technology, innovation (Newman et al.,
2018), engagement, leadership [163], productivity and management performance [164,165],
complex interpersonal tasks, [146,166] and socialization adjustment [167]. Consequently,
training soft skills metacognition could prove to be a frugal and effective way of sustaining
performance, engagement, and well-being, by increasing self-efficacy. Our findings about
self-efficacy are even more interesting that the literature on the effect of soft skills training
on self-efficacy yielded opposite results with less reliable methods [38,168].
Furthermore, the observed increase in self-efficacy after the training might even boost
the training effects in the long run, as self-efficacy has been shown to be positively related
to transfer intentions [169–171]. Enhancing the metacognition of soft skills may induce
behavioral change of employees and managers. The identification, assessment and sus-
tainability of this change may warrant more research in the future. Finally, in the framework
of social-cognitive theory, an increase in self-efficacy is a major determinant of performance,
because it impacts the goals that people set for themselves, as well as their motivation to reach
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 14 of 21

them, also when the circumstances are challenging [85,172,173]. More research is needed to
investigate how our training module might affect performance in the long run.
A concrete implementation of this work could be to propose a soft skills awareness
workshop to job seekers who are a population whose self-efficacy particularly needs to
be supported and who also need to be able to identify and value their valued skills in
terms of employability [149]. Soft skills metacognition workshops gathering employers
and employees could also be used to reduce the soft skills gap. It would indeed enable
employers to identify better, recognize, and describe the soft skills they expect, and it
would allow employees to have the skills they already use recognized and to identify those
they need to develop if they are expected. Deploying soft skills metacognition workshops
among employees could also reduce the soft skills gap by allowing employees to implement
them in an optimal way [174]. The positive link between awareness of skills and level
of implementation of those skills is indeed developed in numerous works [19,66,78,81].
Organizing soft skills metacognition workshops in the educational and academic field
could also help to reduce the soft skills gap by teaching students to identify and value their
soft skills. Soft skills metacognition training can help to foster soft skills implementation by
identifying those who are more solicited at the individual or team level and help to specify
useful additional training for those skills that are highly solicited. Soft skills metacognition
training could also be used to understand and reduce ill-being at work by identifying the
soft skills that are not sufficiently stimulated and those that are highly stimulated in a given
position. Extending the soft skills metacognition workshops by proposing to implement
this metacognition in problem solving on critical situations could allow teams to improve
their performance by identifying and mobilizing their soft skills.

4.2. Limitations
Our study has many limitations that should be addressed in future research. First,
there are limitations related to our sample. Organizational constraints did not allow us
to assign randomly each participant to a condition; as a result, our study design must
be regarded as a quasi-experiment. Our analyses revealed that the samples in the two
conditions were comparable on many demographic variables as well as on our main study
variables. However, there might be factors that we have not measured that played a role
and could provide alternative explanations to our findings. A replication with random
assignment would allow this possibility to be ruled out. In addition, the sample of this
study comprised employees from one firm only, and the panel of soft skills chosen was
adapted to their cultural framework, which can reduce the generalizability of the results.
To be sure that the results of this study can be generalized, further research should collect
data from different types of organizations (field of activity, public and private sector, size,
etc.). Finally, a free association pilot survey indicated that explicit knowledge about soft
skills was very low within the studied population. Further studies should assess the
impact of soft skills metacognition training in different populations, controlling the level of
metacognitive knowledge before the training [124].
Another important limitation concerns pre- and post-treatment measurements. Specif-
ically, we assessed self-efficacy related to adaptation tasks through a general self-efficacy
assessment. Dealing with complex tasks such as adaptation, the relationship between self-
efficacy and performance can show reduced precision if self-efficacy assessment does not
investigate all the dimensions of the task [92]. A specific and multidimensional adaptation
self-efficacy scale could therefore be created, and the relationship between this specific
adaptation self-efficacy and general self-efficacy could also be investigated in further stud-
ies [150]. In the same way, a specific measure of self-efficacy related to soft skills seems
a promising perspective to understand better the effect of this soft skills metacognition
training, as shown by some preliminary results. Additionally, the self-efficacy growth
induced by a single soft skills metacognition training was assessed right after the ses-
sion; the continued, long-term impact of the training should be investigated through a
cohort/longitudinal study. Finally, despite validity checks of our scale concerning the
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 202 15 of 21

metacognition of soft skills, further analyses could verify the robustness of the scale we
designed for this study before it is used by other researchers when testing the efficiency of
soft skills metacognition training programs.
Finally, the fact that this study was based on a single soft skills metacognition work-
shop constitutes a methodological limitation. This work should therefore be extended by
investigating training including several workshops and controlling the characteristics of
the professional context during the training period.

4.3. Conclusions
This work contributes to clarify the links between soft skills and performance by
showing how soft skills metacognition has an impact on self-efficacy and adaptive perfor-
mance in a transformational context. It paves the way to numerous practical applications
in the workplace to reduce the soft skills gap and foster soft skills acknowledgement as
well as implementation level. Further research should investigate the generalization of
results in different types of organizations and transformations. This work should also be
pursued by identifying which methodological protocol optimizes the impact of soft skills
metacognition training according to the number of workshops included in the training
and work condition characteristics. The sustainability of soft skills metacognition impact
highlighted by this work should also be investigated.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, C.J.-L.M., X.B. and T.L.; soft-
ware, data curation, F.P. and P.-L.W.; formal analysis, F.P., M.S. and P.-L.W.; investigation, resources,
project administration, funding acquisition C.J.-L.M.; writing—original draft preparation, visualiza-
tion, C.J.-L.M., F.P. and M.S.; writing—review and editing, C.J.-L.M., F.P., M.S., X.B. and T.L.; supervi-
sion, X.B. and T.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research and the APC were funded by S.N.C.F.
Institutional Review Board Statement: In France, national ethics committees are only required for
biomedical research with physiological measures, such as blood or saliva, drug treatment, evoked
potential, and other specific biological measures, as well as research studying at-risk populations
(such as pregnant women, patients with illness, etc.). Studies involving questionnaires with healthy
populations are not subject to specific ethics committee procedures. Note that this study was
conducted with respect to ethical standards in France, as specified by the CNRS (National Scientific
Research Center) guidelines, as well as French laws governing non-invasive human research studies,
and the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000. All participants provided informed consent.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: Data and analysis code are available at https://osf.io/3s4bm/files/
(accessed on 21 January 2023).
Acknowledgments: We are grateful to the Mass Transit Lab’ team and Lab SNCF Impact team
(2019–2022) for fruitful discussions about methodology and statistics, help in logistics and facilitation
of workshops. We acknowledge the logistical and organizational support of SNCF and SNCF Transilien.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Formación
EvaluaciónUniversitaria
de las habilidades blandas en la educación superior Fuentes
Vol. 14(4), 49-60 (2021)
http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-50062021000400049

Evaluación de las habilidades blandas en la educación

superior
Gina Y. Fuentes1, Luís M. Moreno-Murcia2, Diana C. Rincón-Tellez1 y María B. Silva-Garcia2
(1) Facultad de Ciencias Empresariales, Programa de Administración en Seguridad y Salud en el Trabajo y
Administración en Salud Ocupacional, Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios – UNIMINUTO. Zipaquirá-Colombia.
(Correo-e: gfuentesroj@uniminuto.edu.co; drincontell@uniminuto.edu.co)
(2) Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales, Unidad de Investigación-Programa de Psicología, Corporación
Universitaria Minuto de Dios - UNIMINUTO. Bogotá-Colombia.
(Correo-e:luis.moreno.mu@uniminuto.edu.co;maria.silva.ga@uniminuto.edu)

Recibido Dic. 22, 2020; Aceptado Feb. 22, 2021; Versión final Mar. 26, 2021, Publicado Ago. 2021

Resumen

La presente investigación tiene como objetivo determinar la prevalencia de habilidades blandas en estudiantes
de la Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios – UNIMINUTO (Colombia), de los programas académicos de
psicología y administración en salud ocupacional de las sedes Bogotá sur y Zipaquirá. El enfoque es de tipo
cuantitativo, con alcance descriptivo y corte transversal aplicado a una muestra de 50 estudiantes que cursan
los últimos semestres. Se identifica que las habilidades blandas con mayor prevalencia en los estudiantes de
los programas académicos estudiados son escucha, influencia y trabajo en equipo. Las habilidades que se
deben fortalecer son responsabilidad y apoyo. Se concluye que el mercado laboral observa y exige la
presencia de habilidades blandas en sus profesionales, siendo este un cambio y una oportunidad frente al
entorno para que la academia a través de la articulación del currículo fortalezca las conductas asociadas a
cada una de las habilidades.

Palabras clave: conductas; competencias; educación superior; empleabilidad; habilidades blandas

Evaluation of soft skills in higher education

Abstract

The objective of this research study is to determine the prevalence of soft skills in students at the Corporación
Universitaria Minuto de Dios – UNIMINUTO (Colombia), in the academic programs of psychology and
occupational health administration at the Bogotá-South and Zipaquirá campuses. The approach of the study
is quantitative, descriptive in scope, and cross-sectional. The sample consists of 50 students in their last
semesters. The results show that the most prevalent soft skills are listening, influence, and teamwork. The soft
skills that require strengthening are responsibility and support. It is concluded that the labor market observes
and demands the presence of soft skills in professionals, opening an opportunity for academics to strengthen
behaviors associated with each soft skill by adapting academic curricula.

Keywords: behaviors; competencies; higher education; employability; soft skills

Formación Universitaria Vol. 14 Nº 4 – 2021 49

Evaluación de las habilidades blandas en la educación superior Fuentes

INTRODUCCIÓN

Las Soft Skills (habilidades blandas) son usualmente relacionadas con comportamientos, interacción con los
demás y patrones de personalidad; este constructo se refiere a las capacidades aprendidas y utilizables para
la adaptabilidad en los diferentes contextos en los que pueda relacionarse el sujeto, tales como su ambiente
escolar o de empleabilidad (Cobo y Moravec, 2011). De modo que son aquellas habilidades, que permiten
poner en práctica valores que contribuyen a que la persona se desarrolle adecuadamente en los distintos
ámbitos de acción (Buxarrais, 2013), lo cual genera una diferenciación entre dos personas, así como la
identificación de características tales como empatía, buenos modales, capacidad de negociación, espíritu de
colaboración, puntualidad y optimismo (Espinosa y Gallegos, 2020).

Para Ortega (2016) las habilidades blandas o no cognitivas, se definen como las prácticas, actitudes y
capacidades que tiene una persona para relacionarse e interactuar con el mundo. Estas permiten entre otros
procesos; la comprensión de emociones, logro de objetivos, toma de decisiones y la capacidad de afrontar
situaciones adversas, el autor resalta la interacción que se debe tener con el otro. De la misma manera,
Ortega et al. (2016) definen las habilidades blandas como capacidades adaptativas y comportamentales, que
permiten a las personas interactuar en contextos socio-históricos y culturales, de tal forma que respondan a
las necesidades y demandas del mismo; tienen un impacto en la vida de las personas, por lo tanto, se
considera sumamente importante su desarrollo desde edades tempranas.

En la actualidad los procesos de selección están enmarcados en un modelo de gestión por competencias, en
el que se busca conocer las habilidades, aptitudes, actitudes y conocimientos de la persona, con el fin de
contratar al mejor candidato (Kalugina y Shvydun, 2014). Es así como las habilidades blandas y duras toman
gran relevancia en el ámbito organizacional, en donde los egresados de la educación superior buscan generar
un impacto positivo. Las habilidades blandas están relacionadas con las experiencias previas desde la
infancia y la adolescencia; según Ortega (2016) en estas etapas el proceso de aprendizaje se genera de
manera más concreta, y pueden ser fortalecidas a través del proceso de escolarización (Berry y Routon,
2020), por lo tanto, se convierten en el pilar fundamental para ser utilizadas en los procesos de inmersión
laboral, que exigen diferentes contextos empresariales (Cobo y Moravec, 2011).

A nivel internacional, se observa que el interés de los empresarios suele dirigirse a seleccionar personas con
liderazgo, habilidad de comunicación, valores éticos, conocimiento y trabajo en equipo (Tito y Serrano, 2016),
habilidades que fueron aprendidas desde la infancia, es decir que cada uno de los eslabones académicos
permitieron fortalecerlas de tal manera que al llegar a la inmersión laboral estas sean evidentes. Sin embargo,
Gómez (2019) enfatiza en una problemática educativa enmarcada en la falta de desarrollo de las habilidades
no cognitivas en la educación superior, por lo tanto, dificultades en su empleabilidad, teniendo en cuenta que
para la vinculación al mercado laboral exige en un 51% habilidades blandas, un 9% habilidades cognitivas
avanzadas, un 16% habilidades técnicas y en un 4% habilidades cognitivas básicas.

Por lo cual, se evidencian falencias al modelo educativo actual, en algunas ocasiones basado en principios
de producción industrial y manufacturera (Buxarrais, 2013) dejando a un lado el desarrollo y fortalecimiento
de las habilidades sociales, las cuales deben considerarse como un eje transversal en los procesos de
formación y capacitación al interior de los centros educativos, cuyo énfasis principal debería ser habilidades
con principios éticos, que favorezcan escenarios de felicidad y libertad; y que también promuevan habilidades
blandas como: el trabajo en equipo, el pensamiento crítico y analítico, comunicación asertiva , creatividad,
empatía, resolución de conflictos, resiliencia entre otras, que garantizaran el éxito personal y laboral de los
estudiantes (Tseng et al. 2019).

En la práctica, algunos autores coinciden que la falencia de estas habilidades que presentan los egresados
de instituciones de educación superior, genera un obstáculo para responder a las necesidades actuales de
los gremios empresariales, se centra como ya se mencionó en los procesos educativos que se imparten en
la educación formal, en donde prima el aprendizaje de habilidades duras y en un segundo lugar permanecen
las habilidades blandas. De aquí la importancia de fusionar los procesos educativos con los sectores
productivos, por medio de estrategias como el coaching universitario, el cual se encuentra en implementación
en algunas universidades al favorecer el desarrollo de competencias transversales mediante el
empoderamiento y la consciencia de potencialidades personales (Musicco, 2018).

En este orden de ideas, siendo un tema de gran interés, un sin número de investigaciones se han realizado
con el fin de identificar las habilidades blandas (Zhang, 2012) que se requieren en diferentes sectores
económicos, se reconocen y contemplan generaciones que hoy en día reciben el nombre de millennials y
centennials, quienes presentan diversas competencias como la capacidad creativa, capacidad de
actualización, habilidad para trabajar en diferentes contextos internacionales que los convierten en llamativos
ante la demanda laboral (Araya y González, 2019). De aquí la importancia de evaluar las competencias

50 Formación Universitaria Vol. 14 Nº 4 – 2021

Evaluación de las habilidades blandas en la educación superior Fuentes

actuales que presentan los estudiantes en programas de educación superior, considerando las diferentes
generaciones que se presentan en el ámbito académico y así poder establecer las estrategias formativas que
orienten resultados adecuados al logro de los objetivos empresariales y personales, resolución de conflictos,
toma de decisiones, inteligencia emocional y trabajo en equipo, competencias que buscan las empresas en
los egresados para procesos de selección e inmersión laboral. En la actualidad se evidencia aún más, la
necesidad de explorar y fortalecer las habilidades blandas a partir de las problemáticas que se presentan a
nivel empresarial como efecto de la COVID-19, es así como Runciman (2021) manifiesta que se debe dar un
cambio en las competencias de liderazgo, con tendencia al fortalecimiento de habilidades como la empatía,
la narración de historias, la inteligencia emocional, la confianza y la gestión del tiempo, lo cual se ve reflejado
en el manejo y conocimiento del cliente.

Es interesante observar cómo los diferentes estudios enfatizan la importancia de desarrollar y fortalecer las
habilidades blandas en la educación, como característica indispensable que debe prevalecer en el plan de
estudios de los diferentes programas académicos. Sin embargo, el primer paso es conocer el nivel de
competencias y habilidades blandas en los estudiantes, dado que este es un aprendizaje que inicia desde
temprana edad, pero no resulta suficiente para su empleabilidad, generando incertidumbre en su desarrollo
ocupacional y experiencia laboral, que en algunas oportunidades incide en el éxito profesional y laboral. Con
base en lo anterior, el objetivo de la presente investigación es establecer la prevalencia de habilidades blandas
y la asociación existente en estudiantes de últimos semestres de la Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios
- UNIMINUTO de los programas de Psicología y Administración en Salud Ocupacional.

MÉTODO

Para esta investigación se realizó un estudio con enfoque cuantitativo de corte transversal y alcance
descriptivo, aplicado a una muestra por conveniencia de 50 estudiantes de UNIMINUTO, distribuidos
homogéneamente en dos programas académicos (Psicología y Administración en Salud Ocupacional) de las
sedes Bogotá Sur y Zipaquirá respectivamente, teniendo en cuenta las siguientes condiciones:
consentimiento informado voluntario, estar cursando el semestre octavo, noveno o décimo. Se realiza una
caracterización y el análisis de conductas a los estudiantes que participaron en el estudio; la caracterización
de la muestra se desarrolló aplicando una encuesta, en la cual se incluyeron los siguientes aspectos: sexo,
edad, estrato, ciudad de residencia, estado civil, carrera que cursa, semestre, año de ingreso.

La determinación de habilidades blandas (escucha, habilidad para plantear preguntas, presentación,

autoconfianza e Influencia), se realizó a través de dos ejercicios interactivos que se diseñaron a partir de la
investigación realizada por Groh et al. (2015). El primer ejercicio consistió en un juego de roles que coloca al
sujeto de estudio bajo presión; el estudiante asumió el rol de un asesor de servicio al cliente, uno de los
investigadores desempeñó el rol de cliente molesto y otro investigador cumplió con la función de observador
y evaluador de las conductas asociadas a cada una de las habilidades categorizadas como se observa en la
tabla 1.

Tabla 1: Habilidades y conductas observables (categorizadas) en técnica de juego de roles

Habilidad Conductas observables Categoría
La conducta no verbal facial demuestra sinceridad. 1
Adopta postura de apertura. 2
Escucha Postura corporal se dirige al equipo. 3
Establece contacto visual. 4
Permite que los integrantes manifiesten sus opiniones sin interrumpirlos. 5
Realiza preguntas de seguimiento-follow up (encadenadas) 1
Habilidad para Realiza preguntas abiertas 2
plantear Utiliza preguntas No dirigidas 3
preguntas Utiliza preguntas de clarificación 4
Utiliza un estilo no amenazante 5
Utiliza un tono de voz claro 1
Mantiene contacto visual 2
Presentación Habla de manera concisa 3
Expresa pensamientos a través del lenguaje no verbal 4
Realiza transiciones progresivas de un tema a otro. 5
Habla 1
No divaga- lógica y argumentación 2
Autoconfianza
Defiende su opinión mediante un estilo de comunicación no agresivo 3
Entrega mensajes y opiniones mediante de manera firme 4
Pregunta a los participantes para dar ejemplos. 5

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Evaluación de las habilidades blandas en la educación superior Fuentes

Tabla 1: continuación
Habilidad Conductas observables Categoría
Presenta argumentos de diferentes maneras 1
Busca establecer puntos de acuerdo con otros 2
Influencia Dirige la discusión utilizando un estilo no agresivo. 3
Manifiesta sus opiniones y aclara la forma en que estas pueden beneficiar a otros. 4
Está preparado para comprometerse con el logro de acuerdos mutuos. 5

El segundo ejercicio consistió en una entrevista individual por competencias, en la cual se aplicó un
cuestionario de 10 preguntas, se observó atentamente a cada uno de los participantes durante la ejecución
del ejercicio y se realizó la evaluación a través de una lista de chequeo, para identificar conductas
relacionadas con las habilidades blandas de liderazgo, conciliación, iniciativa, organización y trabajo en
equipo, que se categorizan y evidencian en la tabla 2.

Tabla 2: Habilidades y conductas observables (categorizadas) en técnica de entrevista individual a estudiantes

Habilidad Conductas observables Categoría
Se muestra activo en la discusión y provee puntos efectivos. 1
Expresa confianza mediante estilos de comunicación no agresivos. 2
Liderazgo Crea un ambiente positivo para el trabajo 3
Orientado al logro 4
Intenta tomar decisiones 5
Pregunta a participantes no activos acerca de sus opiniones 1
Intenta dirigir y coordinar la discusión de manera efectiva 2
Resuelve el conflicto entre los integrantes del equipo utilizando un estilo 3
Conciliación
diplomático
Reconoce las contribuciones de otros. 4
Motiva a los demás integrantes a aportar más ideas. 5
Genera buena impresión en otros. 1
Motiva al equipo a pensar en el futuro. 2
Iniciativa Propone ideas de alta calidad. 3
Es voluntario para realizar tareas no deseadas. 4
Motiva al grupo a lograr los objetivos. 5
Maneja el tiempo de discusión de manera efectiva 1
Recuerda a los demás frente a los tiempos establecidos. 2
Establece tareas para si mismo y se compromete a lograrla hasta el final. 3
Organización
Solicita a otros centrarse cuando se han distanciado del punto central de la 4
discusión.
Define problemas y establece métodos para resolverlos. 5
Construye buenas relaciones con otros integrantes del equipo. 1
Es tolerante con los miembros del equipo y acepta sus solicitudes o 2
Trabajo en equipo inquietudes.
Da información acerca de la manera más adecuada para resolver la tarea. 3
Trabaja para resolver la tarea y está involucrado completamente en ella. 4

Tanto para el ejercicio de juego de roles como de entrevista individual por competencias, se utilizó como
instrumento de recolección de datos una lista de chequeo con una escala de medición de tipo ordinal
dicotómica, ya que se establece una prioridad en la evaluación, siendo 1 la calificación para la presencia de
la conducta en el participante y 0 si no la presenta. Para medir la confiabilidad interna de los instrumentos
usados para la recolección de la información en los dos ejercicios, se utilizó el estadístico Kuder-Richardson
(tabla 3), por tratarse de una escala dicotómica, el KR-20 fue de 0,74 y 0,79 respectivamente, considerándose
una categoría alta, lo cual significa que los instrumentos son confiables y cuentan con consistencia interna.

Tabla 3: Prueba de confiabilidad

Estadístico de confiabilidad
Ejercicio K de elementos Kuder-Richardson (KR-20)
Juego de roles 25 0,74
Encuesta individual de competencias 24 0,79

52 Formación Universitaria Vol. 14 Nº 4 – 2021

Evaluación de las habilidades blandas en la educación superior Fuentes

RESULTADOS

La investigación se desarrolló siguiendo las etapas que se mencionan a continuación: determinación de la

población y muestra, elaboración de los instrumentos, aplicación de los ejercicios a la muestra seleccionada,
organización y tabulación de la información, análisis de datos cuantitativamente, haciendo uso de estadística
descriptiva.

El análisis de la información general suministrada por los estudiantes contiene elementos como sexo, estrato,
estado civil, semestre que cursa el estudiante, el año de ingreso a la carrera, estado laboral y tiempo de
dedicación a sus actividades académicas, entre otras variables; por ser la investigación de tipo cuantitativo
en la tabla 4 se observa la distribución de frecuencias de cada una de las variables evaluadas, para
caracterizar la muestra seleccionada que corresponde a 50 estudiantes, 25 de ellos del programa académico
de Psicología y 25 del programa académico de Administración en Salud Ocupacional.

Tabla 4: Información General de los Estudiantes

Programa Académico Administración en Salud Ocupacional Psicología
Variables
n % n %
Género
Masculino (1) 10 42% 5 20%
Femenino (2) 14 58% 20 80%
Semestre
Octavo (1) 8 32% 9 36%
Noveno (2) 8 32% 6 24%
Décimo (3) 9 36% 10 40%
Estado Civil
Casado (1) 4 16% 5 20%
Soltero (2) 16 64% 13 52%
Unión Libre (3) 5 20% 6 24%
Separado (4) 0 0% 1 4%
Edad
Menos de 20 (1) 0 0% 0 0%
Entre 21 - 30 (2) 14 56% 15 60%
Entre 31 - 40 (3) 11 44% 8 32%
Entre 41 - 50 (4) 0 0% 1 4%
Más de 50 (5) 0 0% 1 4%
NR (0) 0 0% 0 0%
Formación Académica Adicional
Ninguna (0) 6 24% 4 16%
Técnico (1) 13 52% 11 44%
Tecnológico (2) 4 16% 3 12%
Universitario (3) 0 0% 1 4%
Postgrado (4) 0 0% 1 4%
Formación Continua (5) 2 8% 5 20%
Actividad Laboral
Ninguna (0) 2 8% 0 0%
Empleado (1) 23 92% 12 48%
Desempleado (2) 0 0% 5 20%
Actividades del Hogar (3) 0 0% 8 32%
Nivel de Estrato
Uno (1) 4 16% 2 8%
Dos (2) 12 48% 11 44%
Tres (3) 9 36% 11 44%
Cuatro (4) 0 0% 1 4%
Cinco (5) 0 0% 0 0%
Seis (6) 0 0% 0 0%
Ha Trabajado
Si (1) 24 96% 23 92%
No (2) 1 4% 2 8%
Dedicación Académica Diaria
De 1 a 3 horas (1) 16 64% 8 32%
De 4 a 6 horas (2) 9 36% 11 44%
De 7 a 10 horas (3) 0 0% 6 24%
Más de 10 horas (4) 0 0% 0 0%

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Evaluación de las habilidades blandas en la educación superior Fuentes

Se evidencia la prevalencia del género femenino en el programa de psicología con un 80%, en comparación
con el programa de administración en salud ocupacional, donde se evidencia una distribución casi homogénea
en cuanto al género que participó en la entrevista, es decir, que se tiene una participación del 58% de género
femenino y el 42% del género masculino; sin embargo, prevalece el género femenino por una mínima
diferencia. Con relación al estado civil, se encuentra que los participantes del estudio refieren con mayor
frecuencia estar solteros con un 64% y 52%; la edad promedio se encuentra entre los 21 y 30 años, con un
56% y 60% en los programas de administración en salud ocupacional y psicología respectivamente.

Es de resaltar que dentro de la caracterización de la población entrevistada, prevalece la formación académica

técnica, tanto en el programa de administración en salud ocupacional, como en el programa de psicología;
así mismo, se evidencia que la mayoría de los estudiantes son empleados, en el programa de psicología se
encuentran estudiantes dedicados a realizar actividades del hogar, mientras que en el programa de
administración en salud ocupacional no existen estudiantes realizando este tipo de actividad, aquí se
evidencia una diferencia en cuanto empleabilidad entre los dos programas, ya que tan sólo el 48% de los
estudiantes del programa de psicología se encuentran empleados en comparación con un 92% del programa
de administración en salud ocupacional.

El 24% de los estudiantes del programa de psicología le dedican de 7 a 10 horas diarias a sus actividades
académicas, no se evidencia dedicación de más de 10 horas por parte de los estudiantes de ambos
programas; y en el caso de los estudiantes de administración en salud ocupacional, se evidencia una
dedicación mínima, es decir de una a tres horas diarias por parte de los estudiantes a sus actividades
académicas, lo cual corresponde a un 64% de la muestra.

En la ejercicio realizado a través del juego de roles, se evalúan conductas relacionadas con habilidades
blandas categorizadas como se menciona en la tabla 5, se realiza un análisis de las medidas de tendencia
central (media, mediana y moda) y se observa también el análisis de medidas de dispersión (varianza y
desviación estándar) para cada conducta. Con relación a las medidas de tendencia central, se evidencia que
son homogéneas para las habilidades blandas de influencia y escucha, es decir, que los estudiantes de ambos
programas presentan conductas, que permiten definir la presencia de la mismas, sin embargo, los estudiantes
de ambos programas, no cuentan con conductas que permitan evaluar la habilidad para plantear preguntas,
específicamente criterios cómo realizar preguntas de seguimiento que estén encadenadas, realizar preguntas
abiertas, utilizar preguntas no dirigidas y utilizar preguntas de clarificación.

Tabla 5: Medidas de Tendencia Central de las habilidades evaluadas en juego de roles *Programa de
Psicología ** Programa de Administración en Salud Ocupacional
Media Mediana Moda
Habilidad Conducta
1* 2** 1* 2** 1* 2**
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Escucha 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Habilidad para
3 0 0 0 0 0 0
plantear preguntas
4 1 0 1 0 1 0
5 1 1 1 1 1 1
Presentación 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 0 1 0 1 0 1
5 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Autoconfianza 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Influencia 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 1 1 1 1 1 1

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Evaluación de las habilidades blandas en la educación superior Fuentes

En los estudiantes de psicología y administración en salud ocupacional se encuentra una similitud con relación
a la habilidad de autoconfianza, esta similitud consiste en que ninguno de ellos mostró durante el juego de
roles la conducta de preguntar a los participantes para dar ejemplos; en cuanto a la habilidad de presentación
los estudiantes del programa de administración en salud ocupacional, utilizan un tono de voz claro, mantienen
contacto visual, hablan de manera concisa y expresan pensamientos a través del lenguaje no verbal; mientras
que los estudiantes de psicología expresan el uso de un tono de voz claro, mantienen contacto visual y hablan
de manera concisa, pero, para el caso de los estudiantes de psicología, no se evidencian criterios como la
expresión de pensamientos a través del lenguaje no verbal y la realización de transiciones progresivas de un
tema otro; este último tampoco se evidencia en los estudiantes de administración en salud ocupacional. La
desviación estándar permite verificar una homogeneidad en el resultado de la observación en el juego de
roles frente a las conductas presentadas por cada estudiante con relación a cada habilidad, se evidencia una
desviación estándar máxima de 0,5 y una mínima de 0,0, como se puede observar en la tabla 6.

Tabla 6: Medidas de dispersión de las habilidades evaluadas en juego de roles

*Programa de Psicología ** Programa de Administración en Salud Ocupacional

Varianza Desviación Estándar

Habilidad Conducta
1* 2** 1* 2**
1 0,2 0,0 0,4 0,0
2 0,2 0,0 0,4 0,2
Escucha 3 0,1 0,0 0,3 0,0
4 0,1 0,0 0,3 0,0
5 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3
1 0,2 0,2 0,5 0,5
2 0,2 0,2 0,5 0,4
Habilidad para
3 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,4
hacer preguntas
4 0,2 0,3 0,5 0,5
5 0,0 0,1 0,0 0,3
1 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,2
2 0,3 0,0 0,5 0,0
Presentación 3 0,1 0,1 0,3 0,3
4 0,2 0,1 0,5 0,3
5 0,2 0,3 0,5 0,5
1 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0
2 0,2 0,2 0,5 0,5
Autoconfianza 3 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,2
4 0,1 0,1 0,3 0,3
5 0,0 0,2 0,2 0,4
1 0,2 0,0 0,5 0,2
2 0,1 0,0 0,3 0,2
Influencia 3 0,0 0,0 0,2 0,2
4 0,3 0,0 0,5 0,2
5 0,2 0,0 0,5 0,2

Las medidas de tendencia central calculadas para la evaluación de habilidades blandas a través de la
entrevista individual de competencias (tabla 7), reflejan que tanto los estudiantes del programa de psicología
como los estudiantes del programa de administración en salud ocupacional cumplen con las conductas
relacionadas o asociadas a la habilidad de liderazgo; la habilidad de conciliación muestra una diferencia en
cuanto al promedio obtenido en los estudiantes del programa de administración en salud ocupacional y el
programa de psicología, se observa que los estudiantes del programa de psicología no presentan conductas
como el preguntar a participantes no activos acerca de sus opiniones, reconocer las contribuciones de otros
y motivar a los demás integrantes de un equipo de trabajo para aportar más ideas.

En un sentido similar, la diferencia encontrada en la evaluación de la habilidad blanda de iniciativa en los

estudiantes, evidencia que en el programa de psicología no presenta la conducta de motivar al equipo a
pensar para el futuro y el ser voluntario para realizar tareas no deseadas; por el contrario, en el programa de
administración de salud ocupacional, prevalece la ausencia de la conducta de proponer ideas de alta calidad.
Por otra parte, se presenta una similitud en la evaluación de las conductas observables relacionadas con la
habilidad de organización, ya que para ambos programas existe una ausencia de la característica o del criterio
asociado a solicitar a otros a centrarse cuando se han distanciado del punto central de la discusión. Por último,
en el trabajo en equipo se evalúan cuatro conductas las cuales se presentan en su totalidad en cada uno de
los estudiantes que presentaron la entrevista.

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Tabla 7: Medidas de Tendencia Central de las habilidades blandas evaluadas en entrevista individual
por competencias *Programa de Psicología ** Programa de Administración en Salud Ocupacional
Media Mediana Moda
Habilidad Conducta
1* 2** 1* 2** 1* 2**
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Liderazgo 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Conciliación 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 0 1 0 1 0 1
5 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 0 1 0 1
Iniciativa 3 1 0 1 0 1 0
4 0 1 0 1 0 1
5 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Organización 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 0 0 0 0 1 0
5 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Trabajo en 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
equipo 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 1 1 1 1 1 1

La desviación estándar calculada para cada una de las conductas relacionadas con las habilidades blandas
evaluadas a través de la entrevista individual por competencias, muestra que no hay una diferencia
representativa con relación a la media; sin embargo, es importante resaltar que las conductas alineadas a las
habilidades de liderazgo, organización y trabajo en equipo no muestran desviación con relación a la media,
lo cual permite inferir que los estudiantes de ambos programas académicos manifiestan conductas tales como
la expresión de la confianza mediante estilos de comunicación no agresivos, el establecimiento de tareas para
sí mismos y el compromiso para lograrlas hasta el final, la tolerancia con los miembros del equipo de trabajo
y la aceptación de sus solicitudes o inquietudes, así como el trabajar para resolver la tarea y estar involucrados
completamente en ella (tabla 8). Después de realizado los dos ejercicios, tanto el juego de roles como la
entrevista individual por competencias y analizadas las conductas asociadas, se obtiene la calificación de las
10 habilidades blandas para cada programa académico (escucha, habilidad para plantear preguntas,
presentación, autoconfianza, influencia, liderazgo, apoyo, iniciativa, organización y trabajo en equipo) en una
escala de uno a cinco, siendo cinco la calificación más alta y uno la calificación más baja.

Las medidas de tendencia central evaluadas en el programa académico de administración en salud

ocupacional aparecen en la tabla 9 y muestran que la media para la habilidad de escucha, influencia, liderazgo
y trabajo en equipo es cinco (5), el valor que divide la distribución de las frecuencias por la mitad (mediana)
es de cinco (5), en el caso de las habilidades de escucha, influencia, liderazgo y trabajo en equipo. La
calificación más baja prevalece para este programa académico en la habilidad que tienen los estudiantes para
plantear preguntas, la media de esta habilidad es de uno (1) y la mediana es dos (2) y el dato que más se
repite (moda) es la calificación de uno (1) que es la más baja.

Por otra parte, La habilidad blanda enfocada al apoyo muestra una calificación promedio de tres (3), así igual
que la mediana y la moda, lo cual permite identificar que para el programa académico de administración en
salud ocupacional, son las dos habilidades con menor calificación. La desviación estándar para estas dos
habilidades blandas con menor calificación es de 1,3 y 1,1 respectivamente, lo cual demuestra que hay una
mayor dispersión en la evaluación de las conductas asociadas a las habilidades y, por ende, la heterogeneidad
en los resultados de la muestra evaluada. Una vez realizada la calificación de cada una de las habilidades
blandas para el programa académico de psicología tabla 10, se evidencia que ninguna de ellas muestra en
su media de calificación, el valor de cinco (5) es decir, que la calificación más alta en promedio obtenido para
seis de las habilidades (escucha, autoconfianza, influencia, liderazgo, organización y trabajo en equipo) fue
de cuatro (4). Resulta significativo resaltar que, en las habilidades de escucha, influencia, liderazgo y trabajo
en equipo, el dato que más se repite (moda) es la calificación más alta correspondiente a un valor de cinco
(5); sin embargo, cuándo se evalúa el valor que divide la distribución de frecuencias por la mitad (mediana),
tan sólo la habilidad de escucha, trabajo en equipo y liderazgo muestran la calificación más alta.

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Tabla 8: Medidas de dispersión de las habilidades evaluadas blandas

evaluadas en entrevista individual por competencias *Programa de
Psicología ** Programa de Administración en Salud Ocupacional
Varianza Desviación Estándar
Habilidad Conducta
1* 2** 1* 2**
1 0,2 0,1 0,4 0,3
2 0,1 0,0 0,3 0,0
Liderazgo 3 0,1 0,0 0,4 0,2
4 0,1 0,0 0,3 0,0
5 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
1 0,2 0,1 0,5 0,4
2 0,2 0,1 0,4 0,3
Conciliación 3 0,1 0,1 0,4 0,3
4 0,2 0,2 0,5 0,5
5 0,3 0,2 0,5 0,5
1 0,1 0,1 0,3 0,3
2 0,3 0,1 0,5 0,4
Iniciativa 3 0,0 0,3 0,2 0,5
4 0,2 0,0 0,5 0,2
5 0,2 0,1 0,5 0,4
1 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,5
2 0,2 0,2 0,5 0,4
Organización 3 0,0 0,0 0,2 0,0
4 0,1 0,2 0,5 0,5
5 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,4
1 0,2 0,0 0,4 0,2
2 0,2 0,0 0,5 0,0
Trabajo en equipo
3 0,2 0,1 0,5 0,3
4 0,0 0,0 0,2 0,0

Tabla 9: Medidas de tendencia central y de dispersión de las habilidades

blandas evaluadas en el programa académico de administración en
salud ocupacional
Ejercicio 1 Ejercicio 2 Trabajo equipo
Habilidad para

Autoconfianza

Organización
Presentación

Medida
preguntas

Liderazgo
Influencia

Iniciativa
Escucha

plantear

Apoyo

Media 5 2 4 4 5 5 3 4 4 5
Mediana 5 2 4 4 5 5 3 4 4 5
Moda 5 1 4 4 5 5 3 4 4 5
Desviación estándar 0,4 1,3 0,7 0,7 0,5 0,6 1,1 0,9 0,9 0,4
Varianza 0,1 1,7 0,5 0,5 0,3 0,3 1,1 0,8 0,8 0,2

Tabla 10: Medidas de tendencia central y de dispersión de las

habilidades blandas evaluadas en el programa académico de psicología
Ejercicio 1 Ejercicio 2
Trabajo equipo
Habilidad para

Autoconfianza

Organización
Presentación

Medida
preguntas

Liderazgo
Influencia

Iniciativa
Escucha

plantear

Apoyo

Media 4 2 3 4 4 4 3 3 4 4
Mediana 5 2 3 4 4 5 3 3 4 5
Moda 5 2 3 4 5 5 4 4 4 5
Desviación
1,1 1,0 1,0 0,7 1,2 1,0 1,5 1,2 0,9 1,3
estándar
Varianza 1,3 1,1 1,1 0,5 1,5 1,1 2,1 1,4 0,9 1,7

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La habilidad blanda con menor calificación en el programa académico de psicología es la relacionada con la
capacidad de plantear preguntas, lo cual coincide con la evaluación realizada a las habilidades blandas en el
programa académico de administración en salud ocupacional; cabe anotar que dentro de las puntuaciones
bajas se encuentra la habilidad blanda de presentación, apoyo e iniciativa. La desviación estándar es mucho
más alta para los resultados obtenidos en el programa académico de psicología en comparación con el
programa de administración en salud ocupacional, lo cual demuestra una mayor heterogeneidad en los
resultados obtenidos con relación a la media en cada una de las calificaciones de las habilidades blandas.

DISCUSIÓN

Las habilidades blandas han sido tema de principal interés por diferentes autores, es importante traer a
colación a Groh et al. (2015) quién a partir de diferentes ejercicios interactivos propuso realizar la medición
de las competencias en la población; la observación de las conductas de escucha, habilidad para plantear
preguntas, presentación, autoconfianza, influencia, liderazgo, supportiveness (apoyo), iniciativa, organización
y trabajo en equipo, fueron las principales habilidades propuestas para identificar la presencia de las mismas
en los estudiantes y establecer posibles estrategias de intervención en programas de educación superior.

Una característica fundamental que se encontró en este estudio, se relaciona con la habilidad de trabajo en
equipo y liderazgo, las cuáles están presentes en los estudiantes de psicología y de administración en salud
ocupacional; lo cual concuerda con lo planteado por diferentes autores en el sentido que el sector empresarial
demanda personas con competencias enfocadas a la orientación al conocimiento, trabajo en equipo,
liderazgo, escucha (Cobo y Moravec, 2011; Tito y Serrano, 2016; Araya y González, 2019). Respecto a las
habilidades de conciliación, iniciativa y organización, de acuerdo con los resultados encontrados en el estudio
se observa que en los dos grupos poblacionales deben ser potencializadas en los estudiantes.

Otro aspecto interesante es la desviación estándar observada en los dos grupos de estudiantes, por cada
habilidad se observa la dispersión respecto a la media: liderazgo 0,2; conciliación 0,4, iniciativa 0,3;
organización 0,4 y trabajo en equipo 0,1; escucha 0,3; habilidad para plantear preguntas 0,3; presentación
0,3; autoconfianza 0,2 e influencia 0,4 para el caso de los estudiantes de psicología; para los estudiantes de
Administración en Salud Ocupacional se observaron los siguientes: escucha 0,1; habilidad para plantear
preguntas 0,4; presentación 0,2; autoconfianza 0,3; influencia 0,2; liderazgo 0,2; conciliación 0,4; iniciativa
0,3; organización 0,3 y trabajo en equipo 0,1. Al describir estos resultados, se evidencia homogeneidad entre
los dos grupos muéstrales, por lo tanto, las habilidades blandas en los estudiantes de último semestre se
encuentran presentes, aunque requieren potencializarse, ya que el grado de dispersión respecto a la media
varía entre las distintas habilidades estudiadas.

De acuerdo a lo anterior, resulta interesante observar el estudio realizado por Arango, Clavijo y otros dos
autores (2014) que buscaba determinar la relación entre la formación académica, la empatía, los valores y
comportamientos socialmente responsables de estudiantes de primero, quinto y último semestre de varios
programas académicos de la Fundación Luis Amigo Colombia. Se observó, que los niveles de empatía y
comportamientos socialmente aceptables están relacionados con la formación académica, en donde aquellos
programas que están orientados a la prestación de un servicio, estas habilidades tienden a estar presentes,
como se evidencia en los hallazgos de este estudio.

La muestra del estudio en un 96% ha tenido experiencia laboral, este aspecto permite resaltar la presencia
de estas habilidades en los estudiantes, de últimos semestres, teniendo en cuenta que los empresarios en la
actualidad, buscan que los aspirantes traigan consigo habilidades socioemocionales, puesto que las
habilidades duras están presentes pero las habilidades blandas deben continuar con el desarrollo a lo largo
del ciclo laboral; así lo menciona Musa et al. (2012), quienes identifican la responsabilidad, confianza en sí
mismos, habilidades sociales y de comunicación, flexibilidad, espíritu de equipo, buena actitud de trabajo,
automotivación y autogestión como aquellas habilidades blandas que buscan los empleadores del siglo 21 en
los graduados y la organización debe facilitar el proceso de continuo desarrollo (Kalugina y Shvydun, 2014).
De igual manera, lo resalta Peeters et al. (2019) quienes a través de la matriz del capital de empleabilidad,
consideran los recursos sociales y personales con relación al capital humano e identifican el conocimiento,
las habilidades y las actitudes que dispone el empleado, así como refieren tres categorías relacionadas con
la empleabilidad.

Las habilidades blandas que se desarrollan desde la formación básica, deben continuar en la educación
superior, ya que facilitan el proceso de inmersión laboral de los recién egresados; sin embargo, un aspecto
interesante radica en la falencia encontrada en este estudio sobre la habilidad de conciliación y de plantear
preguntas. En la habilidad de conciliación tiene mayor prevalencia en los estudiantes del programa de
administración en salud ocupacional, pero la habilidad de plantear preguntas está ausente en los dos grupos,
característica que debe ser potencializada, ya que en su relación con la empleabilidad y el proceso de

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aprendizaje hacen parte del éxito laboral. Es así como la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo
Económico [OECD], (2015) considera que la autoconfianza está relacionada con la enseñanza desde el
ejemplo en edades tempranas, tanto por padres como por educadores, por lo tanto, el desarrollo de
actividades curriculares de manera recurrente favorece el desarrollo de estas habilidades tanto en la
educación superior como en la vida laboral.

Las habilidades de escucha y liderazgo presentan una media poblacional de 1 en los dos grupos muestrales,
y una desviación estándar de 0,1 y 0,2 respectivamente, es importante aclarar que estas habilidades son
necesarias para el desarrollo laboral y empleabilidad de los recién egresados, de hecho hacen parte de las
competencias que en el Siglo XXI se busca en los profesionales, tanto directivos como operativos y están
relacionados con el desarrollo de carrera y aprendizaje; se observa una gran participación para potencializar
estas habilidades en la educación superior como lo afirma Busso et al. (2012) quienes afirman la importancia
de generar estrategias educativas que favorezcan la igualdad y equidad en los procesos formativos. De
acuerdo a lo anterior, es preciso afirmar que la educación superior en el desarrollo de habilidades blandas y
duras cumplen una función principal, el fortalecimiento de estrategias y la preparación de los futuros
profesionales depende del quehacer educativo en su formación no sólo teórica, también en habilidades éticas
y socioemocionales que permitan potencializar competencias para lograr objetivos personales y
empresariales, con el fin de tomar decisiones acertadas, responsables y autónomas que permitan el buen
relacionamiento y la construcción colectiva de procesos organizacionales exitosos (Berry y Routon, 2020).

El Siglo XXI busca que los profesionales cuenten con competencias de pensamiento estratégico, pensamiento
sistémico, toma de decisiones, apertura al cambio, ética, liderazgo, comunicación entre otras, ante un mundo
cambiante y competitivo en el cual laboralmente no solo prima el conocimiento y la relación teoría Vs práctica;
también debe primar el trabajo en equipo, capacidad de escucha, capacidad influenciadora, iniciativa y
organización , que permitan el logro de objetivos no solo personales sino empresariales, es así como el
manejo de emociones y los procesos de socialización deben marcar la diferencia en los escenarios educativos
y organizacionales, tanto en niveles operativos como directivos y que estos permitan la estabilidad y la
inmersión laboral en profesionales recién egresados y con poca experiencia laboral relacionada con el perfil
ocupacional.

La educación superior tiene el compromiso de crear estrategias de aprendizaje y desarrollo continuo de

habilidades socioemocionales, en el cual se contribuya a mejorar las competencias de los futuros
profesionales y prepararlos ante un mundo cambiante, competitivo y dinámico en el cual prevalezca la ética,
el trabajo en equipo, el liderazgo y la comunicación, como habilidades principales en los procesos de selección
y empleabilidad. Si bien es cierto que las habilidades observadas en este estudio están homogéneas en los
dos grupos muestrales, se hace necesario potencializarlas por medio de estrategias educativas en el aula
que permitan el desarrollo latente y la presencia de las mismas en todos los estudiantes de últimos semestres.
En próximas investigaciones sería conveniente analizar estudiantes de diferentes carreras de últimos
semestres, con el fin de evaluar la presencia y desarrollo de diferentes estrategias educativas que promuevan
la vinculación laboral de los recién egresados en empresas de diferentes sectores económicos.

CONCLUSIONES

De acuerdo al trabajo presentado y a los resultados obtenidos, se pueden plantear las siguientes conclusiones
principales:

1. Las habilidades blandas se consideran un eje fundamental en el proceso de empleabilidad, y por tal motivo
se considera que las instituciones de educación superior deben adoptar y evaluar procesos de enseñanza –
aprendizaje que se articulen con la potencialización de las mismas.

2. Los estudiantes tienen una gran responsabilidad con el desarrollo de estas habilidades, ya que muchas de
ellas se desarrollan desde su primera infancia; y por lo tanto, es imperativo que se reconozca el valor agregado
que estas pueden generar en su currículo.

3. La gran mayoría de los estudiantes de ambos programas, muestran déficit en la habilidad para hacer
preguntas, lo cual se relaciona directamente con los procesos de comunicación, y por tal motivo se encuentra
relevante generar estrategias que potencien esta habilidad en los futuros egresados.

4. Se evidencia la prevalencia del 90% de las habilidades no cognitivas evaluadas en los sujetos de estudio,
comprendiendo este conjunto las habilidades de escucha, presentación, autoconfianza, influencia, liderazgo,
apoyo, iniciativa, organización y trabajo equipo.

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Tito, M., y Serrano, B., Desarrollo de soft skills una alternativa a la escasez de talento humano,
https://doi.org/10.33890/innova.v1.n12.2016.81, INNOVA Research Journal, 1(12), 59-76 (2016)
Tseng, H., Yi, X., y Yeh, H. T., Learning-related soft skills among online business students in higher education: Grade
level and managerial role differences in self-regulation, motivation, and social skill,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.035, Computers in Human Behavior, 95, 179-186. (2019)
Zhang, A., Peer Assessment of Soft Skills and Hard Skills, Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 11,
155 – 168, (2012)

60 Formación Universitaria Vol. 14 Nº 4 – 2021

78 ISSN 2074-8167___________________________________________________НАУКОВІ ЗАПИСКИ КАФЕДРИ ПЕДАГОГІКИ
2022 Випуск/ Issue 51

https://doi.org/10.26565/2074-8167-2022-51-10
УДК 378.14.015

Ярослава Василівна Шведова

кандидат педагогічних наук, доцент кафедри педагогіки1
shvedova@karazin.ua ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9592-3032
Єлизавета Сергіївна Коротецька
здобувачка першого (бакалаврського) рівня вищої освіти
Навчально-наукового інституту екології1
korotetskayalizza@gmail.com ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3925-7191
Дар’я Євгеніївна Кашкабаш
здобувачка першого (бакалаврського) рівня вищої освіти
Навчально-наукового інституту екології1
dashakashkabash@gmail.com ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4452-0601

Харківського національного університету імені В. Н. Каразіна

1

майдан Свободи 4 Харків, Україна, 61022

SOFT SKILLS: АНАЛІЗ РОЗВИТКУ У ЗДОБУВАЧІВ ВИЩОЇ ОСВІТИ

ТА ШЛЯХИ ВПРОВАДЖЕННЯ В ОСВІТНІЙ ПРОЦЕС

Постановка проблеми. Концепція «so skills» за останні роки стала невід’ємною складовою сві-
тового ринку праці в найрізноманітніших галузях економіки та суспільства. Міжнародні і національні
дослідження підтверджують значення універсальних навичок, які називають «навичками ХХІ століт-
тя». Проте на практиці заклади вищої освіти не завжди можуть створити умови для їхнього комп-
лексного розвитку. Тому одним з головних завдань підготовки здобувачів вищої освіти у сучасних
умовах є пошук шляхів для цілеспрямованого та систематичного розвитку so skills.
Мета статі – оцінити ступінь розвитку so skills здобувачів вищої освіти в освітньому процесі та
обґрунтувати педагогічні умови, які зможуть сприяти підвищенню ефективності їх розвитку.
Результати. Дослідження ступеню розвитку затребуваних so skills здобувачів вищої освіти
в освітньому процесі проводилося за допомогою розробленої анкети у Google Формі. Питання були
сформульовані так, щоб студенти, виходячи із власної думки, визначили за 10-бальною шкалою сту-
пінь розвитку в освітньому процесі кожного із запропонованих so skills. В опитуванні взяли участь
студенти 1-6 років навчання Харківського національного університету імені В.Н. Каразіна (87 осіб).
Результати проведеного емпіричного дослідження підтверджують потребу в цілеспрямованому та
систематичному розвитку затребуваних сучасним ринком праці so skills здобувачів вищої освіти.
Найбільшого розвитку, за думкою студентів, потребують такі so skills як стресостійкість і гнучкість,
критичне мислення, емоційний інтелект і навички комунікації.
Педагогічні умови та перспективи розвитку so skills пов’язані з наскрізною імплементаці-
єю в навчальний процес комплексних мір: наповнення нормативних навчальних дисциплін чітким
теоретичним та практичним контекстом для розвитку so skills; трансформація викладання, змі-
щення акцентів в бік інноваційних методів та форм навчання, що містять потенційні можливості для
розвитку універсальних компетентностей здобувачів вищої освіти; глибока усвідомленість виклада-
чами своєї місії у розвитку затребуваних so skills студентів; впровадження міжфакультетських та
факультативних дисциплін на кшталт «So skills – формула успіху», починаючи з першого року нав-
чання, що поступово розширюватимуть спектр універсальних компетентностей майбутнього фахів-
ця; впровадження so skills методом проведення обов’язкових тренінгів зі студентами; організація
літньої школи, яка буде спеціалізуватися на розвитку so skills студентів, де у невимушеній атмосфе-
рі під керівництвом професійних психологів, коучів та інших фахівців студенти зможуть отримувати
сучасні знання та необхідні навички.

© Я. В. Шведова, Є. С. Коротецька, Д. Є. Кашкабаш, 2022

SCIENTIFIC NOTES OF THE PEDAGOGICAL DEPARTMENT_______________________________________ISSN 2074-8167 79
2022 Випуск/ Issue 51

Висновки. Отримані результати підтвердили наше припущення про те, що освітній простір фра-
гментарно, «точково» сприяє розвитку so skills у здобувачів вищої освіти. Шлях до системного
та планомірного впровадження so skills в освітній простір дуже складний і поки що відбувається
на рівні окремих дисциплін. Тому існує необхідність проведення комплексної політики в даній галу-
зі. Педагогічні умови та перспективи розвитку so skills пов’язані з наскрізною імплементацією в
навчальний процес запропонованих комплексних мір, які наш погляд, зможуть забезпечити якісну
підготовку фахівців здатних діяти в нестандартних ситуаціях, приймати швидкі рішення, готових до
самовдосконалення, позитивної комунікації та здорової реакції на виклики суспільства.
Ключові слова: розвиток so skills в освітньому процесі, здобувачі вищої освіти, шляхи впро-
вадження, універсальні компетентності.

Як цитувати: Шведова Я.В., Коротецька Є. С., Кашкабаш Д. Є. So skills: аналіз розвитку у здобувачів
вищої освіти та шляхи впровадження в освітній процес. Наукові записки кафедри педагогіки. 2022. №51,
С. 78-94. h ps://doi.org/10.26565/2074-8167-2022-51-10
In cites: Shvedova, Y., Korotetska, E., Kashkabash, D. (2022). So skills: analysis of development in higher
educa on students and ways of implementa on in the educa onal process. Scien fic notes of the pedagogical
department. 51, 78-94. h ps://doi.org/10.26565/2074-8167-2022-51-10 [in Ukrainian]

Постановка проблеми. Парадигмальні та цілеспрямованого розвитку, особливо у

зміни у системі вищоı̈ освіти, імплемента-
ція компетентнісного підходу, вітчизняні та
зарубіжні публікаціı̈ актуалізують необхід-
ність цілеспрямованого та систематичного
розвитку загальних (універсальних) ком-
петентностеи здобувачів вищоı̈ освіти або
soft skills. Концепція «soft skills» за останні
роки стала невід’ємною складовою світового
ринку праці в наирізноманітніших галузях
економіки та суспільства. У цих контекстах
«soft skills» прирівнюються або використо-
вуються як повні синоніми таких понять як
«employability skills» (навички для працев-
лаштування), «people skills» (навички спіл-
кування з людьми), «non-professional skills»
(непрофесіині навички). Сьогодні, щоб бути
конкурентоспроможним, тільки професіи-
них навичок недостатньо, потрібнии ще
широко розвинутии спектр універсальних
навичок або soft skills. Одним з освітніх
трендів і одночасно вимогою до фахівця
є здатність навчатися протягом життя,
швидко орієнтуватися в нових, нестандарт-
них умовах, вирішувати складні завдання,
вміти долати труднощі, приимати виклики.
Випускник вищого закладу освіти з самого
початку своєı̈ кар’єри має вміти домовляти-
ся з клієнтами, партнерами, аргументувати
свою позицію і доносити ı̈ı̈ до інших людеи,
володіти критичним мисленням, емоціиним
інтелектом тощо. Міжнародні і національ-
ні дослідження підтверджують значення
універсальних навичок, які називають «на-
вичками ХХІ століття». Проте на практи-
ці заклади вищоı̈ освіти не завжди можуть
створити умови для ı̈хнього комплексного
світлі останніх подіи, пов’заних з вимушеним
онлаин навчанням спочатку через пандемію,
а зараз через воєннии стан. Тому одним з го-
ловних завдань підготовки здобувачів вищоı̈
освіти у сучасних умовах є пошук шляхів для
цілеспрямованого та систематичного роз-
витку soft skills.
Аналіз основних досліджень та публі-
кацій. Soft skills (з анг. м’ягкии, гнучкии) – це
надпрофесіині навички, загальні (універсаль-
ні) компетентності, що дозволяють особисто-
сті ефективно взаємодіяти у різноманітних
професіиних та життєвих ситуаціях. Вони під-
силюють професіині навички і відповідно є
необхідною умовою для успішноı̈ професіиноı̈
реалізаціı̈.
За останні 10 років в різних краı̈нах світу
приимаються міжнародні та державні прога-
ми, які націлені на впровадження soft skills в
навчальні плани закладів освіти, у тому чис-
лі і вищих. Такі кроки виражають вимоги до
національних ринків праці, які у XXI століт-
ті зазнають радикальних змін. Краı̈ни-члени
Європеиського Союзу ухвалили цілу низку
документів, які дозволяють запровадити уні-
фіковану класифікацію soft skills для Єдиного
європеиського економічного простору. Євро-
пеиські ініціативи з розвитку навичок вклю-
чають «Rethinking Education» – консульту-
вання краı̈н-членів ЄС щодо інвестування у
розвиток навичок для отримання оптималь-
них результатів; у 2018 році було приинято
11 директив, що передбачають впроваджен-
ня нових методів навчання та викладання
для розвитку у студентів університетів ЄС
soft skills, особливо пов’язаних з цифровою
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2022 Випуск/ Issue 51
та технологічною діяльністю [15; 18]. Було
введено Європаспорт навичок (Europass of
skills) 26 мовами краı̈н-членів ЄС, що дозво-
ляє верифікувати своı̈ навички, отримані, як
у рамках формальноı̈ освіти, так і самостіино.
Важливим документом стала Загальна ев-
ропеиська рамка кваліфікціи (The European
Quali ications Framework). У 2017 році була
розроблена та офіціино приинята класифі-
кація та роз’яснення до неı̈ – «Європеиські
навички, компетенціı̈, кваліфікаціı̈ та види
занять» (ESCO), що включає до себе 1384 ква-
ліфікаціı̈, затребувані на ринку праці [17]. До-
слідницькі центри у США вивчають феномен
soft skills, у тому числі Інститут маибутнього
(Institute for the Future) підготував спільно з
Університетом Фенікса на основі методоло-
гіı̈ форсаиту прогноз розвитку затребуваних
навичок на ринку праці [22]. Одним із попу-
лярних світових орієнтирів щодо трендів у
галузі базових, надпрофесіиних навичок є
Всесвітніи економічнии форум (Швеицарія),
якии визначає перелік затребуваних навичок
[28; 29].
Якщо для 2020 року визначальними
навичками для фахівця будь-якоı̈ сфери ді-
яльності були: 1) вирішення комплексних
завдань, 2) критичне мислення, 3) креатив-
ність, 4) вміння керувати людьми, 5)взає-
модіяти з людьми, 6) емоціинии інтелект,
7) вміння приимати рішення тощо, то для
2025 року реитинг навичок дещо зміню-
ється: 1) аналітичне мислення та іннова-
ціиність, 2) активне навчання та навчальні
стратегіı̈, 3) навичка комплексного вирі-
шення проблем, 4) критичне мислення та
аналіз 5) креативність, оригінальність та
ініціативність 6) лідерство та соціальнии
вплив, 7) використання технологіи, моніто-
рінг та контроль, 8) розробка технологіи,
9) стресостіикість та гнучкість, 10) обґрун-
тування, розвязання проблем і формування
ідеи тощо [28;29]. Отже, на першому місці
опинилося аналітичне мислення та іннова-
ціиність, на другому — активне навчання
та навчальні стратегіı̈. Навичка комплек-
сного вирішення проблем, яка була лідером
списку для 2020 року, тепер на третьому
місці. Традиціино важливими залишаються
критичне мислення і аналіз, креативність,
оригінальність та ініціатива. Цілковито но-
вими у списку стали цифрові навички: ви-
користання та розробка технологіи, тобто
цифрова грамотність, яка зараз настільки ж
затребувана, скільки вміння читати та пи-
сати. У десятку також потрапили навички
самоконтролю: надзвичаино важливими бу-
дуть стіикість, стресостіикість та гнучкість,
а також уміння взаємодіяти з іншими – лі-
дерство та соціальнии вплив.
Комплексне масштабне дослідження із
залученням експертів (як передставників ро-
ботодавців, так і вчених, які заимаються до-
слідженням кваліфікаціи та навичок робочоı̈
сили), проведене у 2009 році в рамках про-
грами ЄС «Безперервне навчання Еразмус»
(Lifelong Learning Erasmus), виокремило три
групи навичок, що включають 22 навички:
1) особистісні навички; 2) соціальні навички;
3) методологічні навички [16].
Наипоширенішою класифікацією soft skills
в науковіи літературі є розподіл ı̈х за трьо-
ма категоріями: 1) соціально-комунікативні
навички (комунікативні навички, міжособи-
стісні навички, групова робота, лідерство, со-
ціальнии інтелект, відповідальність, етика
спілкування); 2) когнітивні навички (критич-
не мислення, навички розв’язання проблем,
новаторське (інноваціине) мислення, управ-
ління інтелектуальними навантаженнями, на-
вички самонавчання, інформаціині навички,
таимменеджмент); 3) атрибути особистості
та складові емоціиного інтелекту (емоціинии
інтелект, чесність, оптимізм, гнучкість, креа-
тивність, мотивація, емпатія) [19;20;24]. Слід
зазначити, що як у межах кожноı̈ категоріı̈, так
і між категоріями окремі навички та якості пе-
ретинаються.
У праці Н. Тілікіноı̈ було здіиснено клас-
тернии аналіз затребуваних у 21 столітті на-
вичок та представлено чотири основних гру-
пи soft skills, а також окреслено інструменти
ı̈х формування [10]. Це навчальні навички, які
допомагають адаптуватися до робочого се-
редовища та вдосконалювати своı̈ знання,
вміння і компетенціı̈ (критичне мислення,
креативність (творчість, інноваціиність) та
самонавчання); навички грамотності, які до-
помагають розрізняти факти, публікувати ін-
формацію, створювати технологіı̈, визначати
достовірність джерел та інформаціı̈ (медіа-
грамотність, цифрова грамотність); соціальні
навички – здатність успішно и ефективно вза-
ємодіяти з конкретними людьми або різними
групами, досягаючи поставлених цілеи (на-
вички командноı̈ роботи, комунікативність,
емоціинии інтелект); особистісні навички –
якості людини, які певним чином характери-
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зують ı̈ı̈ особистість (гнучкість, таимменедж-
мент, ініціативність) [10].
Необхідність формування універсальних
навичок у здобувачів вищоı̈ освіти широко
обговорюється у публікаціях зарубіжних та
відчизняних дослідників [1; 3; 5; 8; 14; 16; 19;
20; 21; 24; 25; 26; 27]. Так, у роботах P. Raciti,
D. Shek, J. Leung, J. Merrick було визначено, що
навчання та розвиток м’яких навичок сту-
дента університету має бути пріоритетним
завданням вищих закладів освіти, оскільки
вони тісно пов’язані з особистим благопо-
луччям, соціальною адаптацією та адаптаці-
єю до контексту роботи [26; 27]. Заслугову-
ють на увагу наукові розвідки J. Fernández,
V. Tapia, A. Albarrán, C. González, де доведено
зв’язок між ступенем сформованості soft
skills студента та ефективністю виконання
професіиних задач [14;19]. Існує низка ро-
біт присвячених інтеграціı̈ надпрофесіиних
навичок в університетську освіту в проце-
сі вивчення іноземних мов [23; 25]. В екс-
периментальному дослідженні I. Kostikova,
L. Holubnycha, Z. Girich, N. Movmyga визначе-
но ступінь розвитку восьми м’яких навичок
(критичне мислення, креативність, управ-
ління командою, емоціинии інтелект, вза-
ємодія з людьми, управління конфліктами,
гнучкість і стресостіикість) у здобувачів ви-
щоı̈ освіти, які за допомогою засобів ігрового
навчання успішно набули подальшого роз-
витку в процесі вивчення англіиськоı̈ мови
[23]. К. Коваль досліджує механізми роз-
витку «м’яких» навичок студіюючоı̈ молоді
в світлі маибутнього працевлаштування [3].
У роботі Г. Пирожок обґрунтовано можливо-
сті інноваціиних підходів щодо формування
soft skills маибутніх педагогів [8]. О. Жуковою
було здіиснено дослідження з обґрунтування
функціи викладача вищого закладу освіти у
відповідності з вимогами до иого діяльності в
контексті цілеспрямованого формування soft
skills студентів гуманітарних та природничих
спеціальностеи при вивченні дисциплін гу-
манітарного циклу [30].
Роль авторських курсів та дисциплін віль-
ного вибору в формуванні soft skills здобува-
чів закладів вищоı̈ освіти висвітлена у робо-
тах О. Другановоı̈, Г. Мешко, О. Мешка та ін. [1;
5]. Низка досліджень присвячена досліджен-
ню особливостеи формування окремих уні-
версальних навичок здобувачів вищоı̈ освіти
(емоціинии інтелект – С. Березка, Н. Калаитан,
А. Курило, В. Фурман та ін. [11]; комунікатив-
81
2022 Випуск/ Issue 51
на компетентність – А. Комишан, Н. Стецен-
ко, Н. Фалько, Я. Шведова, С. Шевченко та ін.
[4;9;12; 13].; самоосвітня компетентність –
Б. Вовк, І. Мося та ін.; цифрова компетент-
ність – О. Наливаико, О., Жерновникова, В. Ков-
тун та ін). [2].
Важливо визнати, що завдяки досліджен-
ням стає очевидно, що розвиток універсаль-
них компетентностеи у здобувачів вищоı̈
освіти – це відповідь на вимоги, що пред’яв-
ляються до фахівця у сучасному світі. Вищии
заклад освіти поступово стає місцем, де мож-
на не тільки набути теоретичних знань, але и
відшліфувати універсальні навички. Але слід
також зазначити, що шлях до комплексного
впровадження розвитку soft skills в освітніи
простір дуже складнии і поки що відбуваєть-
ся на рівні окремих дисциплін. Специфікою
універсальних навичок є те, що цикл ı̈хнього
розвитку не може бути обмежено контекстом
однієı̈ навчальноı̈ дисципліни, тренінгом або
позааудиторною роботою. Вони мають від-
точуватися та шліфуватися протягом усього
навчання студента шляхом постіиноı̈ ціле-
спрямованоı̈ практики.
Аналіз літератури свідчить, що, незва-
жаючи на напрацювання та емпіричну базу
зазначеного контексту, існує необхідність
дослідження думки здобувачів вищоı̈ освіти
щодо ступеню розвитку затребуваних уні-
версальних навичок в освітньому процесі,
а також обґрунтуванні педагогічних умов,
які зможуть підвищити ефективність ı̈х роз-
витку. Наше припущення полягає в тому, що
освітніи простір фрагментарно, «точково»
сприяє розвитку soft skills у здобувачів ви-
щоı̈ освіти.
Мета статі – оцінити ступінь розвитку
soft skills здобувачів вищоı̈ освіти в освітньому
процесі та обґрунтувати педагогічні умови, які
зможуть сприяти підвищенню ефективності ı̈х
розвитку.
Методи дослідження. Відповідно до
мети нашого дослідження були використані
загальнотеоретичні методи (аналіз та уза-
гальнення науковоı̈ літератури, порівняння и
синтез); статистичні (кількіснии аналіз отри-
маних результатів, ı̈хніи порівняльнии ана-
ліз), метод компаративного аналізу (для по-
рівняння власних даних і результатів інших
соціологічних досліджень). Емпіричну базу
сформували дані, отримані під час проведено-
го анкетного опитування студентів 1-6 курсів
(87 осіб) Харківського національного універ-
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ситету імені В.Н. Каразіна різних факультетів

(факультет іноземних мов, факультет біо-
логіı̈, ННІ Екологіı̈, філософськии факультет,
Каразінська школа бізнесу, факультет МЕО
та ТБ, факультет психологіı̈, соціологічнии
факультет, ФГГРТ, факультет комп’ютерних
наук, юридичнии факультет).
Результати. Дослідження ступеню роз-
витку затребуваних soft skills здобувачів
вищоı̈ освіти в освітньому просторі прово-
дилося за допомогою розробленоı̈ анкети
у Google Формі. Анкета містила 23 питання
закритого та відкритого типу. Питання були Рис.2. Розподіл відповідей на питання «Чи відоме
сформульовані так, щоб студенти, виходячи Вам таке поняття як soft skills?»
із власноı̈ думки, визначили за 10-бальною Fig. 2. Distribution of answers to question «Do you
шкалою ступінь розвитку в освітньому про- know such a concept as soft skills?».
цесі кожного із запропонованих soft skills.
Також частина питань були спрямовані на Одне з питань анкети було спрямовано на
отримання інформаціı̈ щодо кількості сту- з’ясування думки студентів щодо важливості
дентів за роками навчання; розуміння ними та необхідності розвитку у них soft skills в ос-
поняття soft skills; думки щодо важливості вітньому процесі.
та необхідності розвитку в освітньому про-
цесі soft skills; думки щодо необхідних soft
skills для маибутньоı̈ професіı̈ та ін. В опиту-
ванні взяли участь студенти 1-6 років нав-
чання Харківського національного універ-
ситету імені В. Н. Каразіна.

Рис.3. Розподіл відповідей на питання «Чи вважає-

Рис.1. Відсоткове відношення кількості студентів
за роками навчання, що брали участь в опитуванні
Fig.1. Percentage ratio of the number of students in the
courses that participated in the survey.
Як видно з рис.1. наибільшу кількість сту-
дентів, що взяли участь в опитуванні склали
студенти 3-го року навчання (47,1%), наи-
меншу – 1-го (3,4%). Як показало проведене
опитування 87,2% студентів мають уявлення
про таке поняття як soft skills. 12,8% вказали,
що не знають про таке поняття як soft skills
(рис.2).
те Ви важливим та необхідним розвиток soft skills у
процесі навчання?».
Fig. 3. Distribution of answers to question «Do you
consider it important and necessary to develop soft
skills in the educational process of the university?».
Як видно з рисунку 3, 96,6% (84 особи)
вважають важливим та необхідним розвиток
soft skills в процесі навчання в університеті.
3,4% ( 4 особи) мають протилежну думку.
На питання «Чи вважаєте Ви, що процес
навчання сприяє достатньому розвитку необ-
хідних Вам soft skills (аналітичне, критичне,
інноваціине мислення; вміння вирішувати
складні завдання; вміння продуктивно навча-
тися; працювати в команді; навички комуні-
каціı̈; стресостіикість; самоорганізація; емо-
ціинии інтелект тощо)?» ми отримали відпо-
віді, які відображено на рис.4.
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Як видно з рисунку 4, 62,1% (54 особи),

Рис.4. Розподіл відповідей на питання «Чи вважа-
єте Ви, що процес навчання сприяє достатньому
розвитку необхідних Вам soft skills?».
Fig. 4. Distribution of answers to question «Do you think
that the learning process contributes to the suf icient
development of the soft skills you need?».
вважають, що процес навчання сприяє розвит-
ку необхідних soft skills, але хотіли б отримува-
ти більше подібних навичок. 26,4 % (23 особи),
вважають, що вже отримують подібні знання та
навички у потрібніи кількості. 11,5% (10 осіб)
зазначили, що навчання не сприяє розвитку
у них загальних компетентностеи.
Наступні питання були спрямовані на
дослідження думки студентів щодо рівня
розвитку в освітньому процесі (за 10-баль-
ною шкалою) конкретних запропонованих
нами soft skills. На питання «На якому рівні
освітніи простір університету здіиснює роз-
виток у Вас такоı̈ навички як комунікація?»
ми отримали наступні відповіді представле-
ні на рис.5.

Рис. 5. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку у них в освітньому
просторі навичок комунікації.
Fig. 5. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding their level of development in the educational
space of communication skills.

Як видно з рисунку 5, 15% студентів вважа- Наступне питання було спрямовано на

ють, що освітніи процес сприяє розвитку у них
комунікативних навичок на рівні 9-10 балів, 38%
студентів – на рівні 7-8 балів, 28% студентів – на
рівні 5-6 балів, 12% - на рівні 3-4 балів, 4% на рів-
ні 1-2 балів. в процесі навчання в університеті.
з’ясування думки студентів щодо рівня роз-
витку у них в освітньому просторі емоціиного
інтелекту.

Рис.6. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку у них емоційного інтелек-
ту в освітньому просторі.
Fig. 6. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding their level of development in the educational
space of emotional intelligence.
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Рис. 7. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку в них вміння навчатися.
Fig. 7. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding the level of development of their learning skills.

Як видно з рисунку 6, то 49% студентів Як видно з рисунку 9, то більшість сту-

оцінюють розвиток емоціиного інтелекту в
процесі навчання в університеті на 6-10 балів,
51% - на 2-5 балів).
На питання «Як Ви оцінюєте рівень розвит-
ку в освітньому просторі університету такоı̈
навички як вміння навчатися?» було одержано
результати представлені на рис.7.
Як видно з рисунку 7, то більшість студен-
тів досить високо оцінюють розвиток такоı̈
навички як вміння навчатися в процесі нав-
чання в університеті. 71% опитуваних визна-
чили иого на 6-10 балів. 29% на 2-5 балів.
Рівень розвитку в процесі навчання такоı̈
навички як самоаналіз 65,5% опитуваних сту-
дентів оцінили на 6-10 балів, 34,5% на 2-5 ба-
лів. Результати розподілу відповідеи студентів
за 10-бальною шкалою представлено на рис.8.
Наступне питання було спрямоване на
з’ясування думки студенти щодо рівня роз-
витку у них в освітньому процесі такоı̈ нави-
чки як вміння вирішувати складні задачі.
дентів досить високо оцінюють розвиток
такоı̈ навички як вміння вирішувати склад-
ні задачі в процесі навчання в університеті
(78% опитуваних оцінили на 6-10 балів, 22%
на 2-5 балів).
На питання «На якому рівні освітніи про-
стір університету здіиснює розвиток у Вас
такоı̈ навички як креативність та оригіналь-
ність?» було отримано відповіді, які представ-
лено на рис. 10.
Як видно з рисунку 10, 18% студентів за-
значили, що освітніи простір сприяє розвитку
такоı̈ навички як креативність та оригіналь-
ність на 9-10 балів, 41% студентів оцінили у
8-7 балів, 25% - 6-5 балів, 24% - 1-4 бали.
Щодо розвитку в процесі навчання ана-
літичного мислення, то, як видно з рис. 11,
55%% студентів оцінили иого на рівні 6-8 ба-
лів, 20% на рівні 2-5 балів). 25% студентів
оцінили иого розвиток в процесі навчання на
рівні 9-10 балів.

Рис. 8. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку в них у процесі навчання
навички самоаналізу.
Fig. 8. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding the level of development in them in the process
of learning self-analysis skills.
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Рис. 9. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку у них вміння вирішувати
складні задачі.
Fig. 9. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding the level of development of their ability to solve
complex problems.

Рис.. 10. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку у них в процесі навчання
вміння креативності та оригінальності.
Fig. 10. Graded Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding the level of development of their
creativity and originality skills.

Рис. 11. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку в них у процесі навчання
аналітичного мислення.
Fig. 11. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding their level of development in the process of
learning analytical thinking.
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Рис.12. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку в них адаптивності
у процесі навчання.
Fig. 12. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding the level of development of their
adaptability in the learning process.

Щодо розвитку в процесі навчання такоı̈
навички як адаптивність, то 74% студентів оці-
нила ı̈ı̈ розвиток на 6-10 балів, 26% на 2-5 ба-
лів. Результати розподілу відповідеи студентів
за 10-бальною шкалою представлено на рис.12.
На рис.13 представлено результати розподі-
лу оцінок студентів щодо рівня розвитку у них в
освітньому просторі критичного мислення.
Як видно з рисунку 13, то більшість студен-
тів високо оцінюють розвиток такоı̈ навички
як критичне мислення в процесі навчання в
університеті (на 6-10 балів 75% опитуваних,
25% на 2-5 балів.
На рисунку 14 відображено результати
розподілу оцінок студентів щодо рівня розвит-
ку у них в освітньому просторі такоı̈ навички
як самоорганізація.
Як видно з рисунку 14, то більшість студен-
тів досить високо оцінюють розвиток такоı̈ на-
вички як самоорганізація в процесі навчання в
університеті (на 6-10 балів - 80% опитуваних,
20% на 2-5 балів).
Одним з питань анкети було визначити рі-
вень розвитку в освітньому процесі навички
менеджменту (рис.15).
На рисунку 15 відображено результати роз-
поділу оцінок студентів щодо рівня розвитку у
них навички менеджменту. Більшість студентів
оцінюють розвиток такоı̈ навички як менедж-
мент в процесі навчання в університеті на се-
редньому рівні (44% опитуваних оцінили роз-
виток навички менеджменту на рівні 5-7 балів,
25% студентів на рівні 8-10 балів, і 31% на рівні
2-4 балів.
Щодо навичок стресостіикості та гнучкості,
то відповіді студентів розподілилися наступ-
ним чином (рис. 16): 43% опитуваних студентів
оцінили розвиток у них в освітньому просторі
стресостіикості та гнучкості на рівні 8 -10 балів,
33% – на рівні 5-7 балів, 24% - на рівні 1- 4 балів.

Рис.13. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку в них у процесі навчання
критичного мислення.
Fig. 13. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding their level of development in the process of
learning critical thinking.
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Рис.14. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку в них у процесі навчання
навички самоорганізації.
Fig. 14. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding the level of development
of their self-organization skills in the process of learning.

Рис.15. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку в них у процесі навчання
навички менеджменту.
Fig. 15. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding their level of development in the process of
learning management skills.

Рис.16. Розподіл відповідей студентів за 10-бальною шкалою щодо рівня розвитку в них у процесі навчання
стресостійкості та гнучкості.
Fig. 16. Distribution of students’ answers on a 10-point scale regarding their level of development in the process of
learning stress resistance and lexibility.
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Рис.17. Відсотково-кількісна діаграма, що відображає відповіді на питання

«Які soft skills Ви хотіли б розвивати?».
Fig. 17. Percentage - quantitative diagram regarding the question
«Which soft skills would you like to develop?».

На питання «Які soft skills Ви хотіли б роз-
вивати у собі?», було отримано відповіді пред-
ставлені на рис 17. (Можна було обирати де-
кілька варіантів відповідеи).
Як видно з рисунку 17, то більшість сту-
дентів в процесі навчання в університеті хо-
тіли б розвивати такі навички як стресостіи-
кість і гнучкість (61,6% або 53 студенти з 87
опитуваних), критичне мислення ( 59,3% або
51 студентів з 87 опитуваних), емоціинии ін-
телект і навички комунікаціı̈ (57% або 49 сту-
дентів). Менш затребуваними soft skills у ході
дослідження виявились навички адаптивнос-
ті (34,9% або 30 студентів), і вміння вчитися
(40,7% або 35 студентів).
Крім того, студентам була надана можли-
вість самим запропонувати варіанти soft skills,
які вони хотіли б розвинути. Ними виявилися:
фокусування та концентрація, постанова пра-
вильноı̈ мови, навички лідерства, повага до
себе, бажання самовдосконалюватись, вміння
аналізувати людеи, сміливість діяти і ризику-
вати, відповідальність, здатність швидко при-
имати рішення, самомотивація, мнемоніка.
Наступне питання було спрямовано на
з’ясування необхідних навичок, які, на думку
студентів, будуть необхідні ı̈м у маибутніи про-
фесіиніи діяльності.
Як видно з рисунку 18, то більшість студентів
вважає, що у маибутніи професіиніи діяльності
ı̈м будуть потрібні: навички комунікаціı̈ (80,5%
або 70 студентів з 86 опитуваних), вміння вирі-
шувати складні задачі (81,6% або 71 студент),
аналітичне мислення (78,2% або 68 студентів),
стресостіикість і гнучкість (77%), самооргані-
зація (76%), критичне мислення (75%). Менш
затребуваними soft skills у ході дослідження вия-
вились навички менеджменту (63,2 % або 55 сту-
дентів), адаптивність (63,2 % або 55 студентів)
та емоціинии інтелект (58% або 51 студент).

Рис.18. Відсотково-кількісна діаграма, що відображає відповіді на питання

«Як Ви вважаєте, які з нижче перелічених soft skills знадобляться у майбутній професійній діяльності?».
Fig. 18. A percentage-quantitative diagram showing the answers to the question
«Do you think which of the soft skills listed below will be needed in your future professional activity?».
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Рис.19. Відсотково-кількісна діаграма, що відображує відповіді на питання

«Які soft skills Ви вже мали на момент вступу до університету?».
Fig. 19. Percentage-quantitative diagram showing the answers to the question
«What soft skills did you already have at the time of entering the university?».

На рисунку 19 представлено soft skills, які дисципліни, тобто наскрізнии розвиток та

мали студенти на момент вступу до універси-
тету (за ı̈хньою думкою).
Як видно з рисунку 19, то більшість сту-
дентів на момент вступу до університету
мали такі soft skills як вміння вчитися (60,5%
або 52 студенти з 86 опитуваних ), навички
комунікаціı̈ (55,8% або 48 студентів) і адап-
тивність (53,5% або 46 студентів). Наименш
розвинутими soft skills на момент вступу ви-
явились навички менеджменту (12,8% або
11 студентів) та вміння вирішувати складні
задачі (32,6% або 28 студентів).
Наступним питання було з’ясування пріо-
ритетних шляхів, що можуть сприяти, за дум-
кою студентів, ефективному розвитку у них
необхідних soft skills.
Згідно рис.20, більшість студентів вва-
жає, що оптимальним шляхом розвитку soft
skills є включення ı̈х у відповідні навчальні
відшліфування затребуваних soft skills у про-
цесі вивчення навчальних дисциплін (50,6%);
впровадження тренінгів (50,6% ); відповідних
факультативів (48,3 % опитуваних); семіна-
рів – 35,6%.
Аналіз відповідеи студентів на останнє
відкрите питання анкети дає змогу виділи-
ти наиоптимальніші та зручніші для них ва-
ріанти розвитку soft skills. Ними стали: тре-
нінги, онлаин курси, психологічні консуль-
таціı̈. Але наиоптимальнішим шляхом вихо-
дячи з браку часу, як зазначають студенти,
є наповнення навчальних дисциплін чітким
теоретичним та практичним контекстом
для розвитку soft skills. Наиефективніши-
ми методами визнано: творчі завдання,
панельні дискусіı̈, круглі столи, групові та
індивідуальні проекти, кеиси, ділові та ро-
льові ігри.

Рис.20. Відсотково-кількісна діаграма, що відображує зручні для студентів способи

та форми розвитку soft skills.
Fig. 20. Рercentage-quantitative diagram showing ways and forms of soft skills development
that are convenient for students.
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Результати проведеного емпіричного до-
слідження підтверджують потребу в цілеспря-
мованому та систематичному розвитку затре-
буваних сучасним ринком праці soft skills здо-
бувачів вищоı̈ освіти. Наибільшого розвитку, за
думкою студентів, потребують такі soft skills як
стресостіикість. гнучкість, критичне мислен-
ня, емоціинии інтелект і навички комунікаціı̈.
Педагогічні умови та перспективи розвит-
ку soft skills пов’язані з наскрізною імплемен-
тацією в навчальнии процес комплексних мір.
1. Наповнення нормативних навчальних
дисциплін чітким теоретичним та практич-
ним контекстом для розвитку soft skills.
2. Трансформація викладання, зміщення
акцентів в бік інноваціиних методів та форм
навчання, що містять потенціині можливості
для розвитку універсальних компетентностеи
здобувачів вищоı̈ освіти.
3. Глибока усвідомленість викладачами
своєı̈ місіı̈ у розвитку затребуваних soft skills
студентів. Відповідно викладач сам повинен
бути проактивним, мислити критично та іно-
ваціино, випереджати час, знати новітні теоріı̈
та ı̈х інтерпретаціı̈, демонструвати оригіналь-
ність і творчии підхід, мати високии рівень ко-
мунікативноı̈, цифровоı̈ компетентності тощо.
4. Впровадження міжфакультетських та
факультативних дисциплін на кшталт «Soft
skills – формула успіху», починаючи з пер-
шого року навчання, що поступово розши-
рюватимуть спектр універсальних компе-
тентностеи маибутнього фахівця. В програ-
му подібних дисциплін доцільно включити
мінімальнии теоретичнии блок та розгалу-
жении практичнии, спрямовании на відпра-
цювання універсальних компетентностеи
(аналітичного, критичного, іноваціиного
мислення, навичок комунікаціı̈, вмінь ефек-
тивно навчатися, навички таим-менеджмен-
ту, комплексного вирішення проблем, нави-
чки адаптаціı̈, стресостіикості, медіаграмот-
ність тощо). Також, на наш погляд, доречним
є проведення в рамках подібних дисциплін
семінарських занять, що передбачатимуть
самостіине опрацювання студентами окре-
мих тем в контексті soft skills та обговорення
результатів, що можуть бути представлені у
вигляді тез, повідомлень, доповідеи, рефе-
ратів тощо. Метою практичних та семінар-
ських занять може бути визначення рівня
знань студентів відповідно до теоретичного
осмислення soft skills та ступінь ı̈х володіння
ними, формування стіикого інтересу до на-
буття відповідних навичок в умовах маибут-
ньоı̈ професіиноı̈ діяльності. У процесі про-
ведення практичних та семінарських занять
студенти заздалегідь одержують завдання,
формулюють и пояснюють своє бачення про-
блеми. Обговорення проблеми відбувається
в умовах дискусіı̈. Проведення таких занять
дозволяє вирішувати такі дидактичні цілі:
• оптимально поєднувати лекціині заняття
із систематичною самостіиною діяльністю сту-
дентів, ı̈х теоретичну підготовку з практичною;
• розвивати soft skills для більш швидкого
вирішення практичних завдань у маибутніи на-
уковіи, навчальніи та професіиніи діяльності;
• формувати у студентів інтерес до вивчен-
ня, набуття та користування soft skills;
• забезпечувати системне повторення,
поглиблення і закріплення знань студентів
за темою;
• здіиснювати діагностику і контроль на-
бутих студентами soft skills.
5. Впровадження soft skills методом прове-
дення обов’язкових тренінгів зі студентами.
Тренінг – це метод отримання знань, коли всі
иого учасники навчаються на базі власного
досвіду. На тренінговому занятті перевага від-
дається діяльності не викладача, а студентів,
особистии досвід яких є основою для навчан-
ня. Викладач на тренінгу відіграє роль фасилі-
татора. При розробці змісту тренінгу потрібно
враховувати те, що він має: бути спрямовании
на розвиток затребуваних soft skills; ґрун-
туватися на результатах сучасних наукових
досліджень; навчити і надавати можливості
студенту відповідати на реальні потреби і
запити сучасного професіиного світу. Тренін-
гова методика спрямована на створення ви-
кладачами належних умов для того, щоб сту-
денти самостіино змогли розширити власнии
діапазон професіиного мислення. Організація
навчання на основі тренінгів дозволяє підви-
щити якість засвоєння матеріалу, стимулює
активність учасників, розвиває здібності до
аргументаціı̈ своєı̈ думки, посилює відпові-
дальність за ухвалення рішення, формує здіб-
ності до співробітництва та командноı̈ робо-
ти. Основними завданнями тренінгів має бути
орієнтація на кінцеві результати у практичніи
діяльності, поступове набуття та відшліфу-
вання soft skills, розвиток необхідних у маи-
бутньому студента відповідних навичок, що
відповідають переліку soft skills.
6. Організація літньоı̈ школи, яка буде спеці-
алізуватися на розвитку soft skills студентів, де у
невимушеніи атмосфері під керівництвом про-
фесіиних психологів, коучів та інших фахівців
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студенти зможуть отримувати сучасні знання.
Це можна назвати корисним відпочинком, якии
робить невід’ємнии вклад у становлення сту-
дента не лише як фахівця, а и сучасноı̈ людини.
Висновки. Проведене дослідження доз-
волило нам встановити наступні ключові ас-
пекти. 1. Отримані результати підтвердили
наше припущення про те, що освітніи простір
фрагментарно, «точково» сприяє розвитку
soft skills у здобувачів вищоı̈ освіти. 2. Шлях
до системного та планомірного впроваджен-
ня soft skills в освітніи простір дуже складнии
і поки що відбувається на рівні окремих дис-
циплін. Тому існує необхідність проведення
комплексноı̈ політики в даніи галузі. Специ-
фікою універсальних навичок є те, що цикл
ı̈хнього розвитку не може бути обмежено кон-
текстом однієı̈ навчальноı̈ дисципліни, тре-
нінгом або позааудиторною роботою. Вони ма-
ють відточуватися та шліфуватися протягом
усього навчання студента шляхом постіиноı̈
цілеспрямованоı̈ практики. 3. Педагогічні умо-
ви та перспективи розвитку soft skills пов’яза-
ні з наскрізною імплементацією в навчальнии
процес комплексних мір, які наш погляд, поля-
гають у: наповненні нормативних навчальних
дисциплін чітким теоретичним та практич-
ним контекстом для розвитку soft skills; тран-
сформаціı̈ викладання, зміщення акцентів в
бік інноваціиних методів та форм навчання,
що містять потенціині можливості для розвит-
ку універсальних компетентностеи здобувачів
вищоı̈ освіти; глибокіи усвідомленості викла-
дачами своєı̈ місіı̈ у розвитку затребуваних soft
skills студентів; впровадженні міжфакультет-
ських та факультативних дисциплін на кшталт
«Soft skills – формула успіху», починаючи з пер-
шого року навчання, що поступово розширю-
ватимуть спектр універсальних компетентно-
стеи маибутнього фахівця; впровадженні soft
skills методом проведення обов’язкових тре-
нінгів зі студентами; організаціı̈ літньоı̈ шко-
ли, яка буде спеціалізуватися на розвитку soft
skills студентів, де у невимушеніи атмосфері
під керівництвом професіиних психологів,
коучів та інших фахівців студенти зможуть от-
римувати сучасні необхідні універсальні знан-
ня та навички.

СПИСОК ВИКОРИСТАНОЇ ЛІТЕРАТУРИ

1. Друганова О. М. Роль дисциплін вільного вибору у формуванні в здобувачів вищоı̈ освіти «soft
skills». Наукові записки кафедри педагогіки, 1(48), 2021. С. 23-29. https://doi.org/10.26565/2074-8167-
2021-48-03
2. Жерновникова О. А, Перетяга Л. Є., Ковтун А. В., Кордубан М. В., Наливаико О. О., Наливаико Н. А. Технологія
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social Tesis Pregrado, Universidad de Chile, Santiago de Chile, Chile. 2015. URL: http://www.repositorio.uchile.
cl/handle/2250/129700
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europa.eu/doi/10.2801/4492
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Education, 3(2), 389–427. URL:https://doi.org/10.18543/tjhe-3(2)-2016pp389-42
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comercial Universidad de la Serena. Revista Universitaria Ruta, (14), 2012. 41-56. URL:https://revistas.userena.
cl/index.php/ruta/article/view/190
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Стаття надіишла до редакціı̈ 07. 11.2022

Стаття рекомендована до друку 21. 11.2022

Yaroslava Shvedova
PhD in Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Pedagogy Department1
shvedova@karazin.ua ORCID: h ps://orcid.org/0000-0001-9592-3032

Elizaveta Korotetska
student of the first (bachelor’s) level of higher educa on1
korotetskayalizza@gmail.com ORCID: h ps://orcid.org/0000-0002-3925-7191

Darya Kashkabash
student of the first (bachelor’s) level of higher educa on1
dashakashkabash@gmail.com ORCID: h ps://orcid.org/0000-0002-4452-0601

1
V. N. Karazin Kharkiv Na onal University, Svobody Square 4, Kharkiv, Ukraine, 61022
SCIENTIFIC NOTES OF THE PEDAGOGICAL DEPARTMENT_______________________________________ISSN 2074-8167 93
2022 Випуск/ Issue 51

SOFT SKILLS: ANALYSIS OF DEVELOPMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION ACQUIRES AND WAYS

OF IMPLEMENTATION IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS
Formula on of the problem. In recent years, the concept of «so skills» has become an integral part
of the global labor market in various sectors of the economy and society. Interna onal and na onal studies
confirm the importance of universal skills, which are called «21st century skills». However, in prac ce,
higher educa on ins tu ons cannot always create condi ons for their comprehensive development.
Therefore, one of the main tasks of training students of higher educa on in modern condi ons is to find
ways for targeted and systema c development of so skills.
The purpose of the ar cle is to assess the degree of development of so skills of higher educa on
students in the educa onal process and to jus fy the pedagogical condi ons that can contribute to
increasing the efficiency of their development.
The results. The study of the degree of development of the sought-a er so skills of higher educa on
students in the educa onal process was carried out using a developed ques onnaire in Google Form.
The ques ons were formulated so that students, based on their own opinion, determined the degree of
development in the educa onal process of each of the proposed so skills on a 10-point scale. Students
of 1-6 years of study of V.N. Kharkiv Na onal University took part in the survey. Karazina (87 people). The
results of the conducted empirical research confirm the need for purposeful and systema c development
of so skills demanded by the modern labor market of higher educa on graduates. According to the
students, such so skills as stress resistance and flexibility, cri cal thinking, emo onal intelligence and
communica on skills need the greatest development. Pedagogical condi ons and prospects for the
development of so skills are related to the end-to-end implementa on of complex measures in the
educa onal process: filling norma ve educa onal disciplines with a clear theore cal and prac cal context
for the development of so skills; transforma on of teaching, shi of emphasis towards innova ve
methods and forms of educa on, which contain poten al opportuni es for the development of universal
competences of higher educa on seekers; deep awareness by teachers of their mission in the development
of the required so skills of students; introduc on of interfaculty and op onal disciplines such as «So
skills - the formula for success», star ng from the first year of study, which will gradually expand the range
of universal competencies of the future specialist; introduc on of so skills by conduc ng mandatory
trainings with students; the organiza on of a summer school that will specialize in the development of
students’ so skills, where in a relaxed atmosphere under the guidance of professional psychologists,
coaches and other specialists, students will be able to acquire modern knowledge and the necessary skills.
Conclusions. The obtained results confirmed our assump on that the educa onal space contributes
to the development of so skills among students of higher educa on in a fragmentary, «spot» way. The
path to the systema c and planned introduc on of so skills in the educa onal space is very difficult and
so far takes place at the level of individual disciplines. Therefore, there is a need for a comprehensive policy
in this field. Pedagogical condi ons and prospects for the development of so skills are related to the
end-to-end implementa on of the proposed comprehensive measures in the educa onal process, which,
in our opinion, will be able to provide high-quality training of specialists capable of ac ng in non-standard
situa ons, making quick decisions, ready for self-improvement, posi ve communica on and a healthy
response to challenges society.
Keywords: development of so skills in the educa onal process, students of higher educa on,
methods of implementa on, universal competences.

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The article was received by the editors 07.11.2022

The article is recommended for printing 21.11.2022
Propósitos y Representaciones Jan - Apr. 2021, Vol. 9, N° 1, e1038
ISSN 2307-7999 http://dx.doi.org/10.20511/pyr2021.v9n1.1038
e-ISSN 2310-4635

RESEARCH ARTICLES

Habilidades blandas y el desempeño docente en el nivel

superior de la educación
Soft skills and teacher performance at the higher level of

education

Jenny Liliana Rodriguez Siu

Universidad “Norbert Wiener” Lima. Perú
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6013-3994

Raúl Eduardo Rodríguez Salazar

Universidad “Norbert Wiener” Lima. Perú
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5392-1108

Leonardo Fuerte Montaño

Universidad “Norbert Wiener” Lima. Perú
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3245-4950

Received 10-12-20 Revised 11-25-20 Accepted 02-13-21 On line 02-27-21

*Correspondence Cite as:

Email:
jenny.rodriguez@uwiener.edu.pe Rodriguez, J.L, Rodriguez, R.E. & Fuerte, L. (2021). Habilidades
blandas y el desempeño docente en el nivel superior de la
educación. Propósitos y Representaciones, 9(1), e1038. Doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.20511/pyr2021.v9n1.1038

© Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola, Vicerrectorado de Investigación, 2021.

This article is distributed under license CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Propósitos y Representaciones
Jan. Apr.. 2021, Vol. 9, N° 1, 1038
http://dx.doi.org/10.20511/pyr2021.v9n1.1038
habilidades blandas y el desempeño docente en el nivel superior de la educación

Resumen

Luego de la indagación e interpretación de estudios previos, teorías y conceptos concernientes a la

temática de investigación, en los siguientes acápites de este artículo de revisión, se pretende
desarrollar, de forma conceptual y analítica, las habilidades blandas en la educación; las dimensiones
de las habilidades blandas, según Daniel Goleman; las habilidades blandas en el docente de nivel
superior; el desempeño docente; la evaluación del desempeño docente en el nivel superior; y,
finalmente, la importancia de las habilidades bandas para el desempeño del docente universitario.

Palabras clave: Habilidades blandas; Desempeño docente; Nivel superior de la educación

Summary

After the investigation and interpretation of previous studies, theories and concepts concerning the
research topic, in the following sections of this review paper, it is intended to develop, in a conceptual
and analytical way, soft skills in education; the dimensions of soft skills, according to Daniel
Goleman; soft skills in the higher level teacher; teaching performance; the evaluation of teaching
performance at the higher level; and, finally, the importance of soft skills for the performance of the
university teacher.

Keywords: Soft skills; Teaching performance; Higher level of education

Introducción

En la actualidad, dentro de esta nueva era de la globalización, la educación superior forma parte de
uno de los pilares para afrontar y transformar situaciones en beneficio de los demás; para formar al
ser con capacidades intelectuales, morales, éticas, de convivencia, entre otros; para trasmitir
conocimientos de diferentes áreas, con el fin de ser utilizadas como base para el transcurrir de su
etapa académica y laboral. Estas actividades recaen, no solo sobre los discentes, sino, también, sobre
los agentes de enseñanza: los decentes; por ende, estos últimos deben estar capacitados técnica y
emocionalmente. Este último aspecto se logra a través de los años, con el desarrollo de competencias
socioemocionales o también llamadas habilidades blandas, aquellas que “permiten interactuar con
otros de manera efectiva y afectiva como resultado de una combinación de habilidades sociales, de
comunicación, de formar el ser, de acercamiento a los demás, entre otras”. (Vidal, 2008, p. 8). Cabe
resaltar que estas habilidades fomentadas en la educación, se fundamenta en la teoría de la inteligencia
emocional de Goleman (1998), así como en las teorías de Mayer y Salovey (1997), las cuales
sostienen la idea de una educación integradora, que combine lo intelectual con lo emocional para el
desarrollo global de los estudiantes.

Ahora bien, las habilidades blandas se manifiestan en el desempeño docente, en el que se

manifiestan la planificación, la comunicación efectiva, el manejo de nuevas tecnologías, el desarrollo
de una metodología coherente a la realidad, la interacción efectiva con los estudiantes, la adecuada
tutoría, la evaluación reflexiva y el trabajo en equipo (Zabalza, 2004), sin dejar de lado que la
evaluación de aquel desempeño se logra a partir de diversas perspectivas; sin embargo, en esta
investigación, se ha considerado tomar en cuenta a partir de dominios, clasificados por Darlig-
Hammond como el dominio de lo enseñado o disciplinar, el dominio didáctico, el dominio de gestión
de la clase y el dominio referido a la motivación, autoeficacia y responsabilidad (Guzmán, 2016).

Sobre la temática de esta investigación, que ha sido direccionada sobre las bases filosóficas
y epistemológicas del docente del siglo XXI, existen diferentes estudios y autores que los construyen,
tal es el caso de, a nivel nacional, Becerra y La Serna (2005), Mazuelos (2013), Montoro (2018),
Cruzado (2019), Huanaco (2019); y, a nivel internacional, Hernández-James (2018). En los siguientes
acápites de este artículo de revisión, se analizará, sobre la base de estos estudios previos, así como de

Propósitos y Representaciones
Jan. Apr.. 2021, Vol. 9, N° 1, 1038
http://dx.doi.org/10.20511/pyr2021.v9n1.1038
 Rodriguez, J.L, Rodriguez, R.E. & Fuerte, L.

teorías y conceptos, la temática referida a las habilidades blandas y el desempeño docente en el nivel
superior de la educación.

Habilidades blandas en la educación.

A partir de la década de los 90, aproximadamente en 1996, la expresión “habilidades blandas”

comienza a distinguirse en contextos de gestión y emprendimiento; en estos, adquiere diferentes
nombres, tales como habilidades del siglo XXI, habilidades no cognitivas, habilidades
socioemocionales o blandas (Murnane y Levy, 1996). Cabe resaltar que no son los únicos nombres
que adoptó la expresión, pues, Vera (2016) registra términos como competencias para la
empleabilidad o habilidades laborales, habilidades relacionales o transversales. Del mismo modo,
Goleman (1998) cataloga a estas habilidades como inteligencia emocional y considera que esta
determina la capacidad de adaptabilidad frente a situaciones nuevas suscitadas en los diferentes
contextos de la vida del hombre: laboral, educativo, personal, entre otros.

Las habilidades blandas o soft skill son definidas como aquel grupo de destrezas adquiridas
por la persona, en este caso del estudiante y docente, y que facilitan la optimización de su propio
desempeño, tanto en el ámbito académico-profesional, laborar, emocional, psicológico como en el
ámbito personal (Duckworth y Yeager, 2015; Siqueira, 2017). Cabe destacar que estas habilidades se
complementan con otras, calificadas como habilidades duras (Marrero, 2018), las cuales se relacionan
con los saberes, así como con el manejo de información respecto del área profesional en la que la
persona se desempeña, y son asequibles para ser medidos (Lopez, 2009).

Por lo mencionado, se puede deducir que este conjunto de destrezas es sustancial en diferentes
ámbitos de nuestras vidas, por ejemplo, en el ámbito laboral y en el ámbito educativo. En el primer
caso, se puede señalar que, actualmente, las grandes empresas requieren de profesionales, cuya
inteligencia emocional se perciba más desarrollada frente a su coeficiente intelectual, pues necesitan
que aquellos puedan tomar decisiones acertadas, así como sostener relaciones efectivas (Abarca,
2004; Muñoz, 2013). En cuanto al segundo caso, el ámbito educativo, se puede indicar que estas se
desarrollan a lo largo del proceso formativo del estudiante, es decir, desde las etapas escolares hasta
las etapas superiores; por ende, deberían consolidarse a partir de metodologías pertinentes que
aseguren su óptimo desarrollo y, por consiguiente, aplicación (Marreo, 2018).

Ahora, en el nivel superior de la educación, se puede indicar que, en este, se espera la

formación global del discente, es decir, tomar en cuenta la impartición de conocimientos a través de
métodos dirigidos hacia el aprendizaje autónomo, en el que el propio estudiante desarrolle la
capacidad para solucionar problemas, pensar de forma crítica y desarrollar la resiliencia. Aquella
formación, a su vez, no solo debe erigir sus bases en la adquisición de saberes que corresponden a las
diferentes disciplinas profesionales, sino, también, en el desarrollo de actitudes de transformación
social. Lo mencionado tiene que ver con los lineamientos de aprender a aprender, a emprender y a
convivir, los mismos aspectos del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje que se relacionan con las
habilidades blandas (Ruiz, 2007; Raciti, 2015). Por consiguiente, en el contexto universitario, las
habilidades blandas son más necesarias, puesto que los estudiantes necesitan ser formados como entes
activos frente a las exigencias de los diferentes trabajos, de los que formarán parte culminadas sus
carreras profesionales, pues, hoy en día, los requisitos impuestos para lo empleados son que estos
demuestren altos niveles de proactividad, adaptabilidad, resiliencia y responsabilidad (Vera, 2016).

Dimensiones de las habilidades blandas, según Daniel Goleman

De acuerdo con Goleman (1998), las habilidades blandas o inteligencia emocional, como él las
cataloga, se dividen en dos grandes competencias: a. personales, aquellas que se relacionan con uno
mismo; y b. sociales, aquellas que se refieren a los demás. Dentro de las competencias personales,

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se encuentran la conciencia emocional; la valoración; y la confianza en uno mismo, en esta última, se

incluyen la motivación de logro, el compromiso y el optimismo. Dentro de las competencias sociales,
se distinguen la empatía, la orientación hacia el servicio, el desarrollo de los demás, el
aprovechamiento de la diversidad, la conciencia política, así como la comunicación, el liderazgo, la
catalización del cambio, la resolución de conflictos y las habilidades de equipo.

En esta investigación, se ha considerado tomar en cuenta aquellas habilidades blandas que se

relacionan, específicamente, con el éxito de la labor del docente universitario: adaptabilidad,
responsabilidad, comunicación, desarrollo de los demás, y acceso y gestión eficaz de la información.
Sobre esta última, cabe resaltar que ha sido tomada de la clasificación que realizó Alcalde (2014) y
que Goleman (1998) denomina búsqueda de información y eficacia, la misma que Zabalza (2004)
menciona como competencia en manejo de nuevas tecnologías.

En correspondencia con lo señalado por Goleman (1998), la primera habilidad blanda que se
ha considerado es la adaptabilidad, la cual permite, a través del pensamiento flexible, que el docente
adapte sus reacciones emocionales a los constantes cambios, los cuales, más bien, son aprovechados
para proponer ideas innovadoras. En cuanto a la segunda habilidad blanda, la responsabilidad, se
puede afirmar que esta se direcciona hacia el cumplimiento de compromisos establecidos, mediante
una adecuada organización y disciplina; además, contempla aspectos de ética y honradez. De acuerdo
con la tercera habilidad blanda, la comunicación, se puede manifestar que es la que permite que
codifiques y descodifiques mensajes de manera efectiva; por ende, facilita la captación de señales
emocionales y, a continuación, la pronta resolución de situaciones complejas; por ello, el autor
señalado líneas más arriba sostiene que un buen comunicador posee “la capacidad de escuchar, de
formular las preguntas adecuadas, permanecer receptivo, comprender, no interrumpir y buscar
sugerencias” (p. 110). La cuarta habilidad, el desarrollo de los demás, consiste en identificar las
necesidades, fortalezas y logros de los demás para potenciar el desarrollo de su talento; aquella es
digna de ser considerada como parte del docente o formador, pues, como indica Goleman (1998), “los
mejores formadores muestran un auténtico interés, son empáticos y comprenden a las personas a las
que orientan. La confianza resulta esencial en este sentido porque cuando existe poca confianza en el
formador, las advertencias se ven desatendidas”. (p. 93) Finalmente, la quinta habilidad a considerarse
en esta investigación, el acceso y gestión eficaz de la información, refiere a la capacidad para
identificar contenidos confiables para ser utilizados de forma precisa y creativa en un lapso
determinado; ello requiere, a todas luces, del acceso a la tecnología, con el fin de buscar y difundir
información. Por ende, el docente universitario del siglo XXI deberá mantenerse a la vanguardia en
cuanto a las nuevas tecnologías de la información y comunicación.

Habilidades blandas en el docente de nivel superior

Luego de la revisión y análisis de la literatura, se puede sostener que la importancia de la formación

del estudiante no solo radica en que el docente de nivel superior enseñe o imparta conocimientos
teóricos y prácticos que correspondan al ámbito laboral de cada carrera profesional, sino, también,
que este adiestramiento guarde correspondencia o se vincule estrechamente con la asimilación de
habilidades para el desarrollo personal; por ello, para que este proceso se lleve a cabo, el docente no
puede desvincularse del uso de recursos metodológicos en el que se genere la participación activa del
discente, tales como debates, juego de toles, entre otros (Mangrulkar et al., 2001). En esa misma línea,
promover el desarrollo de estas habilidades no debe disociarse de las actividades que se plantean en
el currículo enfocadas a las necesidades y contextos de los estudiantes, y al trabajo cooperativo y
colaborativo, pues se logrará la interacción entre estudiante-estudiante y entre estudiante-docente
(Ruiz, 2007; Lagos, 2012, Silva, 2013).

Según lo manifestado en el acápite anterior, las principales habilidades blandas, según

Goleman (1998), refieren a la adaptabilidad, la responsabilidad, la comunicación, el desarrollo de los

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demás, y el acceso y gestión eficaz de la información. Ahora, específicamente, para el docente

universitario existen tres de estas destrezas: a. la creatividad e innovación, la cual permite percibir el
fracaso como una oportunidad de aprendizaje y aportar al trabajo con innovaciones; b. el pensamiento
crítico y resolución de problemas, el cual permite analizar, interpretar y llegar a las mejores
soluciones; y c. el acceso y gestión eficaz de la información, en el que se considera el uso preciso y
creativo de la información utilizando la tecnología como herramienta para investigar, organizar,
evaluar y comunicar información (Alcalde, 2014). Esta última destreza guarda relación con la
tecnología, imprescindible para el docente universitario del siglo XXI, pues es una necesidad que
surge por la globalización y virtualización de la información, que ha traído consigo nuevas
modalidades de enseñanza-aprendizaje, tales como la educación e-learning. En esta modalidad, los
docentes deben desarrollar con mayor intensidad competencias didácticas, especialmente, dirigidas a
aquellas habilidades que organizan la información, producen materiales de aprendizaje digitalizados
y los convierten en un tutor virtual (Zabalza, 2004).

Según lo manifestado, el desarrollo de estas destrezas calza de forma conveniente en docentes

universitarios, dados los desafíos a los que estos se enfrentan: abundancia cognitiva, sociedad
conectada, entre otros (Alcalde, 2014).

Desempeño docente.

El término desempeño refiere a un acto que resulta de ejecutar algo; en este contexto, se atañe a las
operaciones realizadas por los docentes dentro del desarrollo del proceso de enseñanza (Martínez y
García, 2017). Ahora bien, respecto de la definición general de desempeño docente, se puede sostener
que constituye al proceso de activación de habilidades y recursos de docente, tanto intelectuales como
profesionales, enfocados al logro de metas de aprendizaje; de sus convicciones acordes a las
necesidades de la sociedad, que se manifiestan en la participación de aquel en la gestión educativa,
en la emisión de juicios de valor sobre las políticas educativas, a fin de optimizar las competencias
del discente (Barnett, 2001; Robalino, 2005).

En esta investigación, se ha considerado que el desempeño docente es clasificado por

dominios, tal como lo indica Darlig-Hammond: a. dominio de lo enseñado o disciplinar, b. dominio
didáctico, c. dominio de gestión de la clase, y d. motivación, autoeficacia y responsabilidad. El primer
dominio incluye la conexión de ideas; la identificación de conceptos principales de un tema, así como
de los secundarios; y el saber desarrollar planes y programas académicos. Este aspecto, llamado
también dominio disciplinar, resulta importante, pero no suficiente para una eficiente práctica
docente, dado que existen muchos casos en los que un docente puede ser experto en el tema, pero no
sabe cómo potenciar el aprendizaje de sus estudiantes (Guzmán, 2016). El segundo dominio refiere a
la calidad en el saber enseñar, que se manifiesta cuando el docente construye espacios favorables para
el logro del aprendizaje esperado en el estudiante, cuando diseña experiencias significativas en
función a los procesos cognitivos de razonamiento, creatividad, pensamiento crítico, entre otros
(Hattie, 2009). El tercer dominio guarda relación con las actividades que el docente genera, a fin de
estimular el aprendizaje del estudiante; por ende, algunos factores fundamentales para lograr una
óptima gestión es el orden, la motivación y la eficacia en el uso del tiempo (Guzmán, 2016).
Finalmente, el cuarto dominio corresponde a la motivación, la cual es se manifiesta en las actitudes y
comportamientos positivos y autónomos frente al desarrollo de alguna actividad significativa, en este
caso, la enseñanza (Ajello, 2003); a la autoeficacia, la cual se manifiesta en la planificación,
organización y disposición para trabajar con los estudiantes que requieren mayor apoyo (Tschannen-
Moran et al., 1998); a la responsabilidad, la cual se direcciona hacia el cumplimiento de compromisos
establecidos, mediante una adecuada organización y disciplina; además, contempla aspecto de ética
y honradez (Goleman, 1998).

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Evaluación del desempeño docente en el nivel superior.

La evaluación del desempeño docente corresponde a emitir un juicio de valor respecto del
cumplimiento de las responsabilidades en el proceso enseñanza-aprendizaje, a fin de obtener
información válida, objetiva y fiable, y, finalmente, determinar los logros alcanzados por los
estudiantes, así como el desarrollo de las áreas de trabajo. Por ello, es crucial destacar que esta
evaluación constituye la estrategia fundamental para mejorar la calidad educativa. Si no se cuenta con
docentes eficientes, no se puede optimizar ni transformar la educación (Nieto et al., 2003).

En el nivel superior, se propone una serie de competencias fundamentales que todo docente
debe haber adquirido, tal es el caso de la planificación, en la que se estructuran los contenidos
actualizados y coherentes con la realidad del estudiante, las estrategias didácticas, así como los
recursos para una adecuada sesión de clase; la comunicación efectiva, en la cual el docente brinda
una información comprensible y organizada adecuadamente; el manejo de las nuevas tecnologías,
aquella que, en la actualidad, ha facilitado la educación a distancia; el desarrollo de una metodología
que organice eficientemente las actividades académicas a partir de la organización de los espacios,
de la selección del método, del desarrollo de las tareas instructivas con su respectiva
retroalimentación; la relación asertiva con los estudiantes para asegurar su maduración y desarrollo
personal; el tutorizar, que implica acompañar y guiar el proceso de formación de los estudiantes; la
evaluación, la inclinación hacia la reflexión y la investigación; y, finalmente, el trabajo en equipo e
identificación institucional (Zabalza, 2004). Adicionalmente, Perrenoud (2000) agrega, como
competencias que deben estar asimiladas en el docente, a la autogestión su formación profesional y a
la individualización de la enseñanza partiendo de las necesidades de cada estudiante.

Respecto de la formación profesional o profesionalismo del docente, señalada líneas más

arriba y que es considerada dentro de la evaluación del desempeño del mismo en el nivel superior,
cabe destacar que equivale a la vinculación entre capacitación y experiencia, las cuales son
sustanciales para construir saberes que le permitan desenvolverse adecuadamente en el ámbito
académico, bajo criterios de efectividad (Arguelles y Gonzci, 2001), puesto que, de manera general,
ser un profesional implica que la persona “puede brindar un servicio o elaborar un bien garantizando
el resultado con eficiencia y calidad determinada, es decir, con profesionalismo”. (Castro, 2015, p.
273)

De acuerdo con Valdés (2004), existen 5 modelos evaluativos que se utilizan con reiteración:
a. Modelo centrado en el perfil del maestro, el cual evalúa al docente conforme a un perfil establecido
con anticipación y que se direcciona hacia un “maestro ideal” con un currículo profesional adecuado;
b. Modelo centrado en los resultados obtenidos, el cual se enfoca en los logros que reflejan los
estudiantes a partir de la enseñanza de cada docente, quien desarrollará un porcentaje de evaluación
favorable o desfavorable, según la deserción o promoción del estudiante; c. Modelo centrado en el
comportamiento del docente en el aula, el cual evalúa el comportamiento asociado con la
optimización de competencias en el estudiante que se manifiestan en las técnicas de recojo de
aprendizajes, tales como lista de cotejo, rúbricas, entre otro; y d. Modelo de la práctica reflexiva, el
cual hace referencia a la enseñanza basada en la resolución de problemas.

En cuando al nivel superior de la educación, estos modelos de evaluación del docente son
considerados como recursos ideales para optimizar la calidad educativa, pues los objetivos de estos
procesos corresponden a identificar los logros, así como las debilidades o las falencias; estimular el
óptimo desempeño; y aplicar proyectos de mejora. Estos propósitos se concretan a través de un plan
de desarrollo profesional que incluya estos lineamientos sobre la base de un acompañamiento
constante, responsable y consciente (Nieto et al., 2003).

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Luego de lo señalado, se puede evidenciar que los resultados de la evaluación docente son
útiles para decidir una promoción docente, algún reconocimiento, así como para determinar su
permanencia en la institución educativa o programa académico. Es imprescindible para ejecutar una
eficiente evaluación docente contar con personal experto evaluador, ya que se debe observar su
performance en clase, lo que supone verificar los contenidos, los momentos y la situación didáctica
(Guzmán, 2016).

Importancia del desarrollo de las habilidades blandas para el desempeño del docente universitario.

La educación universitaria en la actualidad se contrapone a la educación tradicional, pues, ahora, se

toma en cuenta el modelo pedagógico constructivista, el cual permite que el estudiante pueda
estructurar y construir, a partir de la vinculación de saberes previos con saberes adquiridos mediante
sus propias experiencias y las de sus compañeros de aula, sus propios aprendizajes (Dewey, citado en
Pallares y Muñoz, 2017). Por ello, la demanda que se genera en este contexto educativo se relaciona,
fuertemente, con el entorno social, con la solución de problemas de la vida real y con el trabajo
colaborativo (Delors, 1996). Ello implica que el docente universitario halla desarrollado la capacidad
de interpretar, comprender y autorregular pertinentemente aspectos emocionales que inciden en su
desempeño como docente, a fin de formar discentes con capacidad para afrontar, convenientemente,
actividades académicas que le generen ansiedad o estrés (Brackett et al, 2007).

Actualmente, el sistema educativo exige más retos al docente del nivel superior; por ello,
aquel deberá tener una formación constante durante todo el desarrollo de su vida académico-
profesional, a fin de, no solo optimizar los contenidos y su exposición, sino, también, mejorar aquellas
capacidades que acompañan y complementan la práctica del docente (Robalino, 2005), tal es el caso
de las habilidades blandan. La importancia de estas en el desempeño del docente, es decir, cuando
aplican el pensamiento crítico, las bases teóricas y metodológicas contextualizadas en el currículum,
el manejo eficiente de la virtualidad en la enseñanza, los saberes vinculados a la realidad, entre otros,
radica en que permitirán la satisfacción en beneficio de los agentes de aprendizaje, pues logran
desarrollar y potenciar, a partir de cualidades personales, aspectos como la adaptabilidad frente a las
nuevas situaciones que se presentan en el estudiante, la responsabilidad para cumplir con los objetivos
de enseñanza, la comunicación que le permita comprender interactuar efectivamente con cada
estudiante, desarrollo de los demás para comprender el proceso formativo individualizado y colectivo,
y acceso y gestión eficaz de la información para transmitir solo sabres adecuados y acordes con las
necesidades y contextos del discente (Goleman, 1995).

Conclusiones

Luego de la búsqueda y análisis de la información, se puede afirmar que las habilidades blandas,
consideradas también como habilidades socioemocionales, habilidades no cognitivas, inteligencia
emocional, competencias para la empleabilidad, habilidades laborales, habilidades relacionales o
transversales (Murnane y Levy, 1996, citado por García, 2018; Vera, 2016; Goleman, 1998), son
cruciales para el desarrollo académico-profesional y personal del docente universitario, pues es
preciso que estos formen a estudiantes para la vida a partir de capacidades como saber escuchar y
comunicar, por ende, retroalimentar de forma positiva; pensar de forma crítica; liderar a partir de la
empatía.

Respecto del desempeño docente en el nivel superior de educación y su evaluación, se puede concluir
que se realiza desde variados criterios, tal es el caso de competencias útiles para el desarrollo del
proceso de enseñanza: saber planificar, poseer comunicación efectiva, manejar las nuevas
tecnologías, aplicar una metodología coherente al contexto, interactuar de forma asertiva con los
estudiantes, tutorizar de forma pertinente, fomentar el trabajo colaborativo e individual y autorregular

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la formación profesional (Zabalza, 2004; Perrenoud, 2000). El resultado de las evaluaciones es crucial
para subsanar errores y optimizar virtudes.

Finalmente, se puede considerar que, dentro de este mundo inestable, así como globalizado, el
desarrollo de las habilidades blandas con relación al desempeño docente universitario es fundamental
porque este debe adaptarse, en coherencia con los aspecto sociales y emocionales, a las nuevas
realidades, como es el caso, por ejemplo, de la educación a distancia; por ende, debe haber
modificaciones en los contenidos de los planes de estudio y, a continuación, en las actividades y
metodologías que el propio docente desarrolla durante su clase, a fin de formar estudiantes en el
ámbito teórico-práctico de su profesión y en el ámbito personal vinculado a aspectos de liderazgo, de
criticidad, así como de responsabilidad (Robalino, 2005; Goleman, 1998).

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HABILIDADES BLANDAS
Y EL IMPACTO DE LA COVID-19
EN LA EDUCACIÓN SUPERIOR
SOFT SKILLS AND THE IMPACT OF COVID-19
ON HIGHER EDUCATION
Lida Vásquez-Pajuelo
Código ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1241-3190
Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas,
Lima, Perú
Correspondencia:
pcaplvas@upc.edu.pe
lidavasquez@gmail.com
Jazmín Alicia Tuesta-Vila
Código ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6616-3978
Universidad Peruana del Norte, Lima, Perú
Correspondencia:
jazmin.tuesta@upn.pe
jaztuesta@gmail.com
RESUMEN
El presente artículo de investigación busca conocer cómo
fomentar el desarrollo de las habilidades blandas para
afrontar con éxito los impactos en la educación superior
del periodo post pandemia. El estudio se basa en la revisión
exhaustiva de los trabajos actuales que se tienen a dispo-
sición sobre el conocimiento de las habilidades blandas y
la promoción de su desarrollo en el estudiante. Esto permitirá
perfeccionar sus habilidades blandas y ser consciente de
sus propias cualidades socioemocionales. De esta manera,
en el futuro podrán ser parte de una generación de
profesionales capaces de tener un desenvolvimiento
emocional armonioso, que incluya momentos de alta
presión laboral. La educación superior debe promover
entre la comunidad educativa que la conforma, en especial
entre los estudiantes, las distintas alternativas de expansión
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Doris Alicia Vila-Gómez
Código ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1855-7830
Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola, Lima, Perú
Correspondencia:
doris.vila@usil.pe
dorisvila@yahoo.com¿
Recibido: setiembre 2020
Aprobado: setiembre 2020
Cómo citar este artículo: Vásquez-Pajuelo, L., Vila-Gómez, D. A., &
Tuesta-Vila, J. A. (2020). Habilidades blandas y el impacto de la
covid-19 en la educación superior. Review of Global Management,
6(1), 41-49.
de las habilidades blandas, con los consiguientes impactos
positivos en su futuro mundo laboral. Entendiendo estas
como habilidades que potencian la interacción de uno con
el otro, fortaleciendo el trato, y mejorando las relaciones y
el control emocional en el ambiente laboral, profesional
y personal. La metodología aplicada en este trabajo es
cualitativa y consistió en la revisión de artículos actuales
y recojo de datos de distintos autores que explican lo que
las “habilidades blandas” significan. Los resultados
presentados en esta investigación corresponden a la
inquietud de buscar un método eficaz que permita a los
estudiantes desarrollarse de manera dinámica e intuitiva
con la asistencia e intervención del docente, quien también
debe reunir las características necesarias para ser el apoyo
constante del educando. La investigación da pie a que,
en el futuro, se profundice el desarrollo de las habilidades
blandas en los estudiantes y sirva de base para futuras
investigaciones.
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Palabras clave: habilidades blandas; impacto de la
Covid-19; educación superior.
ABSTRACT
This research paper seeks to know how to promote the
development of soft skills in order to face successfully
the impacts on higher education of the post-pandemic
period. The study is based on an exhaustive review of
current literature on soft skills and the promotion of their
development in students. Such promotion will allow
students to improve their soft skills and become aware
of their own socio-emotional qualities. In the future,
accordingly, they will be able to be part of a generation
of professionals capable of having a harmonious emotional
development, which includes moments of high work
pressure. Higher education should foster among its
community members, especially among students,
the different means for expanding soft skills, with
the consequent positive impacts on their future
employment. Soft skills should be understood as those
skills that enhance interaction between one another;
strengthen relationships; and improve relationships and
emotional control in work, professional and personal
environments. The methodology applied in this study is
qualitative in nature, and consists of both , reviewing
current research, and collecting data from different
authors that explain what “soft skills”mean. The results
presented in this study are consistent with our concern
of seeking an effective method that allows faculty-assisted
student development, dynamically and intuitively We
stress the need for enhancing students with soft skills,
whose further development should set the stage for
future applied research
Keywords: Strategic planning, operative efficacy,
long-term vision.
I. INTRODUCCIÓN
El fortalecimiento del desarrollo de las habilidades blandas
en estudiantes de educación superior es un tema vigente
42 RGM, Volumen 6, Número 1, setiembre 2020.
y conlleva el planteamiento siguiente: ¿cómo se incentiva
el desarrollo de las habilidades blandas en la educación
superior? Sin embargo, en medio de una pandemia que
impone el aislamiento social, que coloca por delante a la
vida como valor más importante, dicha pregunta queda
reformulada en la siguiente interrogante: ¿cómo se incentivan
el desarrollo de las habilidades blandas en la educación
superior en el periodo pos-pandemia?
Esta situación trae, entre otras consecuencias, el aumento
del nivel de estrés, debido a que los alumnos deben
estudiar y trabajar de modo sincrónico. Por tanto, es
importante motivar el desarrollo de estas habilidades
mediante actividades sociales, cursos online, webinars
y charlas informativas, entre otros, en los que se integren
dinámicas, aplicando estrategias para promover el
pensamiento crítico del estudiante y fomentar la
comunicación oral, como también trabajar en equipo,
para que así puedan tomar sus propias decisiones y
solucionar problemas. En este esfuerzo, los docentes
también participan incentivando a sus estudiantes
para que su aprendizaje sea más profundo y de calidad.
Además, el docente ayuda a los estudiantes a consolidar,
paso a paso, su autonomía, es decir, sus habilidades de
autoaprendizaje y autogestión para enfrentar, mejor
equipados, los desafíos del mercado laboral y el eventual
contexto de la pos-pandemia que se vivirá.
Por otro lado, la realidad laboral del siglo XXI exige nuevas
habilidades a los egresados de las universidades, tales
como las habilidades digitales. Al respecto, recientes
investigaciones demuestran que quienes poseen alta
habilidad en el uso de las TIC para la gestión de información,
así como para manejar dispositivos móviles, pueden
desarrollar el pensamiento crítico y su capacidad de
resolver problemas. Además, los estudios precisan que
la realización de proyectos académicos fortalece la
adquisición y desarrollo de tales habilidades en relación
con el uso de las TIC. (León-Pérez, Bas, & Escudero-Nahón,
2020).
El propósito de este artículo de investigación es indagar
cómo fomentar el desarrollo de las habilidades blandas en
los estudiantes para afrontar la educación superior en el
periodo de la pos-pandemia.
En la actualidad, las habilidades blandas son tomadas en
cuenta en distintas organizaciones humanas, como las

empresas, en donde se valoran la inteligencia y el control
emocional de los colaboradores por sus impactos en los
resultados productivos. Así, además de los conocimientos
técnico–prácticos, la capacitación de los trabajadores en
el desarrollo de las habilidades blandas se relaciona con
su capacidad para el relacionamiento social, su forma de
comunicar, sus aptitudes y personalidad, permitiendo un
nivel alto de competitividad personal, grupal y empresarial.
En este artículo, se resalta que la salud mental en los
estudiantes es de suma importancia para enfrentar la
pos-pandemia y que se mantiene a través del desarrollo de
las habilidades blandas. A su vez, estas habilidades están
relacionadas con el desempeño académico al permitirles
ser competentes y/o versátiles en diversas situaciones.
Asimismo, es necesario comprender que los profesores
tienen un rol de liderazgo en este proyecto y necesitan
desarrollar las competencias necesarias para influir en el
estudiante de una manera positiva (Flores-Guerra, 2018).
1.1. Las habilidades blandas
En 1959, la Marina de Guerra de los Estados Unidos de
América (US Navy) implementó un programa de capaci-
tación para sus integrantes. Para tal fin, usó un método
para medir, mediante pasos o procesos, las competencias y
habilidades necesarias para una mejor integración y mejor
desempeño de sus miembros en su especialidad militar.
Estas competencias desarrolladas no tenían una palabra
que conceptúe la idea, tan solo era llamadas “habilidades
necesarias para mejorar el desempeño laboral, [que]
carece[n] del contacto con máquinas…”.
El origen del uso formal de la expresión "habilidades
blandas" se ha identificado en un manual de entrenamiento
del ejército estadounidense de 1972, se da a conocer las
“habilidades blandas” (del inglés Soft Skills). El psicólogo
Nicholas Humphrey afirmó célebremente que es la
inteligencia social la que define a los humanos más que
la inteligencia cuantitativa. Muchas empresas dan hoy
preferencia a las habilidades blandas de sus empleados.
(referido en Newman, Chutes & Ladders, 2006).
Posteriormente, en la década de los 90, aproximadamente
en 1996, la expresión “habilidades blandas” en la educación,
comienza a distinguirse en contextos de gestión y
emprendimiento; adquiere diferentes nombres, tales
como habilidades del siglo XXI, habilidades no cognitivas,
habilidades socioemocionales o blandas (Murnane y
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Levy, 1996). Cabe resaltar que registra términos como
competencias para la empleabilidad o habilidades
laborales, habilidades relacionales o transversales. Del
mismo modo, Goleman (1998), cataloga a estas habilidades
como inteligencia emocional y considera que esta
determina la capacidad de adaptabilidad frente a
situaciones nuevas suscitadas en los diferentes contextos
de la vida del hombre: laboral, educativo, personal, etc.
Las habilidades blandas o soft skill son definidas como
aquel grupo de destrezas adquiridas por la persona,
en este caso del estudiante y docente, y que facilitan la
optimización de su propio desempeño, tanto en el ámbito
académico-profesional, laboral, emocional, psicológico
como en el ámbito personal (Duckworth y Yeager, 2015;
Siqueira, 2017). Cabe destacar que estas habilidades se
complementan con otras, calificadas como habilidades
duras (Marrero, 2018). Respecto a los estudiantes las
habilidades blandas, consideradas también como
habilidades socioemocionales, habilidades no cognitivas,
inteligencia emocional, competencias para la empleabili-
dad, habilidades laborales, habilidades relacionales o
transversales; son cruciales para el desarrollo académico-
profesional y personal del docente universitario, pues
es preciso que estos formen a estudiantes para la vida a
partir de capacidades como saber escuchar y comunicar,
por ende, retroalimentar de forma positiva; pensar de
forma crítica; liderar a partir de la empatía. Y respecto del
desempeño docente en el nivel superior de educación y su
evaluación, se puede concluir que se realiza desde variados
criterios, tal es el caso de competencias útiles para el
desarrollo del proceso de enseñanza: saber planificar,
poseer comunicación efectiva, manejar las herramientas
tecnologías, aplicar una metodología coherente al contexto,
interactuar de forma asertiva con los estudiantes, tutorizar
de forma pertinente, fomentar el trabajo colaborativo e
individual y autorregular (referido en Rodriguez,
Rodríguez, & Fuerte, 2021).
1.2. El impacto de la Covid-19
Desde su llegada, el coronavirus y la pandemia generada
han trastocado la vida de todos en una escala mundial.
Como se conoce, los coronavirus generan desde afecciones
respiratorias leves, como el resfrío común, hasta formas
más severas, como el Síndrome Respiratorio de Oriente
Medio (MERS, por sus siglas en inglés), y el Síndrome
Respiratorio Agudo Severo (SARS, por sus siglas en
inglés). El actual brote de coronavirus está generando
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una afección conocida como COVID-19 (García, 2020), y
ya ha afectado a casi cincuenta millones de personas en
todo el mundo. Sin embargo, no se conoce todavía las
secuelas de largo plazo. Al respecto, en una entrevista en
la Actualidad TV, el director general de la Organización
Mundial de la Salud (OMS), Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus,
ha manifestado que dichas secuelas presentarían "una
preocupante variedad de síntomas que pueden cambiar
con el tiempo y pueden afectar a cualquier sistema
corporal" (referido por Izquierdo, 2020, p. 1).
Hasta el momento no hay una cura a esta enfermedad,
siendo la única alternativa la inmunización. Cuatro de
las 10 vacunas más avanzadas (Fase III) se desarrollan en
China, mientras que las otras son de las farmacéuticas
estadounidenses, Janssen (Johnson & Johnson), Novavax,
Pfizer y Moderna; a las que se suma la británica AstraZe-
neca, en colaboración con la Universidad de Oxford. En el
Perú ya se están probando las vacunas de Sinophram en
asociación con la Universidad Mayor de San Marcos y la
Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia.
II. MÉTODOS Y MATERIALES
En la presente investigación se ha empleado la metodología
cualitativa, enfocada en el análisis documental y la
revisión sistemática de fuentes de información actuales,
como artículos científicos, entre otros, usando como
técnica, la lectura comprensiva, de textos descriptivos y
explicativos con contenido especializados y científicos.
2.1. Las habilidades blandas versus el impacto de la
COVID-19
Como se precisó, este estudio está basado en la revisión
de artículos de publicaciones recientes y recojo de datos
de distintos autores que explican el concepto de las
“habilidades blandas y el impacto de la COVID-19 en la
educación superior” y se desarrolla desde las perspectivas
de la psicología y la educación. Cabe precisar que la
investigación se realiza durante este año de pandemia.
El presente estudio, se basa en el esquema de elaboración
de las autoras presentado en la Figura 1 y que recoge los
planteamientos de Aguerrevere et al. (2020).

Figura 1. Habilidades blandas vs. impacto de la COVID-19

Soft Skills and impact

of COVID-19
Perseverancia en todos los sectores: aislamiento Empatía
social, tecnología, habilidades
socioemocionales, recesión y Inteligencia
Resilencia
recuperación económica, entornos emocional
virtuales, interacciones humanas,
Digitales emergencia sanitaria, sector educa- Solidaridad
tivo con clases remotas, habilidades
transversales, intermediación
Compasión Creatividad
laboral, empatía y manejo
de equipo e interacción con
Aprender a otros. (Aguerrevere et al., 2020) Pensamiento
aprender crítico

Comunicación Autorregulación
Adaptabilidad

Fuente: Adaptado de Aguerrevere et al., 2020.

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2.2. Revisión de habilidades blandas
En primer lugar y tal como lo consigna un artículo en la
versión chilena del portal Universia (“Habilidades blandas:
qué son”, 2020), las habilidades blandas se caracterizan por
permitir que la persona que las posee tenga un relaciona-
miento más efectivo en los distintos escenarios donde
le toque desenvolverse. Por lo tanto, tienen que ver con
la puesta en práctica integrada de aptitudes, rasgos
de personalidad, conocimientos y valores adquiridos;
destacándose como características de ellas a las siguientes:
• Adaptabilidad: adaptarse a los cambios y mantener la
organización actualizada, con flexibilidad y salida de la
zona de confort para superar miedos, cambios u obstáculos;
las empresas, tal y como lo hace la sociedad, están en
cambio constante.
• Autorregulación: conocerse a sí mismo, sus fortalezas y
debilidades y confiar en su propio talento.
• Pensamiento crítico: aprender a pensar y elaborar su
propio juicio.
• Habilidades comunicativas: ser claro a la hora de
comunicar cualquier eventualidad, ya sea buena o mala,
es fundamental; tener una buena comunicación con su
equipo de trabajo es fundamental; saber comunicar sus
ideas y recibir las de los colaboradores es parte clave.
• Creatividad: tener inventiva propia, pensar fuera del
rebaño y generar ideas innovadoras es una de las aptitudes
más buscadas; capacidad para crear, innovar e imaginar.
• Responsabilidad: se trata de saber asumir responsa-
bilidades, cumplir con plazos, llegar en hora, respetar los
tiempos de los demás, etc.
• Honestidad: es fundamental ser honesto tanto a la hora de
reclamar reconocimiento y emitir quejas, como de reconocer
errores y asumir responsabilidades sin apuntar a otros.
• Proactividad: si surge un problema, lo que hay que hacer
es tomar las riendas del asunto y encontrar soluciones
propias sin estar constantemente molestando al jefe.
• Resiliencia: es un término acuñado por la psicología
moderna y que se identifica con la capacidad de tornar
situaciones complicadas y traumáticas en importantes
enseñanzas de vida.
• Trabajo en equipo: se trata de tener la tolerancia y
diplomacia suficientes como para lidiar con distintos tipos
de personalidades; “la unión conlleva el éxito”, por lo que
saber trabajar en equipo es hoy en día una habilidad
indispensable para todos.
• Empatía: ponerse en el lugar del otro es primordial, ya
no solo para cargos con cierta responsabilidad, sino
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también para el resto de los miembros del equipo;.existen
dos tipos de empatía: cognitiva y afectiva, y las dos nos
ayudan a ponernos en el lugar de la otra persona. No
obstante, existe una gran diferencia entre ellos. El primero,
puede fomentar conductas manipuladoras y servir como
herramienta para herir a los demás, mientras que,
el segundo tipo de empatía, por su parte, estimula la
sensibilidad emocional y podría ser el camino para
trabajar medidas anti-bullying.
2.3. Las habilidades blandas en el trabajo
De acuerdo con Universia (“Habilidades blandas: qué son”,
2020), dentro de las habilidades más destacadas, tanto
en el ámbito laboral, como en el universitario, tenemos a:
• Trabajar en equipo y fomentar un sentido de
pertenencia: esta propuesta asume que los seres
humanos necesitamos sentirnos parte de algo y asumir
una identidad común, como fundamento a la hora de
tomar decisiones en conjunto
• Establecer metas comunes: siguiendo en línea con
el punto anterior, los objetivos a alcanzar por el equipo
deben ser definidos con claridad desde un primer momento.
• Construir confianza: lo normal en los grupos de trabajo
es que convivan personalidades dispares, por lo que la
clave para gestionarlas es construyendo confianza entre
sus miembros: cada uno debe aprender a ser tolerante y
conocer las virtudes y defectos de los demás.
• Promover la negociación: el camino más fácil cuando
se generan dificultades de convivencia es echar culpas e
intentar sacar ventaja; pero nunca se llegará a un resultado
bueno si no se fomenta la empatía y se promueven las
negociaciones del tipo “ganar-ganar” o “aprender a aprender”.
2.4. Las habilidades blandas en el emprendimiento
En el emprendimiento, las habilidades más importantes
serían: fijarse un objetivo, perseverar en el trabajo y aprender
a fracasar. Según la un artículo en la revista Forbes (“Así
ha afectado”, 2020), estas habilidades la tendrían todos los
emprendedores más famosos, entre los que destacan: Bill
Gates, fundador de Microsoft y responsable de todos los
avances informáticos y tecnológicos que hemos experi-
mentado en las últimas décadas; Paul Allen, mano derecha
de Gates en Microsoft y actor activo en Vulcan Ventures,
Dreamworks, Priceline GoNet y Oxygen; Steve Jobs,
fundador de Apple y reconocido por su carácter creativo
e innovador; Stephen Wozniak, compañero de Jobs en
Apple y verdadero cerebro detrás de la tecnología que
revolucionó al mundo; Jeff Bezos, fundador de Amazon, la
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empresa de comercio electrónico más grande del mundo
y quinto hombre más rico del mundo; Larry Page, creador
de Google, buscador web más usado del mundo; Serguéi
Brin, compañero inseparable de Page en la creación de
Google;,Mark Zuckerberg, creador de Facebook, la red
social en internet más importante del mundo; Walt Disney,
(dibujante, creador de Mickey Mouse y cara de una de las
marcas más poderosas de todos los tiempos; Henry Ford,
fundador de Ford Motor Company y revolucionario de la
industria automotriz.
2.5. Impacto en la calidad educativa universitaria
peruana en tiempo de cuarentena
En el Perú, una porción importante de las entidades
educativas a nivel superior ha tenido que o está en
proceso de trasferir a sus estudiantes presenciales hacia
una modalidad virtual para no paralizar su formación
académica. Por su parte, el Ministerio de Educación diseñó
una modalidad de educación virtual orientada a los escolares
de primaria y secundaria, al considerar que la protección
de la salud de sus educandos frente a la COVID-19 era un
reto para la sociedad en general, así como el desarrollo de
sus habilidades blandas, en especial (Barrios, 2020, pág. 1).
Inga Arias (2020), menciona que la universidad peruana
es todavía muy conservadora: recién se están trabajando
currículos y sílabos por competencias. Lamentablemente,
este proceso se hace sin mucha preparación, pues la
transferencia de información se sigue asumiendo como
“conocimiento” y de allí que se siga hablando de “dictado
de clases” (p. 1). Esto choca con proyectos modernizadores y
actualizadores, al que se suman los presupuestos modestos
para financiar innovaciones.
En la misma línea, el Instituto Internacional para la
Educación Superior en América Latina y el Caribe (IESALC)
y la UNESCO han destacado la preocupación de los distintos
Gobiernos para implementar programas de educación
virtual, manteniendo la calidad de los mismos.
En un artículo publicado en el diario El Peruano (“Sunedu
e Indecopi piden”, 2020), se indica que “en el Perú, el 38%
de universidades nacionales no pudieron implementar
educación virtual desde inicio del confinamiento hasta
junio del 2020” (citado en Piñero, Esteban, Rojas, & Callupe,
2021, p.125)
Las autoras, se basan en el esquema de elaboración de
su autoría en la Figura 2 y que recoge los planteamientos
de la UNESCO (Sistema de Información de Tendencias
Educativas en América Latina, 2020).

Figura 2. Educación a distancia, virtual y online

Proceso formativo que se afianza Educación

en materiales físicos que la ins- Virtual
titución educativa entrega para Surge ante el ajetreado ritmo
realizar el curso, como separatas, de vida en el que vive la socie-
Usa las herramientas de dad. Ya sea por el trabajo, la
libros, o material multimedia a
internet e intercambio familia, la posición geográfica,
través de CD u otros. Entregados
de información entre la educación en línea logra un
directamente al estudiante. En
docente y estudiantes de objetivo educativo común, sin
este tipo de formación la comu-
manera virtual, a través de las limitaciones del espacio ni
nicación con el profesor o tutor
plataformas de aprendizaje, del tiempo (Ascarza, 2020).
suele ser por correo electrónico,
creadas para tal fin. (Cullen,
carta o incluso por la vía telefónica.
2020).
(Figueroa Diaz, 2020).

Educación a Educación
distancia Online

Fuente: Adaptado de Sistema de Información de Tendencias Educativas en América Latina (2020).

46 RGM, Volumen 6, Número 1, setiembre 2020.

 REVIEW OF GLOBAL
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2.6. La percepción de la educación
Benjumea destaca que la educación tecnológica viene
siendo incluida como parte indispensable de las reformas
educativas en varios países. Asimismo, reconoce el esfuerzo
de los países por aplicarla desde el nivel preescolar hasta el
superior, teniendo como fundamento al modelo de pensa-
miento que relaciona el “ser” con el “hacer”. De esta manera,
los estudiantes alcanzarán una formación integral que
facilite las herramientas para la comprensión del mundo
digital y logren habilidades, destrezas y aptitudes perfec-
cionando su razonamiento, la creatividad, organización y
planificación. (citado en Hurtado Talavera, 2020a, pág.141).
En la Figura 3, las autoras proponen un esquema de su au-
toría, el mismo que recoge los planteamientos de Hurtado
Talavera, (2020b).

Figura 3. Cambio de metodología de presencial a virtual

Impacto de Cambio de
Educación la Covid-19 Educación metodología
presencial virtual

Fuente: Adaptado de Hurtado Talavera (2020b).

2.7. Migración de las habilidades blandas a las
habilidades transversales
Las personas del siglo XXI necesitan estar equipadas con
las habilidades transversales que les permitirán aprender
y adaptarse a circunstancias cambiantes a lo largo de toda
su vida, integrar la multiculturalidad que acarrean los
procesos migratorios e identificar oportunidades de
crecimiento en las diferencias. Asimismo, se requiere de
personas comprometidas con dejar un mundo mejor y
más próspero para las próximas generaciones y que tomen
conciencia de que para progresar es importante potenciar
la contribución individual y colectiva (trabajo en equipo).
En la Figura 4, las autoras proponen un esquema de su
autoría que recoge los planteamientos de Mateo-Berganza
et al. (2019).

Figura 4. Migración a las habilidades del siglo XXI

Inteligencia artificial: Envejecimiento: Cambio climático: Diversidad:

Comunicación; Creatividad;
Digitales; Ética; Manejo del
tiempo; Pensamiento crítico;
Resolución de problemas;
Trabajo en equipo
Adaptabilidad; Aprendizaje Compromiso; Apertura; Colaboración;
continuo; Auto-regulación; Eficacia; Empatía; Tolerancia;
Emprendimiento; Flexi- Respeto; Resolución de conflictos
bilidad; Perseverancia; Responsabilidad
Resiliencia

Fuente: Adaptado de Mateo-Berganza et al. (2019).

RGM, Volumen 6, Número 1, setiembre 2020. 47

 REVIEW OF GLOBAL
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DE LA UPC
III. RESULTADOS, DISCUSIÓN Y CONCLUSIONES
El futuro exigirá estar dotados de habilidades blandas
y de capacidad de manejo en entornos digitales. Esto
significa que, en cualquier caso, se requiere desarrollar
las habilidades blandas para no quedar rezagados en la
evolución social y de capacidades técnicas para interactuar
en ambientes virtuales (Mateo-Berganza et al., 2019).
A todo esto, debe sumarse la capacidad de aprender a
aprender y de adaptación, tal como lo propuso Albert
Einstein, cuando dijo que “la medida de la inteligencia
es la capacidad de cambiar”.
Para superar el impacto nocivo y las barreras que impone
la COVID-19 en la educación peruana, sobre todo la pública,
el Perú ha logrado implementar mejoras en su sistema
educativo, que incluyen la implementación de herramientas
virtuales de acceso masivo (Zoom, Webex de Cisco,
Teams de Microsoft). Del mismo modo, el Ministerio de
Educación ha dictado normas para facilitar los traslados de
estudiantes a instituciones educativas públicas al no tener
capacidad para pagar las pensiones en colegios privados.
Dentro de las herramientas virtuales que destacan, se
encuentra la plataforma de aprendizaje virtual “Black-
board Learn”, que contiene herramientas interactivas,
tales como foros temáticos o de discusión, documentos
compartidos, anuncios, actividades individual grupales,
etc., además del “Blackboard Collaborate” para clases en
vivo. De este modo, se convierte en una herramienta
potente porque “el diseño de las actividades de aprendi-
zaje, se basa en las potencialidades de las herramientas
info-comunicacionales […], evaluaciones online, lo que
permite un encuentro virtual docente-estudiantes y
estudiantes-estudiantes del curso para el trabajo
cooperativo, la discusión y el intercambio” (Vásquez-
Pajuelo, 2019).
Se concluye en que, se debe perfeccionar las habilidades
blandas en el manejo de las propias cualidades socioemo-
cionales, para ser parte de una generación de profesio-
nales capaces de tener un desenvolvimiento emocional
armonioso, que incluya momentos de alta presión laboral.
La educación superior es partícipe de promover entre la
comunidad educativa, en especial entre los estudiantes,
la expansión de las mismas, que potencian la interacción
de uno con el otro, fortaleciendo el trato, y mejorando las
48 RGM, Volumen 6, Número 1, setiembre 2020.
relaciones y el control emocional en el ambiente laboral,
profesional y personal.
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C3%A1s%20importante%20que%20nunca&text=
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siguen exigiendo pagos durante cuarentena
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19-la-educacion-en-colombia/
Barrios, E. (2020, 9 de abril). Educación a distancia en
tiempo de pandemia. El Peruano. Recuperado de
https://elperuano.pe/noticia/94178-educacion-a-
distancia-en-tiempos-de-pandemia#:~:text=Es%20
una%20herramienta%20que%20los,televisi%C3%B
3n%2C%20CD%2C%20entre%20otros.
Duckworth, A., & Yeager, D. (2015). Cuestiones de medición,
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la capacidad cognitiva para fines educativos. https://
www.researchgate.net/publication/276466956_
Measurement_Matters_Assessing_Persona
Flores-Guerra, L. (2018, 10 de diciembre). Cómo desarrollar
las habilidades blandas. Recuperado de https://luis
floresguerra.com/como-desarrollar-las-habilidades
-blandas/ García, P. (2020). Recomendaciones de

García, P. (2020). Recomendaciones de alimentación y
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Goleman, D. (1998). Working withemocional inteligence
(1ra. edición ed.). Kairos S. A.
Habilidades blandas: qué son y por qué es importante
desarrollarlas (2020, 28 de abril). Recuperado de
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desarrollarlas-1078831.html
Hurtado Talavera, F. J. (2020a) Educación, sociedad e
ideología: La trilogía imperante del siglo xxi. CIEG,
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Hurtado Talavera, F. J. (2020b). La educación en tiempos
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-en-tiempos-de-coronavirus/
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-latina-y-el-caribe
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América Latina. (2020). Sistematización de respuestas
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México. https://www.universia.net/mx/actualidad/
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10.19083/rgm.v5i2.1234
RGM, Volumen 6, Número 1, setiembre 2020. 49
Soft Skills and Effective
Communication in University
Settings
Hind Moustadraf
Université Mohammed V- Rabat

Abstract: In order to transform Morocco into a developed

nation, institutions of higher education need to play an
essential role in generating a skilled workforce with a first-
class mentality.
The Ministry of Higher Education has taken some steps to
ensure that soft skills be addressed in the curriculum because
they are among the essential skills needed by graduates in
order to be employable in this global era. Soft skills refer to
nontechnical skills such as listening, communication,
teamwork, time management, self-management, empathy,
integrity, flexibility, emotional intelligence, and related social
skills (Andrews & Higson, 2008; Goleman, 1998; Klaus,
2007; Robles, 2012).
In recent years, many reforms were implemented by the
Moroccan Ministry of Higher Education to encourage the
development of soft skills among graduates in order to
enhance their employability.
For technically based occupations like engineering, soft skills
are very important for the application of technical
Revue SSDL, Faculté des Langues, des Arts et des Sciences Humaines de Settat
ISSN : 2737-8519, N°1, 2021
 |
2 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues

knowledge at work effectively (Hairuzila, 2009). Thus, this

study focuses on developing soft skills in undergraduate
engineering students of four Moroccan Universities. This
paper discusses the importance of soft skills for students, the
type of pedagogical methods initiated by varied educational
institutions; their relevance and their impact in developing
soft skills and benefits to students.
Keywords: Soft skills, Higher education, Pedagogical methods,
Employability, Labor Market

Introduction
“Education is the lifeblood of the country’s new
development model” which means that, in order to
transform Morocco into a developed nation, it is necessary
to improve education performance and teaching quality
(Amzazi, 2019).
For that purpose, the Ministry of Higher Education
developed many reforms to improve the quality of university
education in the kingdom by integrating soft skills in the
curriculum to enhance graduate employability.
Essentially, soft skills refer to personalities, attributes,
qualities and personal behaviour of individuals. Soft skills
include certain abilities such as communication, problem-
solving, self-motivation, decision-making, and time
management skills (Gupta, 2009, p.62-63). Additionally, it
is said that hard skills are the academic skills, experience and
level of expertise that is generally described in a resume, and
the principles, methods, procedures and techniques needed
 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues |3
for performing jobs.Contrarily, soft skills are sought out
behaviours and characteristics that employees demonstrate
unconsciously and routinely on the job.
Researchers have reported that recruiters may prioritize a job
candidate with soft skills over someone with technical skills
(Robles, 2012; Russell, Russell, & Tastle, 2005). Most
employers are likely to hire, retain and promote persons who
are dependable, resourceful, ethical, have effective
communication, self-directed, willing to work and learn, and
have a positive attitude (Wats M.& Wats R.K.,2009, p.1).
Consequently, there is now more pressure on academic
institutions to enhance the soft skills of their students. The
present study tries to bring awareness to the importance of
soft skills by examining the type of pedagogical methods of
implementing soft skills within Public and Private Moroccan
engineering universities. This research will further examine
the relevance, impact and benefit that soft skills can have on
students as well as the teaching methods to reinforce
students acquisition.
We are therefore interested in analysing soft skills
development within Moroccan higher education by
answering the following questions:
• To what extent do the pedagogical methods
implemented in Moroccan engineering universities allow
soft skills acquisition?
• What are the most important soft skills for
engineering students?
 |
4 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues

• What are the benefits of soft skills development to

engineering students?
• What is the most suitable environment to acquire
soft skills?
• Who is the most resourceful person to successfully
implement soft skills within a higher education
environment?
• What measures should be undertaken by the
university to enable the acquisition of soft skills?
This article proposes to answer these problems by carrying
out a methodological analysis which will lead us to address
the following three parts in turn:
The first part will be the subject of a brief overview on the
literature review which focuses on the definition of soft
skills.
The second part will be devoted to the exposure of the
methodology and the population interviewed for the field
phase. Let us simply point out that we opted for a qualitative
approach to research, in particular by examining students'
perceptions regarding the importance of soft skills and
analysing the teaching practices adopted by Moroccan
universities through semi-structured interviews.
The third part will be dedicated to discuss the results of the
current study.
1. Soft Skills and Their Importance to
Engineering Students
 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues |5
Competent and qualified candidates are recognized as good
employees when they have two types of skills: technical and
non-technical skills.
Technical skills or “Hard skills” are job-specific which means
that they vary from one type of job to another. According to
Medina “« Technical skills are a skill, expertise or technical
competence related to the field of the workers, whether
engineering or technical (Medina, 2010). Technical skills or
‘hard skills’ is often associated with the use of tools,
equipment related to work properly and efficiently, as well as
all technical matters. (Nasir, Ali, Noordin, & Nordin, 2011,
p.10) It can be known and understood more easily as can be
seen clearly with the naked eye (Yahya and Muhammad
Rashid, 2001). Whereas non-technical skills represent,
according to Straub (1990), aspects common to all jobs and
tasks, such as following instructions, communicating
effectively and cooperating with others in teamwork. In the
workplace, Noor Azizi et al. (2001) stated that non-technical
skills include the ability to perform specific tasks. In
addition, non-technical skills play an important role in
supporting technical skills (Roger, 1996).
There are different ways of defining and classifying ‘soft
skills,’ notably as life skills (WHO 1993), twenty-first
century skills (Moore and Morton 2017), “transversal skills”,
“soft skills” (Davis and Woodward, 2006), employability
skills (The Conference Board of Canada, 1992; Cotton,
1995), generic competences as well as key competencies for a
successful life, a well-functioning society (|OECD 2003,
2012) and lifelong learning (EU 2006), “generic skills”
 |
6 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues

(Wiggill, 1991; Kamaliah 2009; Kamaruddin, Ruhizan and

Ramlee 2009). These skills such as communication skills,
analytical, critical and problem solving skills, lifelong
learning ability, entrepreneurship and management skills are
the ones that employers value as important skills for
potential employees to possess (Hairuzila, 2009, p.69). For
this reason, all graduates should master and acquire these
skills regardless of their field of study. Engineering programs
are often criticized for overemphasizing technical skills and
giving insufficient attention to nontechnical skills (Itani and
Srour, p.1). However, engineering graduates like any other
graduate, should have both transversal skills and technical
skills in order to have opportune access to the labour market.
By examining the required engineering skills and attributes
for engineering graduates at various accrediting institutions
and countries (USA, UK, EU, AUS, and Japan), Zaharim et
al. (2010) were able to show that many of the common
employability skills for engineers consist of nontechnical
skills, such as communication skills, leadership, teamwork,
lifelong learning, professionalism, and decision-making
skills.
For example communication skills include oral
communication with managers and peers, presentation skills,
business writing skills, and cross-cultural communication
abilities. All of these areas can be tackled at the
undergraduate level if they are well integrated into
engineering program curriculum (Itani and Srour, p.2).
Concerning management and leadership skills, they are
essential even for technical personnel who perform
administrative duties in carrying out their daily functions.
 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues |7
They are even more essential for engineers who assume
managerial positions later in their careers. Srour et al. (2013)
highlight that engineers’ transition from the technical to the
management path can encounter many difficulties, one of
which is derailment. Derailment can be described as not
meeting management expectations mainly as a result of a
lack of management skills (Shipper and Dillard 2000).
The empirical study presented in this paper adopted the list
of soft skills defined and extensively described by the ModEs
European Project (Table 1; Haselberger et al. 2012) (see
table 1).

Table 1. List of the 20 Soft Skills Utilized in the Study (Haselberger and
al. 2012; Succi, 2018)
Category Skill
Personal 1. Being Committed to Work – make a commitment to the organisation and understand its specific
characteristics
2. Being Professionally Ethical – take actions while bearing in mind the principles and ethics of the
profession in daily activities
3. Being Tolerant to Stress – show endurance in complicated or stressful situations
4. Creativity/Innovation Skills – contribute new ideas to develop improvements in the products or
services of the organisation as well as in the activities performed in the job
5. Learning Skills – provide a self-assessment of necessary knowledge (theoretical or practical) and take
measures to acquire and implement this knowledge
6. Life Balance Skills – manage successfully the frequent conflicts between life and work
7. Self-Awareness Skills – grasp our real weaknesses and strengths
Social
8. Communication Skills – transmit ideas, information and opinions clearly and convincingly, both
verbally and in writing, while listening
9. Conflict Management & Negotiation Skills –conciliate different opinions to reach an agreement that
satisfies everyone
10. Contact Network Skills – develop, maintain, and foster contacts
11. Culture Adaptability Skills – carry out managerial and entrepreneurial processes in multicultural
environments
12. Leadership Skills – motivate and guide others to get them to contribute effectively
13. Team-Work Skills – to build relationships based on participation and cooperation with other people
14. Adaptability to Change Skills – redirect the course of action to meet goals in a new situation
Method-
15. Analysis Skills – draw conclusions and forecasts for the future by acquiring relevant information from
 |
8 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues

ological different sources

16. Continuous Improvement Skills – perform the activities, duties and responsibilities inherent to the
job under quality standards and strive for excellence
17. Customer/User Orientation Skills – identify, understand and satisfy efficiently the needs of
customers
18. Decision Making Skills – make the decisions necessary to achieve objectives quickly and proactively
19. Management Skills – set goals and priorities through the selection and distribution of tasks and
resources
20. Results Orientation Skills – make organizational efforts profitable while having always in mind the
goals pursued

2. Methodology
The main purpose of this paper is to investigate students’
perceptions of the importance of soft skills. A questionnaire
was used for data collection and 255 undergraduate
engineering students from four universities in Morocco
participated in this study.
The students were invited to participate in our study
through the lecturers and answered our questions via
different distance learning tools: Moodle, Microsoft teams,
zoom, and skype.
It should be noted that the study was conducted in French-
speaking Moroccan universities, which is why we translated
the verbatim from French to English for the purposes of this
study.
The questionnaire consisted of multiple-answer multiple
choice questions and open-ended questions to solicit their
opinions and responses especially towards the courses,
projects and activities that have encouraged their acquisition
of soft skills. Rather than using software based methods, we
opted to analyze the open-ended questions manually using
an inductive thematic analysis known as the classic tool for
the study of opinions and perceptions.
 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues |9
It serves to identify the themes and categories present in a
corpus and then analyze them. It is a subjective approach
that aims to reformulate, interpret and theorize phenomena.
Thus, through a horizontal approach, we have identified in
the various interviews of the corpus recurring themes and
categories and we have grouped them together by
relationships and typologies.
3. Findings
The main results of this study are presented in the following
sections.
3.1 Awareness of soft skills
The participating students were asked what soft skills, in
their opinion, are essential for engineering graduates. Based
on a literature review, a list of 20 skills was developed.
The top five soft skills, as identified by the students, were
team-work skills, communication skills, self-awareness skills,
tolerance to stress and creativity/innovation (see Table 2).
On the contrary, Life Balance Skills, Customer/User
Orientation Skills, Culture Adaptability Skills and Conflict
Management & Negotiation Skills are ranked of lowest
importance. These skills may not be as important as the
previously ranked skills because they are not obviously linked
to soft skills.
Table 2: The most important soft skills for engineering graduates
(multiple responses)
Ranking Soft skills Frequency
(n=255)
1 Team work skills 248
 |
10 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues

2 Communication skills 246

3 Self-Awareness Skills 221
4 Being Tolerant to Stress 218
5 Creativity/Innovation Skills 205
6 Results Orientation Skills 189
7 Leadership Skills 175
8 Contact Network Skills 151
9 Management Skills 149
10 Adaptability to Change Skills 95
11 Analysis Skills 87
12 Continuous Improvement Skills 85
13 Being Committed to Work 42
14 Being Professionally Ethical 39
15 Learning Skills 18
16 Decision Making Skills 9
17 Conflict Management & Negotiation 2
Skills
17 Culture Adaptability Skills 2
18 Customer/User Orientation Skills 1
18 Life Balance Skills 1

3.2 Benefits of Soft Skills Development

According to a student, “the development of soft skills is
useful for my engineering career, and these kinds of skills are
in high demand” (Student subject). “From a young age we
were led to take mainly theoretical courses, which is certainly
beneficial for us in order to develop our intelligence and
 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues | 11
resonance. However this does not teach us the art of
communication and teamwork, as well as many other
qualities required to improve our professional and personal
situation” (Student Subject). Students participating in this
study were asked about the benefits of soft skills
development to engineering students. The majority of
students mentioned that an increase of compatibility with
people is the most important benefit of soft skills acquisition
which leads to a” better integration and understanding of the
work environment” (Student subject). According to another
student: “Softs skills are useful for managing conflicts and
problems with our colleagues in the workplace”. Table 3
shows the benefits of soft skills development in students.
 |
12 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues

Figure 1 : Graphic representation of the 7 most frequently used

words

Table 3: Benefits of Soft Skills Development (n=255)

Benefits Frequency

1 Increase compatibility with people 148

2 Build your self-esteem 146

3 Enhance your employability 119

4 Increase your ability to influence others 86

5 Strengthen your ability to adapt to adversity 51

3.3 The most suitable environment to acquire

soft skills
In response to a question on what is the best environment
and resourceful person who is able to help students in
developing soft skills, the student’s opinions were divergent.
 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues | 13
Most engineering students were of the view that the
university professors and lecturers are the best resource
persons for achieving the above objective. “I think that the
best resource persons who can help me develop my soft-skills
are my university professors and I also think that the most
suitable environment is the classroom” (student subject).
Regarding the subjects enabling the acquisition of these
competences, the students insisted on the following courses:
“the main persons who can help us develop softs skills are:
professor of communication and the professor of business
organization.” (Student subject). While others argue that
these skills can rather be developed within the company with
tutors and internship mentors. Being helped by personal
coaches can help students deal with new situations that push
them out of their comfort zone and deal with stage fright
and their lack of confidence. Few students think that we can
develop soft skills by ourselves; a student says that “a few
simulations in front of the mirror are enough and the trick is
done, we just need motivation” (Student Subject). Another
student report “I think you don’t necessarily need others to
 |
14 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues

develop soft-skills, just believe in yourself and self-study is

the best technique to adopt” (Student Subject)

Table 4: the most resourceful person to successfully implement soft skills

within a higher education environment (multiple responses)

Ranking Soft skills Frequency

(n=255)

1 Professors/Lecturers 186

2 Internship Tutor/Mentor 171

3 Personal development coach 129

4 Ourselves 85

5 Experts and Experienced Engineers 47

6 Parents and family 24

3.4 The Most Effective Pedagogical Methods for

Soft Skills Development
With regard to the contribution of teaching methods to the
acquisition of soft skills, the results of the study show that
graduates reported having acquired more soft skills in more
active teaching models, based in particular on group work,
internship and problem solving method and far from the
conventional academic model.
 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues | 15
Table 5. The Most Effective Teaching Methods for Developing Soft
Skills (Multiple Responses)

Ranking Soft skills Frequency

(n=255)

1 Group Work 181

2 Internship 164

3 Problem Solving Method 139

4 Role Playing 120

5 Case Study 90

6 Flipped Classroom 70

7 Lectures 54

8 Project Based Learning 32

3.5 The Effectiveness of the Pedagogical

Methods Implemented in Moroccan Engineering
Universities

To find out what they think of the teaching methods

adopted in the context of their academic career and to know
further about these interactive and effective teaching
 |
16 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues

methods, we asked them the following question: “Do you

think your training promotes the acquisition of soft skills?
Cite examples of activities that helped you develop one or
more soft skills mentioned in the first question.” The
majority of engineering students believe that their academic
training promotes the acquisition of soft skills. “All our
professors insist on teamwork, whether for projects,
internships or even during oral presentations” (student
subject). A student subject stated that his machine
maintenance work placement with the DANONE plant in
Salé was not only beneficial for his technical skills but also to
improve his analytical thinking skills, organizing, planning
skills and communication skills with co-workers (Student
Subject). Another student insisted on workshops as a means
of developing soft skills: “The robotics projects organized by
the university allow me to develop several transversal skills,
such as strengthening my team spirit, and developing my
creativity especially during the sessions of computer-assisted
mechanical design” (student subject).
According to several students, oral presentations in class
also help to develop soft skills and more precisely
communicative skills; “oral presentations in pairs allowed us
to improve our team spirit, our ability to analyze, solve
problems and acquire the ability to work under pressure and
manage time” (student subject).
Whereas for others “our training unfortunately does not
promote the acquisition of soft-skills since we focus only on
lectures neglecting the importance of parallel activities”
(student subject). These students underline the importance
 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues | 17
of extracurricular activities to develop this type of skills. “It’s
rather outside of class that we could develop them. I had the
opportunity and the chance more than a year ago now to
participate as a benevolent guide to the event "the night of
the philosophers" where my role was to direct participants to
the conferences they wished to attend and answer their
different questions. It was an enriching experience that
helped me a lot to develop my communication with others
which is not my first quality.” (student subject).
From my personal perspective, my participation in the forums
has had a huge impact on my way of being. Of a calm and
reserved nature, it helped me to dare to speak, to go towards the
people. Indirectly, my self-confidence has improved and I begin
to give my opinion without being afraid of judgment or
underestimating my ability to solve problems. I even learned to
listen to others which allowed me to improve the efficiency of
group work and to perfect my results (student subject).
3.6 Measures to Improve Soft Skills
Development
The students suggested several measures to be undertaken by
universities in order to improve the acquisition of soft skills.
Almost 50% of the students recommended that more
internships should be incorporated into the pedagogical
curriculum of the university to help students discover the
reality of the labor market (see table 6). Two other measures
suggested by around 40% of students were to organize visits
to companies and incorporate soft skills into the curriculum.
 |
18 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues

Table 6. Measures to be Undertaken by Universities for Effective Soft

Skills Development

Benefits Frequency

1 Increase internship opportunities 126

2 Organize visits to companies 97

3 Incorporate soft skills into the 89

curriculum

4 Organize more workshops 41

5 Organize round tables 34

Conclusion
The aim of the present research was to examine the evolving
importance of soft skills in a competitive environment, as
well as to investigate the perceptions of students concerning
the importance of acquiring soft skills. Specifically, this
study focused on engineering students in Moroccan
Universities. In this investigation, the aim was to assess
student subject perspectives of the importance of soft skills,
implementation of soft skills in University settings, and the
measures that should be taken by universities to better
enable the acquisition of soft skills.
Previous research has established that ‘success as an engineer
requires more than simply strong technical capabilities” and
“therefore, they need soft skills to complement technical
skills” (Hairuzila,2009, p.71).This study has confirmed that
engineering students are acutely aware of the importance of
 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues | 19
soft skills to accompany their already acquired technical
skills, this further complements the findings of earlier
studies. Specifically, engineering students ranked team work
skills and communication skills as equally comparable to that
of technical skills. This evidence from this study suggests
that because students are frequently asked to work in group
settings, they therefore have the unconscious perception that
these two transversal skills are indispensable for them.
Contrarily, results of this study indicated that Customer/
User Orientation Skills and Life Balance Skills are the least
important soft skills for engineering students (see Table 2).
This can be explained by the assumption that students are
not yet aware of the relevance of life balance skills, and
especially engineering students are not aware of customer/
user orientation skills because they see these skills as more
applicable in a business environment. However, the pressure
that can accumulate from future employers and work
conditions can prove that these skills are necessary soft skills
for their personal and professional development. Overall, all
soft skills should be taken into consideration within a
student’s academic career, even for technically based
occupations.
One of the more significant findings to emerge from this
study is that within the benefits of soft skills development,
students listed personal benefits before professional benefits.
Specifically, within the findings students ranked an increase
of compatibility with people and build your self-esteem over
enhance your employability (see Table 3). This suggests that
students believe that getting along with others can lead to a
higher chance of employment. This can be linked to
 |
20 Soft Skills et Didactique des Langues

previous results from the Most Important Soft Skills for

Engineering Graduates (see Table 2) where students ranked
Team Work skills and Communication Skills as the most
important. In this increasingly global
The research has also shown that interactive teaching
methods based on group work, internship or problem-
solving projects encourage students to play an active role in
teaching by arousing their curiosity and creativity. These
learning methods develop critical thinking, analytical skills,
social intelligence and communicative skills of students
especially for Modern engineers who need to reinvent
themselves to meet the challenges confronting them in the
21st century; thus, they have to be willing to learn, unlearn
and then relearn in order to keep abreast of the latest
developments in this ever changing society (Hairuzila, 2009,
p.71)
There are, therefore, a number of important changes which
need to be taken by the two major players in student life,
namely companies and universities. These two entities need
to work together not only to increase students’ awareness of
the importance of soft skills but also to steer them toward
professional success by providing them with the opportunity
to hone their essential skills in order to continuously adapt
to the changing labor market and improve their
employability.
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Gupta, Y. (2009). Building a better business student. BizEd, 9(6), pp.

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teaching technical courses: Lecturers’ perspectives. Asian Journal of
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Haselberger, D., Oberheumer, P., Perez E., Cinque, M. and Capasso, D.

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Nasir, A., Ali, D., NOORDIN, M., NORDIN, M. (2011).Technical

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 sustainability
Article
The Influence of Academic Self-Efficacy on University Students’
Academic Performance: The Mediating Effect of
Academic Engagement
Qian Meng * and Qi Zhang
Citation: Meng, Q.; Zhang, Q. The
Influence of Academic Self-Efficacy
on University Students’ Academic
Performance: The Mediating Effect of
Academic Engagement. Sustainability
2023, 15, 5767. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su15075767
Academic Editors: Jesús-Nicasio
García-Sánchez and José M.
Aguilar-Parra
Received: 24 February 2023
Revised: 23 March 2023
Accepted: 24 March 2023
Published: 26 March 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15075767
Department of Higher Education, College of Education, Bohai University, Jinzhou 121013, China
* Correspondence: mengqian_china@hotmail.com; Tel.: +86-416-340-0230
Abstract: Challenges and competition are being faced in higher education. Students’ unsatisfactory
academic performance and dropouts are obvious problems worldwide. The “student-centered”
pedagogy requires universities to pay attention to the needs of students. Research has demonstrated
that academic self-efficacy is a positive psychological variable in the prevention of students becoming
academically burnt out and withdrawing from their studies. By increasing academic engagement and
improving academic performance, academic self-efficacy can reduce the dropout rates. This study
attempted to achieve an in-depth comprehension of the nexus between academic self-efficacy and
academic achievement among university students and the mediating role of academic engagement in
the association between the two. A total of 258 participants were included in the cross-sectional study.
The relationships among academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic performance
were examined using Pearson correlation coefficients. In order to examine the intermediating role of
academic engagement in the relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic performance,
a mediation analysis was applied. A favorable and strong correlation among academic self-efficacy,
academic engagement, and academic performance was found in this study. Academic self-efficacy
can be a direct predictor of academic achievement and can also be an indirect predictor of academic
achievement via the intermediating effect of academic engagement. The findings of this study
provide theoretical and practical recommendations for university researchers and administrators.
The findings confirm the mediating role of academic engagement between academic self-efficacy
and academic performance. The results provide universities with evidence for use in the design
of projects and programs for the improvement of students’ academic performance. Increasing the
level of academic self-efficacy and enhancing academic engagement are of utmost importance for
university students to maintain and improve their academic performance.
Keywords: academic self-efficacy; academic engagement; academic performance
1. Introduction
Academic failure and dropouts are serious problems faced by universities world-
wide [1]. Especially during the COVID-19 pandemic [2], university students faced increas-
ing financial difficulties, a lack of social connections and sense of belonging, and insecurity
regarding the future and access issues, all of which hampered their academic performance
and well-being. Previous studies have explored the various reasons for academic failure
and dropouts, including demographic (gender and age), individual (social background
and school performance), psychological (motivation and attitudes), and institutional (cur-
riculum, teaching quality, and learning environment) reasons [3,4].
Social cognition theory (Bandura, 1977) [5] is one of the most influential of the various
theories that seek to understand and explain the factors that motivate and coordinate
human behavior. Social cognition theory posits that human activity is determined by the
interplay of two factors: the cognition of the individual and the external environment in
which the individual lives. (Bandura, 2012) [6]. Of the individual cognitions, self-efficacy
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 2 of 14

(SE) is an important component that influences and regulates behaviors. According to

Bandura [5], self-efficacy is the judgment of people’s ability to successfully complete tasks,
which involves goals, behaviors, and environmental conditions. Self-efficacy has been
widely studied in many areas, such as leader effectiveness [7], addiction relapse [8], medical
care [9], and academic performance [10]. In the field of education, self-efficacy is generally
called academic self-efficacy (ASE), which denotes confidence about one’s capability of
learning or behaving in a certain way [11]. Academic self-efficacy is the embodiment
of self-efficacy in the field of education. Academic self-efficacy has been identified as a
key factor in determining and predicting the academic performance of students in higher
education institutions [12]. Additionally, academic self-efficacy is one of the signs of
students’ psychological well-being.
Another important factor associated with the academic performance and achievement
of higher education students is their academic engagement. In the past two decades, the
question of how to guarantee and improve the quality of higher education quality has
become a focus of general concern in the field of international higher education. Researchers,
practitioners, and managers of higher education institutions have tried different programs,
the most representative of which is research into students’ engagement that emerged
in American universities and has been popular worldwide since 2000. It is generally
accepted that academic engagement is a major predictor of academic achievement in
higher education [13]. Extensive studies have revealed that academic engagement is
important for learning and academic performance. Academic engagement has been studied
in different learning environments, such as primary school [14], secondary school [15],
and university populations [13]. Additionally, Kahu’s study investigated the influence of
academic engagement across different disciplines and institutions [13].
Therefore, research on university students’ academic achievements must simultane-
ously examine the learning behavior and the learning psychological characteristics that
drive individual learning, represented by motivation and emotion. Academic self-efficacy
and academic engagement are impactful factors in the improvement of students’ academic
achievement in higher education. The existing research has laid a solid foundation for the
verification of the nexus between academic self-efficacy and academic achievement and has
discussed the complex relationship between them. Some studies showed the mechanism
by which ASE influences academic performance, which is through a variety of moderating
and mediating factors, such as academic self-concept [12], academic aspirations [16], and
personality [17]. However, most prior studies have discussed the direct relationship among
academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic achievement [18–20] but has
ignored the possible mediating role of academic engagement in university populations.
However, it is plausible that academic self-efficacy is related to academic performance if
there is a mediating mechanism in place—academic engagement.
Studies have revealed that self-efficacy is an important contributor in the determina-
tion of how well students perform when studying, but its intermediary mechanism and
regulatory mechanism still need to be further explored. This study intends to determine the
influence of academic self-efficacy on the academic performance of university students and
the intermediating role of academic engagement in the academic self-efficacy and academic
performance relationship. This study contributes to research on the nexus between the
academic self-efficacy and academic performance of university students and attempts
to identify the mediating role of academic engagement that was ignored by previous re-
search. Moreover, this study highlights the importance of interweaving the concepts of
academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic performance. The prior studies
rarely investigated the nexus between academic self-efficacy and academic performance,
whereas the mediating and moderating effect of academic engagement in a university
population was included. In addition, this study provides enlightenment on how the
rate of dropouts can be reduced and students’ academic performance can be improved by
increasing students’ academic self-efficacy.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 3 of 14

The framework of this study is as follows: Section 2 systematically reviews the existing
research on academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic achievement and
puts forward the hypotheses and conceptual model of this study on the basis of the existing
research. The statistical methods and data measurement methods of this study are depicted
in Section 3. In order to test direct and indirect effects between variables, this study uses
correlation analysis and intermediate analysis. Section 4 reports the results of this study.
The main findings of this study are discussed in Section 5. In Section 6, we present the
theoretical and practical contributions of this study. Then, Section 7 shows the limitations
of this study and future research that can be based on the study. Finally, the conclusions are
presented in Section 8.

2. Literature Review and Conceptual Framework

2.1. Academic Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance
Previous studies have shown that studying is one of the main sources of stress for
students in higher education due to the requirement of examinations and graduation [21,22],
especially in Asian countries such as China, Singapore, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Hong
Kong, where the virtues of academic diligence and filial piety engrained by the Confucian
heritage culture are still very much alive [23]. The research on academic self-efficacy
reported that academic self-efficacy can enhance an individual’s health and performance
when coping with stressful situations [24,25]. Academic self-efficacy as an influential
factor in improving academic performance has received much attention in educational
psychology [26]. University students’ academic self-efficacy is crucial for their academic
achievement [27]. Previous studies have identified that learners’ academic self-efficacy is
strongly correlated with academic performance, that is, higher scores on academic self-
efficacy are more likely to be associated with higher scores on academic performance [28,29].
Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura, is a conviction in one’s ability to organize and
implement the actions necessary to cope with an expected situation [30]. However, the first
application of self-efficacy to an educational setting was by Dale Schunk, who began to
explore students’ motivation and achievement in the early 1980s [31]. Schunk proposed
that self-efficacy is a self-assessment of one’s capability to accomplish an assignment. It
includes assessments about one’s capability to fulfill a task and one’s self-confidence in
one’s capability to perform an assignment [32]. In a meta-analysis of 241 published articles,
among the 50 educational research variables, including personality traits, self-regulatory
learning strategies, and motivations, self-efficacy was found to be the variable that most
strongly correlated with university students’ grade point average (GPA) [19]. On the basis
of these findings, we propose the following hypothesis:
H1: Academic self-efficacy is a positive predictor of academic performance among university students.

2.2. Academic Self-Efficacy and Academic Engagement

A review of the existing literature shows that student engagement is correlated with
various concepts, such as school identity, academic motivation, academic self-efficacy, and
academic performance [33]. Academic self-efficacy plays an important role in students’
academic engagement. If students have confidence in their ability to do a task, they
will be more engaged in the task. On the contrary, if they have little confidence in the
task, they will not spend time and energy on the task. Students who score higher in self-
efficacy measurement are more inclined to show positive social behavior and prefer deep
learning to superficial learning [34]. Previous studies proved that self-efficacy and student
engagement were highly related [35,36]. Self-efficacy theory posits that the development
of skills and self-efficacy can be improved through active engagement in learning [37]. In
the case of the COVID-19 pandemic, students were forced to move from a peer-supporting
environment to a state of social isolation, potentially decreasing their self-efficacy and
reducing their engagement in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)
undergraduate education in remote learning. One study found a significant decrease in
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 4 of 14

emotional engagement, and students reported a drastic decline in positive attitude toward
science [38].
According to social cognitive theory, the learning environment and students’ personal
factors both influence students’ engagement [30]. One of personal characteristic factors
that affects students’ engagement is self-efficacy. There is a strong relationship between
self-efficacy and students’ engagement. Students with a higher level of self-efficacy tend
to have a higher level of engagement in the learning process. Self-efficacious learners
are defined as learners who are improving their own skills and who are motivated to
participate in learning [39]. Higher levels of academic self-efficacy are associated with
higher levels of sustained academic engagement and attainment. On the basis of these
findings, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H2: Academic self-efficacy is a positive predictor of academic engagement among university students.

2.3. Academic Engagement and Academic Performance

In the past few years, engagement originating from the workplace has become in-
creasingly important within research related to students’ academic performance [40,41].
At present, Schaufeli’s view on student engagement is generally accepted. Schaufeli et al.
defined engagement as a satisfying and work-focused positive state of mind that is charac-
terized by dedication, vigor, and absorption. Dedication means that students have strong
involvement in their learning. It is accompanied by feelings of enthusiasm and significance,
as well as a sense of pride, inspiration, and challenge. Vigor refers to a high level of vitality
and resistance, the tendency to make an effort in one’s work, not to tire easily, and to
persevere when faced with difficulties. Absorption is a pleasant state of being completely
immersed in one’s work, characterized by the rapid passage of time and an inability to
disengage from work [42].
Bae and Han’s study at an American research university showed that academic engage-
ment is one of the key variables that explain students’ academic performance [43]. Krause
and Coates associated student engagement with high-quality learning outcomes [44]. The
engagement of students is seen as a glue or a mediator that can create a link between the
different contexts of students’ learning [45]. The more the students are engaged with their
academic work, the greater the level of academic performance. Henning elaborated and
demonstrated how student engagement is important to the learning of students and the
success of an institution [46]. However, Johnson and Stage’s research showed that high-
impact practices, particularly student engagement, do not necessarily boost the graduation
rates at public universities [47]. In the existing literature, there is no consistent conclusion
on the relationship between student engagement and academic performance. Based on this
argument, we propose the following hypothesis:
H3: Academic engagement will be a positive mediator of the relationship between academic self-
efficacy and academic performance.

2.4. Conceptual Framework

The research framework aims to analyze and clarify the key variables and the relation-
ships between them, rather than claiming to represent all influences and relationships [15].
This framework aims to clarify how academic self-efficacy, as well as academic engagement,
is related to academic performance in university students. This research framework can
guide further research and, ultimately, be a usable tool for comprehensive intervention
programs with the aim of improving students’ academic performance. Contemporary
studies have emphasized the values that are important when students are faced academic
stresses [33,34]. Meanwhile, student engagement has been regarded as one of the predictors
of academic performance [33]. Nevertheless, most of the existing research only separately
examined the direct relationships among academic self-efficacy, academic engagement,
and academic performance. The possible intermediary role of academic engagement has
been ignored.
 intervention programs with the aim of improving students’ academic performance. Con-
temporary studies have emphasized the values that are important when students are
faced academic stresses [33,34]. Meanwhile, student engagement has been regarded as
one of the predictors of academic performance [33]. Nevertheless, most of the existing
research only separately examined the direct relationships among academic self-efficacy,
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 5 of 14
academic engagement, and academic performance. The possible intermediary role of ac-
ademic engagement has been ignored.
This study is an attempt at an in-depth understanding of the nexus between academic
This study is an attempt at an in-depth understanding of the nexus between academic
self-efficacy and academic achievement among university students. In the meantime, ac-
self-efficacy and academic achievement among university students. In the meantime,
ademic engagement as a potential intermediary variable was tested to explain how aca-
academic engagement as a potential intermediary variable was tested to explain how
demic self-efficacy influences academic performance. (See Figure 1) The intermediating
academic self-efficacy influences academic performance. (See Figure 1) The intermedi-
role was substantiated by the presupposition that students with higher levels of academic
ating role was substantiated by the presupposition that students with higher levels of
self-efficacy may trigger more academic engagement when compared with other learners
academic self-efficacy may trigger more academic engagement when compared with other
[48], as they believe they can finish an academic task successfully, which, in turn, affects
learners [48], as they believe they can finish an academic task successfully, which, in turn,
their academic performance [28]. To determine the correlational and mediational model
affects their academic performance [28]. To determine the correlational and mediational
among academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic achievement, corre-
model among academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic achievement,
lation analysis and mediation analysis were used.
correlation analysis and mediation analysis were used.

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework.

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework
3. Methodology
3.1. Sample
3. Methodology
3.1. Sample The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of academic self-efficacy
on undergraduate students’ academic performance and the mediating role of academic
The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of academic self-efficacy on
engagement in the Chinese context. The learning behavior and learning psychology charac-
undergraduate students’ academic performance and the mediating role of academic en-
teristics of university students should be discussed under specific socio-cultural concepts.
gagement in the Chinese context. The learning behavior and learning psychology charac-
In different social and cultural situations, people have different understandings about
teristics of university students should be discussed under specific socio-cultural concepts.
learning behavior and learning psychological characteristics, so the research results may be
In different social and cultural situations, people have different understandings about
quite different. Therefore, this study focuses on the study of university students’ learning
learning behavior and learning psychological characteristics, so the research results may
psychology characteristics and learning behavior in the context of Chinese culture. Chinese
be quite different. Therefore,
universities this being
are also study confronted
focuses on the study
with of university
common students’
trends and learn-in higher ed-
challenges
ing psychology characteristics and learning behavior in the context of Chinese
ucation worldwide, such as the expansion and diversification of the student population,culture.
Chinese universities are also being
financial pressure, and the confronted with common
market-oriented trends
requirement forand challenges
greater in
accountability, quality,
higher education worldwide, such as the expansion and diversification of the student pop-
and efficiency [49]. In particular, in 2015, the Chinese State Council released the “Double
ulation, financial pressure,
First-class and thetomarket-oriented
Initiative” improve the global requirement for greater
competitiveness of accountabil-
higher education. Now,
ity, quality, Chinese
and efficiency [49]. In particular, in 2015, the Chinese State Council
universities are focusing on improving teaching quality and students’ released satisfaction.
the “DoubleInitiatives
First-class need
Initiative” to improve the global competitiveness
to be taken to improve the academic engagement and of higher educa-
performance of
tion. Now, Chinese universities are focusing on improving teaching quality and students’
university students. In this study, all the participants came from a Chinese public uni-
satisfaction. versity
Initiatives
thatneed to be taken
is seeking to improve
to improve the academic
the quality engagement
of education and perfor-ranking. All
and university
mance of university students.were
the participants In thisChinese
study, all thestudied
and participants cameinfrom
full-time a Chinese
university. public who were
Students
university that is seeking
studying abroadto improve
and thosethe onquality
part-timeof education
programs were and university ranking.
excluded from All
this study. This was
the participants
due towere
the Chinese and study
fact that this studied full-time
probed in university.
the nexus Students engagement,
among academic who were academic
studying abroad and those
engagement, and onacademic
part-timeachievement
programs were in theexcluded
Chinese from this study. This
context.
was due to the fact A total of 300 questionnaires were distributed in the study, and 258aca-
that this study probed the nexus among academic engagement, questionnaires
demic engagement,
were filledandout,
academic achievement
accounting for 86% inof the
the Chinese context.
total questionnaires distributed. Among them,
47.3% were male, and 52.7% were female. Out of 258 questionnaires, 22.1% were freshmen,
25.6% were sophomores, 24.4% were juniors, and 27.9% were seniors. Regarding the
program participants were studying, 43.8% majored in social science, 35.3% majored in
natural science, and 20.9% majored in arts. The demographic breakdown of the categorical
variables (gender, grades, and majors) is presented in Table 1. All the participants agreed
to take part in the study and to comply with the ethical standards of the study by signing a
written consent form (according to the Declaration of Helsinki and later amendments).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 6 of 14

Table 1. The demographic breakdown of categorical variables.

Variable n %
Gender
Male 122 47.3
Female 136 52.7
Grades
Freshman 57 22.1
Sophomore 66 25.6
Junior 63 24.4
Senior 72 27.9
Majors
Social Science 113 43.8
Natural Science 91 35.3
Arts 54 20.9

3.2. Measures
Two self-reported scales with adequate reliability and validity were completed by all
respondents: the academic self-efficacy scale (ASE) and The Utrecht work engagement
scale student (UWES-S). Liang revised and designed the Chinese version of the ASE
questionnaire designed by Pinrich and DeGroot in 1990 [50,51]. The ASE questionnaire
was divided into two sub-scales: the learning ability self-efficacy scale (11 items, e.g., I
think I’m a good student in comparison with others in my class) and the learning behavior
self-efficacy scale (11 items, e.g., when I prepare for the examination, I am capable of
achieving mastery through a comprehensive study of the subject). All participants were
guided to complete the items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree)
to 5 (totally agree). High levels of academic self-efficacy were indicated by high scores
on the scale. The internal consistency coefficient of the total scale was 0.92, which is an
indication that the scale had good reliability. The internal consistency coefficients for the
learning ability self-efficacy sub-scale and learning behavior self-efficacy sub-scale were
0.83 and 0.86, respectively. The average variance extracted (AVE) was 0.68 and 0.63 for
the learning ability self-efficacy sub-scale and learning behavior self-efficacy sub-scale,
respectively, and the composite reliability (CR) for learning ability self-efficacy and learning
behavior self-efficacy was 0.88 and 0.86, respectively. The value of AVE above the suggested
threshold value of 0.50 shows it had good convergent validity, and the value of CR above
0.70 shows it had good internal consistency reliability [52]. This confirms that the academic
self-efficacy scale has good structure validity in China.
The Utrecht work engagement scale student (UWES-S) is a scale with 17 items designed
to evaluate students’ academic engagement in relation to academic success [53]. Li revised
and formed the Chinese version of the UWES-S [54]. It included three dimensions: vigor
(6 items, e.g., studying makes me feel strong and energetic), dedication (5 items, e.g., I’m
passionate about what I’m studying) and absorption (6 items, e.g., I find it difficult to
disengage from my studies). The higher the score, the more academically engaged the
student is. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the UWES-S scale was 0.93, and for the vigor,
dedication, and absorption subscales, it was 0.88, 0.81, and 0.86, respectively. The scale
was also based on a 5-point Likert scale, with strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree,
and strongly agree corresponding to 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The convergent validity (AVE) was
0.75, 0.77, and 0.73 for vigor, dedication, and absorption, respectively, and the composite
reliability (CR) was 0.89, 0.82, and 0.87 for vigor, dedication, and absorption, respectively.
The model fitting was tested using confirmatory factor analysis, and the fitting indexes met
the requirements (χ2 /df = 1.43, RMSEA = 0.04, NFI = 0.92, RFI = 0.91, IFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.97,
CFI = 0.97, GFI = 0.84, and AGFI = 0.82). This is in line with the requirement of good
validity of the structure.
Finally, the cumulative grade point average (GPA) over the course of their studies
to date was used to measure university students’ academic performance. The score was
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 7 of 14

self-reported by the students. Consistent with the credit system used in China’s higher
education system, the GPA value ranged from 1 (low) to 5 (high).

3.3. Data Analyses

The relationships among academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic
achievement were examined using Pearson correlation coefficients. Next, to evaluate
the intermediating role of academic engagement in the association between academic
self-efficacy and academic performance, a bootstrap medication analysis was performed.

4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analyses
In order to analyze the relationships among academic self-efficacy, academic engage-
ment, and academic performance and how academic self-efficacy and academic engagement
influence academic achievement, Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated. The
scores for academic self-efficacy and academic engagement all exceeded the central value
of ASE and UWES-S scales. The level of academic self-efficacy was at the middle level
(M = 3.25, SD = 1.05). Meanwhile, the score for academic engagement (M = 3.35, SD = 0.91)
was slightly higher than academic self-efficacy, but it was still at the middle level. Descrip-
tive analyses and correlation coefficients analyses are shown in Table 2. The results showed
that academic self-efficacy and academic engagement were substantially associated with
academic performance. The correlation coefficients among academic self-efficacy, academic
engagement, and academic performance were 0.85 and 0.76, respectively. In addition, the
correlation coefficient between academic engagement and academic achievement was 0.79.
The results revealed that three variables were significantly associated with each other
(Table 2). The correlation analysis showed that two dimensions of academic self-efficacy
(learning behavior self-efficacy and learning ability self-efficacy) and three dimensions
of academic engagement (vigor, dedication, and absorption) had positive relationships
with academic performance. Additionally, each dimension of academic self-efficacy was
positively related to each dimension of academic engagement (p < 0.01). It is reasonable
to further determine the intermediary effect of academic engagement between academic
self-efficacy and academic performance to reveal the relationship between them.

Table 2. Correlation analyses among academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic
performance.

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Predictor Variable
1 Academic Self-efficacy 3.25 1.05 1
2 Learning Ability Self-efficacy 3.33 1.10 0.883 ** 1
3 Learning Behavior
3.41 1.00 0.893 ** 0.943 ** 1
Self-efficacy
Mediator Variable
4 Academic Engagement 3.35 0.91 0.853 ** 0.904 ** 0.916 ** 1
5 Vigor 3.39 1.03 0.822 ** 0.881 ** 0.896 ** 0.962 ** 1
6 Dedication 3.31 0.88 0.788 ** 0.839 ** 0.845 ** 0.959 ** 0.893 ** 1
7 Absorption 3.34 0.93 0.837 ** 0.873 ** 0.887 ** 0.955 ** 0.862 ** 0.888 ** 1
Target Variable
8 Academic Performance 3.00 1.01 0.756 ** 0.889 ** 0.844 ** 0.792 ** 0.767 ** 0.722 ** 0.780 ** 1
Note. ** p < 0.01.

4.2. Mediation Analyses

Our proposal is that academic self-efficacy and academic engagement directly and
indirectly influence academic performance. To determine the intermediating effect of aca-
demic engagement in the nexus between academic self-efficacy and academic achievement,
a PROCESSOR macro developed by Hayes was used [55]. When controlling gender, class
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 8 of 14

standing, and program, the results of this study verified that academic self-efficacy was a
strong indicator of academic performance (β = 0.69; t = 18.02; p < 0.001), supporting H1.
Additionally, the direct predictive effect of academic self-efficacy on academic achievement
remained significant when the intermediate variable (academic engagement) was included
in the equation (β = 0.28; t = 4.39; p < 0.001). In addition, there was a positive association
between academic self-efficacy and academic engagement (β = 0.73; t = 24.84; p < 0.001),
supporting H2. Moreover, there was also a significant positive predictive effect of academic
engagement on academic performance (β = 0.56; t = 7.53; p < 0.001).
In order to test the mediating effect of academic engagement, a non-parametric bias-
corrected bootstrap was carried out [56]. For each of the data sets, a and b were calculated
in each of the bootstrap samples. This process was repeated a total of 5000 times for each
dataset, and 5000 bootstrap estimates of a and b were thus obtained. The two bootstrapped
estimates of a and b in the 5000 samples, defining the 2.5 and 97.5 percentiles of the distri-
bution, respectively, were used to construct 95% percentile confidence intervals for a and
b [57]. After controlling the demographic variables (gender, class standing, and program),
the importance of direct, indirect, and overall effects in the intermediary model was de-
termined (Table 3). The bootstrap 95% confidence interval of the direct effect of academic
self-efficacy on academic performance was (0.145, 0.453). The direct effect of academic
self-efficacy on academic performance was 0.28, which accounted for 40.91% of total effect.
Simultaneously, the significance of the indirect effect of academic self-efficacy through
academic engagement was confirmed by the results of the non-parametric bootstrapping
method (95% bootstrap CI = 0.271, 0.517). The indirect effect of academic self-efficacy had
an impact of 0.41 that was generated by academic engagement as an intermediator on
academic performance, which accounted for 59.08 of the total effect. The direct, indirect,
and total effects were statistically significant, indicating that psychological self-efficacy can
directly anticipate academic performance and indirectly predict academic performance
via the intermediating effect of academic engagement, supporting H3. The direct and
indirect effects of academic self-efficacy on academic performance are presented in Table 4,
which indicate that academic engagement significantly and positively intermediated the
effect of academic self-efficacy on academic performance. The mediating test confirmed
that academic self-efficacy directly predicts academic performance and indirectly predicts
academic performance through the mediation of academic engagement.

Table 3. Intermediary effect test of academic engagement between academic self-efficacy and aca-
demic performance.

Regression Equation Fit Indices Significance

Target Predictor
R R2 F β t
Variable Variable
0.794 0.631 108.205 ***
Gender 0.212 2.580 *
Academic Performance Class Standing 0.173 4.831 ***
Program 0.075 1.497
Academic Self-efficacy 0.688 18.022 ***
0.856 0.732 172.861 ***
Gender 0.128 2.033 *
Academic Engagement Class Standing 0.006 0.217
Program 0.017 0.442
Academic Self-efficacy 0.726 24.847 ***
0.836 0.699 116.962 ***
Gender 0.141 1.872
Class Standing 0.170 5.233 ***
Academic Performance
Program 0.066 1.444
Academic Self-efficacy 0.281 4.391 ***
Academic Engagement 0.560 7.530 ***
Note. * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 9 of 14

Table 4. The test of total effect, direct effect, and indirect effect.

Effect BootSE BootLLCI BootULCI Indirect Effect

Total Effect 0.688 0.039 0.610 0.763
Direct Effect 0.281 0.077 0.145 0.453 40.91%
Indirect Effect 0.406 0.062 0.271 0.517 59.08%

5. Discussion
This study attempts to probe the nexus between academic self-efficacy and academic
performance and further explore the mediating effect of academic engagement on this
association among university students. The correlation analysis showed a significant
positive association among academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic
performance. The mediation effect analysis showed that academic self-efficacy could have
a direct effect on the academic performance of university students and an indirect effect on
the academic performance of university students when academic engagement was used as
an intermediate variable. The findings supported H1, H2 and H3.
Firstly, academic self-efficacy can be a direct and significant predictor of the academic
performance of university students, supporting H1, which is in line with previous stud-
ies [24–26]. The students who scored higher in academic self-efficacy were more proactive
in taking on academic challenges, persevered for longer, and put forth more effort in
academic endeavors [58]. A study from Debre Markos College of Teacher Education, City
University of Hong Kong, and City University of New York demonstrated that self-efficacy
strongly correlated with academic performance [18,59,60]. Academic self-efficacy directly
predicts academic performance by influencing cognition, motivation, and behavior [59].
Academic self-efficacy affects university students’ learning goals and the selection of learn-
ing assignments. The study confirmed that academic self-efficacy is a predictive factor of
university students’ academic performance [12]. Students with high levels of academic
self-efficacy feel that they are more capable of accomplishing academic tasks and tend to
choose assignments which are difficult and challenging, and therefore, they achieve a high
level of academic performance.
Secondly, academic self-efficacy has a positive predictive effect on academic engage-
ment, supporting H2. In a meta-analysis, engagement was reported to be strongly corre-
lated with self-efficacy [61]. If students have confidence in their ability to do a task, they
will have a higher level of engagement with the task. On the contrary, if students have
little confidence in completing a task, they will not spend time or make an effort with
it, and consequently, they will not engage in the task. Academic self-efficacy will affect
students’ learning processes. Students with a high sense of academic self-efficacy will
conduct self-monitoring and self-management in the learning process and discover and
adopt effective strategies to solve problems in a timely manner, so as to achieve learning
objectives. An intervention program with 77 university students from various years and
degree programs, with the aim of enhancing students’ self-efficacy, reported significant
effects on students’ engagement [62]. The enhancement of academic self-efficacy may be a
prerequisite for the improvement of students’ academic engagement.
Finally, it was found that academic engagement is an important mediator between
academic self-efficacy and academic performance, supporting H3. The higher the level
of academic self-efficacy, the higher the level of students’ academic engagement, which,
in turn, will have a positive influence on students’ academic performance. Academic
self-efficacy has a positive and significant influence on academic achievement through
the intermediary role of academic engagement. Individuals with a high sense of learning
efficiency have more confidence in their learning ability. This positive emotional experience
will encourage individuals to spend more time and use more experience to achieve their
goals and will focus more on a boring learning process.
The findings of this study showed some parallels to previous research, in which self-
efficacy was shown to be a mediating factor between personal characteristics and perceived
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 10 of 14

autonomy support to predict academic performance [63,64]. As a personality trait, academic

self-efficacy can improve academic performance by increasing academic engagement.
Students’ core beliefs, alongside their ability to achieve personal goals through their own
actions, determine all external and internal factors that affect their academic success [65].
Efficacious students have greater willingness to expand extra energy on completing a task
or an assignment, thus improving academic engagement and performance. Meanwhile,
excellent academic performance will also improve students’ sense of self-efficacy. The
virtuous circle of academic self-efficacy increases academic engagement, thus improving
academic performance, which produces a higher sense of academic self-efficacy. Therefore,
it can be concluded that the enhancement of academic self-efficacy among university
students is a useful strategy for the improvement of academic performance in order to
reduce attrition rates.

6. Implications
The findings of this study contribute by providing theoretical and practical enlighten-
ment for university researchers and administrators. Learning is an active self-construction
process, and every learner is an active learner. Compared with their counterparts with
lower self-efficacy, students with higher self-efficacy reported greater engagement [66]. In
addition, academic engagement is a predictor for academic performance [33]. Students who
engage more in studies have a greater probability of achieving a higher level of academic
performance. Academic engagement is an important factor which affects the learning
process and learning results of students, and enhancing students’ learning engagement
is the common goal of higher education. Specifically, the role of academic engagement
as a mediator between academic self-efficacy and academic performance has not been
clearly established and is, therefore, in need of investigation [67]. Furthermore, it has been
confirmed that academic engagement mediates the nexus between academic self-efficacy
and academic achievement. In other words, it is important for university students to feel
capable of coping with and engaging in academic challenges.
Practically, the findings of this study offer further support for universities in the
design of projects and programs to enhance students’ academic achievements and social
skills. In the higher education market, the competition has been aggravated between
academic institutions as a result of the paradigm shifts from a supplier market (in which
supply is less than demand and the suppliers dictate quality) to a customer market (in
which supply is more than demand and the customers dictate quality) [68]. Academic
institutions should take into account and respond to the needs and expectations of students
they serve and provide appropriate programs and courses to meet the needs of students.
Students’ academic achievements are the combination of their active participation in
learning and the influences of various scaffolds created by universities on students. The
quality and achieved level of university students’ learning are determined mainly by their
own behavior and their state of engagement. Other external factors can be used only as
scaffolding to assist students’ learning. Academic self-efficacy, as a positive psychological
state, should attract the attention of universities and teachers. Self-efficacy can be improved
when particular teaching strategies are employed. Students in a project-based learning
program showed a positive attitude for English learning [69]. A comparative study of
Tsinghua University and the top research universities in the United States showed that
Tsinghua University is superior to its peers in terms of the campus environment support
and extracurricular extended learning opportunities it provides; however, senior students
are inferior to their peers in other universities in terms of academic challenges, active
cooperative learning, and teacher–student interaction [70]. Universities should cultivate
students’ sense of supporting and belonging (i.e., academic guidance, career planning,
and professional development), which have been shown to be positively associated with
academic self-efficacy and academic performance [71]. In particular, studying online
became the “new normal” during the COVID-19 pandemic, and unsatisfactory student
academic performance was determined to be the main issue [72]. For university students, it
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 11 of 14

is important to increase their academic self-efficacy and enhance their academic engagement
to maintain and improve their academic performance.

7. Limitations and Future Directions

Given the limitations of the study, the findings of this study are suggestive, not
decisive. First, the research sample of this study was recruited from a university. This does
not have a substantive influence on the research result; however, it perhaps impedes the
feasibility of extending the research findings to other populations. Hence, we encourage
further studies to be carried out to compare the results with other populations and other
nations to make the results more representative and comprehensive. Second, a cross-
section design was used to obtain the evidence in this study that corroborated the causal
nexus among academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic performance.
The main limitation of this cross-sectional study design is that it was difficult to present
the continuous process of individual psychology, and the inter-group differences may
not have been caused by psychological development [73]. Thus, future studies need to
implement a longitudinal research design to establish the true cause and effect nexus among
academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and academic performance. In addition, we
considered only the direct effect of academic self-efficacy and the indirect effect of academic
engagement on academic performance and did not consider other educational elements,
such as curriculum, leaning support, teacher guidance, peer effect, and so on. Further
research could discuss the variables deeply and comprehensively discuss these variables.

8. Conclusions
This study aimed to investigate the nexus between academic self-efficacy and aca-
demic performance and the mediating role of academic engagement. Academic self-efficacy
and academic engagement are important indicators of university students’ academic per-
formance [12,15]. The results show that academic self-efficacy, academic engagement, and
academic achievement are positively associated. Additionally, the results confirm that
academic self-efficacy improves academic performance by increasing academic engage-
ment. The results highlight that academic self-efficacy is beneficial to improving academic
performance, which, in turn, achieves the goal of reducing dropout rates. Students with a
high sense of self-efficacy are more confident in learning and can more effectively solve
problems and engage more in learning, while students with a low sense of self-efficacy
choose to avoid challenges, thereby reducing their academic performance [27]. In addi-
tion to attaching importance to the individual psychological characteristics of university
students, the improvement of higher education needs to facilitate supportive external
environments, such as curriculum, teaching, and cultural atmosphere, which can promote
students’ self-efficacy and engagement. Universities should provide a supportive learning
environment to enable students to face academic challenges with confidence, improving
their academic performance, which is conducive to increasing student retention rates. The
findings offer further and valuable evidence which can aid university superintendents in
the creation of consulting or training programs as components of the university curricu-
lum system which will be oriented to enhance students’ achievement. The results also
broaden the research on the nexus between academic self-efficacy, academic engagement,
and academic performance and provide theoretical and practical guidance for university
administrators and students.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization and writing, Q.M.; formal analysis and data curation,
Q.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the project “Research on the promoting effect of education
exchange on bilateral investments between China and ‘One belt, one road’ countries” (No. BIA210185)
sponsored by National Office for Education Sciences Planning.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration
of Helsinki and approved by Ethical Review Committees of Bohai University (No. BHU-2022-122).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5767 12 of 14

Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: We would like to show our great appreciation to the participants for their
support and assistance in data collection.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
High Education and University Teaching and Learning
Processes: Soft Skills
Antonio Ragusa 1 , Valeria Caggiano 2 , Rubén Trigueros Ramos 3 , Jerónimo J. González-Bernal 4 ,
Ana Gentil-Gutiérrez 4, *, Susana Adelina Moreira Carvalho Bastos 5 , Josefa González-Santos 4, *
and Mirian Santamaría-Peláez 4
Citation: Ragusa, A.; Caggiano, V.;
Trigueros Ramos, R.;
González-Bernal, J.J.;
Gentil-Gutiérrez, A.; Bastos,
S.A.M.C.; González-Santos, J.;
Santamaría-Peláez, M. High
Education and University Teaching
and Learning Processes: Soft Skills.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,
19, 10699. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph191710699
Academic Editor: Carlos Salavera
Received: 18 July 2022
Accepted: 24 August 2022
Published: 27 August 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10699. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710699
1 Rome Business School, Department of Education, 00196 Rome, Italy
2 Department of Education, University Roma TRE, 00154 Rome, Italy
3 Hum-878 Research Team, Health Research Centre, Department of Psychology, University of Almería,
04120 Almería, Spain
4 Department of Health Sciences, University of Burgos, 09001 Burgos, Spain
5 ISCAP–CEOS.PP, Porto Polytechnic School, Accounting Department, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
* Correspondence: agentil@ubu.es (A.G.-G.); mjgonzalez@ubu.es (J.G.-S.)
Abstract: In the era of globalization and technology, society demands young generations of citizens
able to work in a kind of environment characterized by complexity and diversity. Therefore, the
education system faces a new kind of challenge, as graduates are reported to need transversal skills,
which are unlikely to be learned through traditional classroom teaching. The overall aim of this article
is to examine the needs for these skills and their acquisition by higher education teachers to cope
with the evolving European labour market of the 2020s. The article envisions the importance of soft
skills in the teaching profession. The empirical part consists of a comparative study with Italian and
Portuguese teachers, highlighting the status of a set of crucial soft skills (assertiveness, networking
skills, teamwork, sensitivity, socialization, action-orientation, ability to work under pressure and
social desirability).
Keywords: teaching competences; soft skills; cultural values; European education system
1. Introduction
Particular importance has been attached to the quality of teaching in higher education
in recent years, both nationally and internationally. In the European Union, the urgent
need for improvement of the quality and status of teaching and the modernization of
higher education has been highlighted [1,2]. In this process, teachers’ competences play an
essential role and it is important that future teachers are prepared to work with complex
content and an increasing diversity of learners [3,4]. It should therefore be a priority for
teachers to start with high-quality initial professional preparation [5]. It is also conceivable
that teachers, in order to carry out such a complex, emotionally and cognitively demanding
job, must have continuous professional development of the highest possible quality and
with the best possible working conditions, although this is not generally the case [6].
Due to this, and to the faster and unforeseen changes we have been subjected to
in recent years, which have affected schools and education systems [7,8], including the
evolution of science and technology, there is a need to develop and strengthen the links
between training, teaching practice and educational research [9]. Several universities in
different countries show a special interest in this issue, integrating it into institutional
policy [10,11].
Until the end of the 20th century, researchers in the field of psychology and education
believed that intellectual competencies were a crucial determinant of educational and
occupational achievement [11] However, in the current century, soft skills, such as motiva-
tion, teamwork, work ethic, planning, effective communication, and cultural awareness, are
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10699 2 of 12

beginning to be considered to play an equally or more important role in school and work
success. Currently, there is a greater awareness of the role of education in the promotion
of soft skills and, therefore, new didactic methodologies for their instruction and new
methods and instruments for their evaluation are being developed [12]
These issues also highlight the intellectual challenge required in the contemporary
science classroom, the social nature of learning, the professional identity of teachers and the
acquisition of a professional language related to learning and teaching. In addition, the per-
sonal resource input of trainee teachers is increasingly seen as a key factor for effectiveness,
innovation and maintaining a healthier and more committed teaching staff [13].
Teacher competency frameworks and professional standards will define what is ex-
pected of teachers and what they are able to do, i.e., their pedagogical skills, which are
considered key tools to encourage and support teacher quality [14]. These skills can serve
as a basis for conceptualizing quality, assessing performance and developing teaching
capacity [2,15]. Significant cognitive, social and affective outcomes have also been reported
when learner-centered teaching strategies such as role-play, interactive learning, discovery
learning, enquiry or differentiated learning and group work are applied, contributing
effectively to the teaching and learning among children and young people [16,17].
In recent decades, so-called “soft skills” have started to be taken into account and
they are being seen a necessary complement to traditional hard skills [18,19]. Hard skills
are teachable and specific skills that can be defined and measured such as mathematics,
writing, typing, etc.; while soft skills such as listening skills, personal habits, assertiveness,
sensitivity, or getting along with others, are difficult to quantify [20]. Consequently, pure
applied science is now less frequently considered in teacher education and instead, training
programs seek to integrate and link this applied science with a reflective approach, which
is seen as an increasingly critical component of education [21,22]. This type of experiential
learning encourages students to make more stable connections between practical knowl-
edge, theoretical knowledge and personal experience [22] and, in addition, it has been
demonstrated to help self-efficacy promotion, self-esteem, responsible social awareness,
beliefs, values, etc., which implies a holistic development of the learner and not just a
mastery of purely didactic skills [23,24].
Globalisation and technological advances bring with them new ways of educating
and, consequently, new approaches and methodologies that require the development of
specific skills. This context is the reason to pay more attention to soft skills education.
As a novelty, this study tries to assess the personal skills of teachers (assertiveness,
networking skills, teamwork, sensitivity, socialization, action orientation, ability to work
under pressure and social desirability) and relate them to age, gender, nationality educa-
tional sector and digital skills. The sample is made up of Italian and Portuguese teachers,
whose educational systems belong to the European tradition.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design
An exploratory descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out in two groups of
teachers, one in Italy and one in Portugal, in order to know comparatively their soft and
digital skills profiles.
After agreeing to participate, each teacher answered the Business-focused Personality
Inventory (BIP) questionnaire already adapted and used in the educational context [25]
and received as feedback a personal profile indicating their interpersonal skills. The Italian
sessions were conducted during the month of July 2021, the Portuguese sessions were
conducted during the month of September 2021.
A focus group composed of experienced teachers and managers from both countries
was interviewed within the research process to establish the premises that should be
addressed in the discussion.
All participants accepted to participate and this research respected, at all times, the
requirements established in the Declaration of Helsinki of 1975.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10699 3 of 12

2.2. Study Participants

The sample is non-probabilistic and consists of 212 secondary school teachers, in
particular, 106 Italian teachers (mainly from the area of Rome) and 106 Portuguese teachers
(mainly from the area of Porto). The geographical distribution of the sample is due to
the close collaboration between the Rome Business School and the Politechnic of Porto–
Accounting and Business School (ISCAP). The Italian sample was composed of 28.3 % of
women and 71.6 % of men, while the Portuguese group was composed of 64.1 % of women
and 35.8 % of men. The age of the respondents in both groups was between 20 and 69 years
(age M = 45.79). All participants indicated their agreement to participate in the Research.
The university teachers from Rome Business School are working in a private organization;
the Portuguese are from public and private polytechnic organizations.

2.3. Instruments
Each university teacher reported the Business-Focused Inventory of Personality [BIP]
questionnaire and received a personal profile indicating his/her soft skills as feedback. This
instrument aims to assess personality in the context of work, based on the theoretical bases
of personalization and motivation and has been validated with a sample of 580 people so
that the results pointed to a structure of three factors with alphas between 0.86 and 0.93 [26].
Questions were distributed over two sections: the first section corresponded to the socio
demographic characteristics (gender, age and origin) and to the studies (University and type
of degree). The second section corresponded to the self-evaluation of individual soft skills.
The questionnaire comprises 14 scales, grouped in four domains plus the scale of impression
management. In this case, six soft skills have been assessed: assertiveness, team orientation,
sensitivity, action orientation, work under pressure, social desirability. The response is
requested on a scale of six points that vary between ‘Completely true’ and ‘Completely
false’. The variables studied are grouped into three areas: intra-personal, interpersonal and
activity development. In addition, some questions focusing on impression management
were presented. This scale indicates the tendency of the respondents to, consciously or
unconsciously, give a positive and socially accepted image of oneself. Very extreme scores
on this scale invalidate the complete questionnaire, since it is considered that the subject
has not responded with sincerity. The questionnaires were distributed in two sections: the
first one corresponds to socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age and origin) and to
their studies (university and type of degree, highest degree they have, years of teaching
experience, type of school they work in, years in the company, whether they have had an
interview and prior relevant training or not).
The second section corresponds to the self-assessment of soft skills. In total, the BIP
questionnaire consists of 14 scales, grouped into four domains plus the impression man-
agement scale. In this case, seven soft skills were self-assessed: assertiveness, networking
skills, teamwork, sensitivity, action orientation, ability to work under pressure and social
desirability [27], as is described in Table 1.
Responses were organized on an eight-point scale ranging from “Completely true”
to “Completely false”. The variables were grouped into two areas: intrapersonal and
inter-personal. Very extreme scores on this scale invalidate the entire questionnaire, as they
indicate that the participant has not answered truthfully.
The soft skills profile obtained in the two samples through the standardized BIP
questionnaire is presented and compared with the normative score of the questionnaire.
The focus group composed of experienced teachers and managers built the premises to
be discussed in the conclusion of this research. The qualitative data collection aimed at
proposing effective soft skills improvement strategies, methodology and research procedure
that have high impact on values that become functional in organizational contexts where
the ability to work in groups, the communication processes aimed at change management,
and the culture of innovation are crucial.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10699 4 of 12

Table 1. Definitions of the skills used the study.

Skill Definition
Ability to stand up for one’s own or others’ rights in
Assertiveness a calm and positive manner, without being
aggressive or passively accepting “the bad” [28].
It consists of a variety of skills related to
Capacity for networking communication, openness and the ability to create a
mutual experience of trust in other people
Qualities and skills that enable one to work well
with others during conversations, projects, meetings,
Teamwork
etc.; it depends on the ability to communicate well,
listen actively, and be responsible and honest [29].
Ability to notice things and care about people’s
Sensitivity feelings; taking time to assimilate and process, rather
than rushing to a decision [30].
A bipolar dimension: action orientation favors the
transformation of intention into action. In contrast,
Action oriented
state orientation is characterized by having thoughts
in the mind related to the achievement of a goal [31].
Self-image in the ability to perform their duties
Ability to work under pressure despite the circumstances, maintaining a constant
level of efficiency. [32].
Used as a control factor in the study: type of
response bias which is the tendency of respondents
Social desirability
to answer questions in a way that will be viewed
positively by others [33].

2.4. Statistical Analysis

The sample consisted of 212 teachers, 106 Italian and 106 Portuguese. The sample is
balanced in both nationalities; however, the overall percentage is 71.6 % male in Italy and
64.1 % female in Portugal. Therefore, male teachers in Portugal and female teachers in Italy
are slightly under-represented in the sample.
From the data, several types of comparisons and analyses were made with respect
to skills. The soft skills levels of teachers were analyzed in relation to their age, gen-
der, nationality and public/private sector. Soft skills covered assertiveness, networking,
teamwork, sensitivity, socialization, action orientation, ability to work under pressure and
so-cial desirability.
For the comparison between age and soft skills, the Kruskal Wallis test was used to
measure the difference in the distributions of soft skills examined in relation to the age
groups considered during the research. In addition, a comparison of the soft skills levels of
each age group with all other age groups was carried out using Dunn’s test.
The soft skills that teachers possessed were then related to their digital skills. The level
of digital skills of the group of teachers was measured using the Europass Online.
Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS version 28 software (IBM-Inc, Chicago,
IL, USA). A p-value < 0.05 was established for the analysis of statistical significance.

3. Results
As for the Italian teachers, there are no significant differences in the soft skills variable
compared to the level of digital skills. Among Portuguese teachers, however, differences
emerged, with older teachers being expert users (M: 79%) and basic-independent users
being more able to network and more team-oriented than the Italian sample by age.
Table 2 shows that the age profile of Italian teachers is somewhat higher than that of
Portuguese teachers. In the 60–69 age classes the proportion of Italians is higher. However,
this is also the case in the 50–59 and 30–39 age classes. In turn, Portuguese teachers
dominate the age class 20 to 29.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10699 5 of 12

Table 2. Age range by nationality.

Age Range
20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69
Nationality Ita % within the age range 3.88% 25.2% 33.0% 34.9% 6.79%
Pt % within the age range 11.6% 17.4% 33.9% 33.0% 3.88%
Ita: Italian; Pt: Portuguese.

Regarding the skills assessed by age groups between Italian and Portuguese teachers,
most of them showed a higher score in the group of Italian teachers with statistically
significant differences (p < 0.05).
In assertiveness and teamwork, Italian teachers scored higher in all age groups, not
being significant between 20–29 years and 30–39 years, respectively. All age groups scored
significantly higher on the ability to establish contact, sensitivity and ability to work under
pressure. With regard to action orientation, Portuguese teachers scored significantly higher
in the 40–49 and 60–69 age groups.
Socialization ability indicates a statistically significant difference with higher scores
for Portuguese teachers in the 40–49 and 50–59 age groups, but it is in the 20–29 age group
that higher scores are observed for Italians. Finally, social desirability shows significant
differences with higher scores for Italians, but only in the 30–39 and 50–59 age groups
(Table 3).

Table 3. Self-assessment of age-related competences.

PT ITA
N Mean St. Dev N Mean St. Dev t-Test p-Value
20–29 12 5.5 0.57 4 6 1.15 −0.42 0.34
30–39 18 5 0.2 26 6.38 0.28 −3.52 <0.001
AS 40–49 35 4.54 0.16 34 5.65 0.26 −3.67 <0.001
50–59 34 4.41 0.25 36 5.78 0.29 −3.57 <0.001
60–69 4 5.5 0.29 4 7.5 0.29 −4.9 0.001
20–29 12 3.67 0.28 4 7.5 0.87 −5.6 <0.001
30–39 18 3.44 0.12 26 5.62 0.36 −4.93 <0.001
CN 40–49 35 3 0.26 34 5.47 0.34 −5.79 <0.001
50–59 34 4.65 0.34 36 6.39 0.29 −3.92 <0.001
60–69 4 3 0.58 4 8.5 0.29 −8.52 <0.001
20–29 12 5 0.43 4 7.5 0.29 −3.24 0.003
30–39 18 4.61 0.23 26 5.38 0.38 −1.53 0.067
TW 40–49 35 3.85 0.23 34 5.94 0.34 −5.08 <0.001
50–59 34 4.21 0.17 36 6.67 0.27 −7.51 <0.001
60–69 4 4.5 0.29 4 8.5 0.29 −9.8 <0.001
20–29 12 3.17 0.56 4 8 0 −4.82 <0.001
30–39 18 2.61 0.35 26 5.31 0.49 −4.07 <0.001
SN 40–49 35 2.29 0.17 34 5.71 0.31 −9.75 <0.001
50–59 34 2.32 0.24 36 6.17 0.27 −10.73 <0.001
60–69 4 2 0.58 4 8.5 0.29 −10.07 <0.001
20–29 12 3.83 0.11 4 4.85 0.29 −2.65 0.01
30–39 18 3.78 0.33 26 3.31 0.24 1.18 0.12
SO 40–49 35 4.57 0.24 34 3.17 0.14 4.96 <0.001
50–59 34 5.26 0.16 36 3.72 0.15 7.12 <0.001
60–69 4 4 0.58 4 4 0 0 0.5
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10699 6 of 12

Table 3. Cont.

PT ITA
N Mean St. Dev N Mean St. Dev t-Test p-Value
20–29 12 3.17 0.41 4 3 0 0.23 0.41
30–39 18 2.56 0.31 26 2.15 0.13 1.31 0.09
AO 40–49 35 2.94 0.16 34 2.29 0.11 3.29 <0.001
50–59 34 2.29 0.17 36 2.39 0.1 −0.49 0.31
60–69 4 2.5 0.29 4 1.5 0.29 2.45 0.025
20–29 12 3.33 0.41 4 7.5 0.29 −5.55 <0.001
30–39 18 3.61 0.16 26 5.61 0.42 −3.25 0.001
AUP 40–49 35 2.97 0.15 34 6.12 0.33 −8.84 <0.001
50–59 34 3.09 0.19 36 5.95 0.21 −10.12 <0.001
60–69 4 2.5 0.87 4 7 1.15 −3.12 0.01
20–29 12 3.5 0.38 4 2.5 0.87 1.22 0.12
30–39 18 2.33 0.28 26 2.92 0.2 −1.76 0.042
SD 40–49 35 2.49 0.26 34 2.94 0.21 −1.36 0.09
50–59 34 2.29 0.2 36 2.78 0.18 −1.78 0.039
60–69 4 2.5 0.87 4 3.5 0.29 −1.09 0.16
PT: Portuguese; ITA: Italian; AS: assertiveness; CN: capacity for networking; TW: teamwork; SN: sensitivity; SO:
socialization; AO: action oriented; AUP: ability to work under pressure; SD: social desirability.

With regard to the assessment of skills according to the sector to which the teachers
evaluated belonged, it could be observed that the Italians obtained statistically significant
higher scores in most of them for both sectors (public and private); except for socializa-
tion skills where a significantly higher difference was found for the Portuguese (both
in the public and private sectors) and in action-orientation, with a higher score in the
private sector.
Social desirability showed no significant differences between Italians and Portuguese
in either sector, and nor did action orientation in the public sector (Table 4).

Table 4. Self-assessment of competences according to the sector.

PT ITA
N Mean St. Dev N Mean St. Dev t-Test p-Value
Public 37 4.81 0.13 16 5.37 0.26 −2.14 0.018
AS
Private 69 4.65 0.18 90 6.04 0.17 −5.52 <0.001
Public 37 3.68 0.24 16 6 0.39 −5.24 <0.001
CN
Private 69 3.68 0.21 90 6.04 0.21 −7.88 <0.001
Public 37 4.19 0.16 16 6.62 0.36 −7.08 <0.001
TW
Private 69 4.2 0.17 90 6.15 0.21 −6.98 <0.001
Public 37 2.27 0.2 16 5.25 0.59 −6.05 <0.001
SN
Private 69 2.52 0.17 90 6.13 0.2 −13.16 <0.001
Public 37 4.59 0.21 16 3.37 0.22 3.46 <0.001
SO
Private 69 4.51 0.16 90 3.51 0.1 5.49 <0.001
Public 37 2.24 0.15 16 2.5 0.13 −1.07 0.145
AO
Private 69 2.87 0.14 90 2.22 0.07 4.42 <0.001
Public 37 3.08 0.17 16 6 0.46 −7.31 <0.001
AUP
Private 69 3.22 0.13 90 5.87 0.19 −10.75 <0.001
Public 37 2.24 0.23 16 2.75 0.33 −1.21 0.11
SD
Private 69 2.64 0.16 90 2.91 0.11 −1.45 0.074
PT: Portuguese; ITA: Italians; AS: assertiveness; CN: capacity for networking; TW: teamwork; SN: sensitivity; SO:
socialization; AO: action oriented; AUP: ability to work under pressure; SD: social desiderability.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10699 7 of 12

Regarding sector (public/private) there are no significant differences except on Por-

tuguese teachers on socialization skills, specifically on action-orientation skill, presenting a
high score in the private sector.
Finally, Italian teachers also obtained statistically significant better overall scores
in most skills taking into account gender. Only socialization stood out in favor of Por-
tuguese teachers, with significantly higher scores for both genders, as well as in the action-
orientation skill, where Portuguese men also stood out in terms of their scores. In the
social desirability skill, men showed no statistically significant differences between the two
nationalities, as applies also to women in the action-orientation skill (Table 5).

Table 5. Self-assessment of competences according to gender.

PT ITA
N Mean St. Dev N Mean St. Dev t-Test p-Value
Male 38 4.32 0.21 76 4.72 0.2 −4.78 <0.001
AS
Female 68 4.93 0.15 30 6.27 0.22 −5.02 <0.001
Male 38 3.74 0.27 76 6.03 0.23 −6.18 <0.001
CN
Female 68 3.65 0.2 30 6.07 0.32 −6.54 <0.001
Male 38 4.32 0.25 76 6.34 0.24 −5.36 <0.001
TW
Female 68 4.13 0.13 30 5.93 0.26 −6.81 <0.001
Male 38 2.58 0.28 76 5.87 0.25 −8.13 <0.001
SN
Female 68 2.35 0.13 30 6.33 0.26 −14.92 <0.001
Male 38 4.92 0.22 76 3.58 0.11 6.01 <0.001
SO
Female 68 4.32 0.15 30 3.27 0.16 4.3 <0.001
Male 38 2.29 0.21 76 2.21 0.08 3.83 <0.001
AO
Female 68 2.5 0.12 30 2.4 0.11 0.52 0.3
Male 38 3.37 0.17 76 5.74 0.21 −7.22 <0.001
AUP
Female 68 3.06 0.13 30 6.27 0.29 −11.72 <0.001
Male 38 2.92 0.2 76 2.89 0.13 0.11 0.455
SD
Female 68 2.26 0.17 30 2.87 0.19 −2.15 0.02
PT; Portuguese; ITA: Italian; AS: assertiveness; CN: capacity for networking; TW: teamwork; SN: sensitivity; SO:
socialization; AO: action oriented; AUP: ability to work under pressure; SD: social desirability.

4. Discussion
This study indicates that teachers generally have high levels of interpersonal skills,
despite the relatively small sample size. This may be due to or explained by the fact that
teachers’ work is characterized by social interaction. The skills with the highest overall
scores in this sample were assertiveness, networking, teamwork and sensitivity, with
the lowest scores for both groups (Italian and Portuguese) being social desirability and
action orientation.
Perhaps teachers are increasingly in need of interpersonal skills due to the innovation
and new types of creative networks emphasized in the EU modernization agenda; however,
the most relevant skills mentioned in the study need to be examined closely to determine
their importance in relation to the context. The comparison made between a sample of Ital-
ian and Portuguese teachers shows a fairly similar profile, although with some differences
regarding certain skills: Portuguese teachers seem to be more sociable and action-oriented,
while Italians show higher levels of assertiveness, networking skills, teamwork, sensitivity
and ability to work under pressure.
The categories of intrapersonal skills and interpersonal skills, according to Boyatzis
et al. [34], align with the main elements of emotional intelligence. This gives a reason to
consider an approach that covers a broader consistency between inter/intrapersonal skills
and nations/cultures.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10699 8 of 12

The WEF study (2018) entitled “Eight Futures of Work: Scenarios and their Implica-
tions”, presents several possible visions of what the future of work could be like until
2030, stating that “( . . . ) the evolution of learning between the current and future labour
force; and the magnitude of talent mobility between geographies, are likely to influence the
nature of work in the future ( . . . )” [35].
In addition to cultural factors, the reported differences in skill levels can be traced to
the different educational systems and cultures prevailing in the two countries.
Even if both countries encourage higher education for teachers, the Italian system is
based on a general consistency of approach and obligatory requirements in the teacher edu-
cation system, while the Portuguese system traditionally relies more on the independence
of particular educational institutions, especially in higher education. It is most likely that
different types of skills have gained special attention in the two systems. These factors may
be visible in the official curricula, or they may be more invisible in the hidden curricula,
although they are strongly connected to learning methods and processes.
This study suggests that Portuguese teachers have reasons to improve their soft
skills in the intrapersonal area, meaning assertiveness and aspects of teamwork; and
in the interpersonal area, sensitivity and networking. Italian teachers should work on
socialization and action orientation.
However, it should be mentioned that the sample size does not allow for very strict
conclusions, so the study must be considered within its limitations and results must be taken
into account cautiously. However, several of the conclusions and suggestions presented
motivate to deepen the study with larger samples and with a more homogeneous sample
with respect to gender; this could generate data on soft skills that are fundamental when it
comes to renewing teacher education and in-service training.
It is worth highlighting the difference between skills, given the different challenges
of including soft skills in teacher training and curricula in addition to the already present
hard skills, which are of a totally different character. Soft skills, being related to the person
and the context, can be changeable and adaptable to different situations, which gives them
a subjective character and makes them difficult to measure and assess. Therefore, the
scores obtained in the study regarding the rating of the level of skills used are based on a
self-assessment, which does not provide as in-depth results as in the 360-degree type of
assessment, but is easier to organize as a research constellation; it is necessary to create
appropriate assessment frameworks for the measurement of soft skills.
It is important that qualitative results integrate data derived from quantitative results
and consider the complexity of the teacher’s role in 2020.
Attempts are currently being made to discover the essential qualities of a good teacher
around the world, although trying to put them into words is a difficult task; researchers
have produced lists of competences, strongly supported by policy makers [36]. Some
researchers point out the impossibility of defining “good teaching” with normative frame-
works, noting that these definitions are variable depending on the context and individual
teacher characteristics [37]. Others deny the definition of teaching standards, stressing that
this ignores the complexity of the profession, while most agree that they should be based
on effective teaching practice, based on values and beliefs, respecting the aims of teaching,
and respecting the objectives of the profession [38,39].
Stakeholder involvement can help ensure that standards are owned by the profession
rather than imposed as a top-down approach to teacher accountability [40]; at the same
time, broad participation in the design of competency frameworks and these professional
standards can encourage the acceptance and assurance of those with different views and
experiences [37].
Competency frameworks and professional standards define what teachers are able
to do and what they should know how to do, avoiding the methodological challenges of
measuring teacher quality with “proxy measures” such as years of professional experience
or student performance. These measures do not report on support for student development
or the ability to create learning opportunities. [41] Competency frameworks and profes-
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10699 9 of 12

sional standards are meant to be pragmatic tools, based on functional analyses of teachers’
tasks, and supporting the expected adherence to the country’s codes of ethics and cultural
values [42]. At the same time they are aligned with National Qualification Frameworks
that reflect the formal learning and certification required in various sectors and specific
jobs, including education [16,18].
The educational contexts are changing accordingly. They require skills in multi-channel
communication, facilitating interaction, flexibility and use of different tools (Horizon, 2014
and subsequent publications). There are calls for the adoption of open innovation mindset,
framework 4.0, social technologies, digital strategies, and other enabling technologies [18].
Therefore, the teacher education curriculum process obviously needs to be able to
provide relevant knowledge and skills, as well as conceptual and soft skills in addition to
hard skills. This inclusion of soft skills within the curriculum can ensure the success of the
profession in the 2020s, but in order for teachers to be able to adapt to innovations, changes
and be informed about developments in education, they should be prepared for professional
development as educators throughout their careers. To this end, in-service training courses
(INSET) have an essential role to play in teaching teachers about innovations and changes
with the aim of facilitating change [43].
These online programs are being organized as an empowering solution to ensure
teachers’ professional development in this era of digitalization [44]; although some research
indicates that teaching in the way they were taught, using purposeful prior practice, may
also be an option, and may be positive [45].
Reviews of the development of instruction in higher education [46,47] have argued
for greater variability in methodology and approaches in researching the impact of de-
velopment initiatives by measuring actual behavioral outcomes. In this way, at least the
common pitfalls of traditional self-report questionnaires, such as the difficulty in detecting
unconscious processes [48] and the risk of socially desirable responses, can be avoided [49].
As a limitation, it is worth mentioning that the changes have been measured by
interpretations of the various questions, and may not reflect the performance of the teachers
who have been surveyed. However, previous research mentions the fact that conceptions
can be related to approaches [50], so it may be likely that interpretations are also connected
to teachers’ approaches.

5. Conclusions
Teaching is a complex act, requiring a wide range of knowledge and skills to success-
fully manage the demands of the classroom [42,51]. Therefore, the importance of related
training and strengthening of these skills in university teachers should not be underes-
timated and will make a difference to the quality of effective teaching and learning [52].
While there is evidence supporting the importance of soft skills such as communication,
creative thinking, problem solving and teamwork in university teaching practice [53], it
is considered essential to raise awareness in society and among university teachers them-
selves about the needs and expectations of these requirements and encourage demand for
action in the context of higher education.
The teaching curriculum that has been proposed in each new reform has been in-
troducing novel topics that increasingly open the way for school practice and explicitly
for educational research; but the division of time, knowledge and space still remains
unexplored.
In order to achieve these fundamental changes, a curriculum-centered teaching and
learning of soft skills, using them as concrete methodological approaches and not as abstract
pedagogical guidelines, has been promised as a vehicle. This approach therefore highlights
the importance of pedagogy as a strategic point in the education system.
As a final conclusion, it is important to consider the incorporation of hard and soft
skills courses in the teaching curriculum in order to motivate teachers and improve the
values of humanistic pedagogy, which would promote the pedagogical culture and generate
forms of continuous learning.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10699 10 of 12

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.R., V.C., R.T.R. and J.J.G.-B.; methodology, A.R., V.C.,
R.T.R. and J.J.G.-B.; software, A.R., V.C., R.T.R. and J.J.G.-B.; validation, A.R., V.C., R.T.R. and J.J.G.-B.;
formal analysis, A.R., V.C., R.T.R. and J.J.G.-B.; investigation, A.R. and V.C.; resources, A.R. and
R.T.R.; data curation, A.R., A.G.-G., S.A.M.C.B. and M.S.-P.; writing—original draft preparation, A.R.,
A.G.-G., S.A.M.C.B., J.G.-S. and M.S.-P.; writing—review and editing, A.R., V.C., R.T.R., J.J.G.-B.,
A.G.-G., S.A.M.C.B., J.G.-S. and M.S.-P.; visualization, A.R., V.C., R.T.R., J.J.G.-B., A.G.-G., S.A.M.C.B.,
J.G.-S. and M.S.-P.; supervision, V.C., R.T.R. and J.J.G.-B.; project administration, A.R., V.C., R.T.R. and
J.J.G.-B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Erasmus + Programme of the European Commission
within the scope of the Strategic Partnership for Higher Education (2017-1-ES01-KA203-038589), In
addition, this work was funded by the Annual research project, Il lavoro con le soft skills, 2020,
supported by the Department of Education Science of Rome TRE University.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the people who have collaborated with the
research by answering the questionnaires.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE 12(3)(2023) 505-513

Research in Business & Social Science

IJRBS VOL 12 NO 3 (2023) ISSN: 2147-4478
Available online at www.ssbfnet.com
Journal homepage: https://www.ssbfnet.com/ojs/index.php/ijrbs

Soft skills development in higher education institutions: students’

perceived role of universities and students’ self-initiatives in bridging
the soft skills gap
Kelvin M Mwita(a)* Shauri Kinunda (b) Silas Obwolo (c) Nivad H Mwilongo (d)
(a)
Lecturer, Department of Public Services & Human Resource Management, Mzumbe University, Tanzania
(b,c,d)
Tutorial Assistant, Department of Public Services & Human Resource Management, Mzumbe University, Tanzania

ARTICLEINFO ABSTRACT

Article history: This study aimed to explore how soft skills development is done in higher education institutions (HEIs)
by considering the roles of HEIs and students. The study used a mixed research approach comprising
Received 17 January 2023 qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative data was collected from 16 students using semi-
Received in rev. form 16 April 2023 structured interviews. In comparison, quantitative data was collected using a standard questionnaire
Accepted 24 April 2023 from 342 students pursuing management and administrative undergraduate programmes in one of the
universities in Tanzania. Through questionnaires, participants were asked to rank soft skills according
to their relevance to their careers. The top five most relevant soft skills identified were communication,
Keywords: leadership, decision-making, teamwork/orientation and problem-solving. In addition, participants self-
evaluated their levels of soft skills. Findings demonstrate that students perceived to have more
Soft skills, higher education,
customer orientation, communication, decision-making, problem-solving, and work-ethic skills.
employability, human skills, Through qualitative interviews, participants narrated the role of HEIs in developing soft skills and
interpersonal skills. their personal initiatives to acquire the skills. It was found that joining clubs and associations, taking
leadership roles, reading self-development books, watching videos and attending soft skills training
JEL Classification: are initiatives that students use for soft skills acquisition.
J44, E24
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee SSBFNET, Istanbul, Turkey. This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction
Graduate employability has been a concern of researchers, educators, employers and other stakeholders who are concerned with how
higher education institutions (HEIs) prepare students for the labour market (Grant-Smith & McDonald, 2018; Shivoro et al., 2017;
Tran et al., 2022).
Students spend a number of years in higher education with expectations that education will give them positive returns by making
them able to secure jobs and being able to employ themselves (Fleith et al., 2020). Conversely, around the globe, it has been different;
students are said to graduate without relevant skills that can make them successful in the labour market (Mwita, 2018). Higher
education institutions have been criticised for approaches that they use in developing skills for their students (Aleixo et al., 2018).
For a university graduate to be successful he/she has to possess sufficient soft and technical skills. Although both skills are considered
to be inadequate among graduates, empirical evidence shows that there is a bigger shortage of soft skills than technical skills among
university graduates (Succi, 2019).
Higher education institutions do not sufficiently incorporate soft skills in their curricula as compared to hard skills (Tang, 2020).
Perhaps, this is the main reason why university graduates are considered to have a big skill gap of soft skills. This problem has been
persistent in Tanzania as well where students complete their higher education without sufficient soft skills (Mutalemwa et al, 2020).
Soft skills are life-long learning skills that are not necessarily developed in a class-room environment; they can be better developed
in an informal setting (Fakhretdinova et al., 2021; Succi & Wieandt, 2019). This means students have a role to play in enhancing

* Corresponding author. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-1833-6990

© 2023 by the authors. Hosting by SSBFNET. Peer review under responsibility of Center for Strategic Studies in Business and Finance.
https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v12i3.2435
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their soft skills. The present literature mainly focuses on how HEIs develop these skills while little attention has been given to how
students themselves contribute towards development of their own skills. However, it is argued that students in HEIs have to take
personal initiatives to acquire these soft skills (Succi & Canovi, 2019).

Against this backdrop, this study focused on how students perceive the role of HEIs in developing soft skills and assessing students’
self-initiatives in bridging the soft skills gap in one of Tanzania universities.

Literature Review
Soft Skills
Soft skills are generally interpersonal skills that help individuals to interact with others. People who possess skills are considered to
be easy to work and spend time with. Succi and Canovi (2019) define soft skills as a dynamic combination of cognitive and meta-
cognitive skills, interpersonal, intellectual and practical skills. Soft skills help people to adapt and behave positively so that they can
deal effectively with the challenges of their professional and everyday life. Soft skills are linked to personality traits, objectives and
motivations. They can be considered a significant added value that allows for the attainment of broader and better valued
achievements in the current labour market (Caggiano et al., 2020). To improve student employability, universities worldwide
increasingly offer courses to develop soft skills (Yan et al., 2019). Although soft skills are important to University students and
graduates, their level of relevance differs from one profession to another. There are soft skills that may be given more priority by
employers in one field and not be considered of top priority by another field (Fadhil et al., 2021).

Communication skills are among the most preferred skills by employers and they have been given more attention by researchers.
Communication skills involve the ability to pass, receive and interpret information correctly. They involve both verbal and non-
verbal communications. Speaking, listening, writing, reading, presentation are among common communication skills
(Vasanthakumari, 2019). Leadership skills have to do with the ability of an individual to influence and inspire others to take actions
that help in achieving common goals of a group or an organisation (Mwita et al., 2018). Another important set of skills are teamwork
skills. These are skills that help individuals to effectively work in teams. They have to do with how individuals collaboratively work
with others in achieving common goals (Succi, 2019).

Another important soft skill is problem solving skills. These skills involve the ability to diagnose a problem, evaluate alternatives
and coming up with workable solutions towards solving that particular problem (Rahman, 2019). Decision making skills make other
important soft skills that are considered essential for one’s career. Decision making skills entail an ability to making analysis of
alternative courses of action and choose the best alternative(s) that is more likely to bring about best results. Work-ethic is another
important soft skill set (Asefer & Abidin, 2021).

Work ethic entails personal moral values that guide an individual in thinking, decision making and acting. Work-ethic guides what is
acceptable and what is not acceptable in workplaces. People with these skills have self-control when it comes to bending the rules
and procedures in workplaces. Another important soft skill is adaptability to change. People with these skills are change receptors
who are flexible enough to accept and embrace changes in workplaces (Succi & Canovi, 2019).
Innovation/creativity skills form another important soft skill set considered relevant. They constitute an ability to create ideas and
come up with ways or approaches of doing things that bring positive results in workplaces (Asefer & Abidin, 2021).

Being tolerant to stress is another set of soft skills that have to do with the ability to stay calm when one faces difficulties and
challenging circumstances (Succi & Canovi, 2019). People with these skills are able to manage their emotions well during bad times
and therefore being able to handle work and non-work-related tasks or circumstances.

The last but not least set of soft skills is customer orientation. These are skills that enable a person to understand customer needs and
prioritising them while offering services to customers. Customer orientation helps customers to feel valued and important to a person
who serves them and the organisation at large.
Relevance of soft skills

Soft skills are considered to be among important skill sets that can help a person to become successful in his career and life in general
(Feraco et al., 2023). People with soft skills are admired by others since they are easier to get along with (Thakur, 2023). People who
consider soft skills when hiring increases the chances of having minimal interpersonal conflicts in their organisations (Denney et al.,
2020). This is to say, the more employees possess soft skills, the more harmonious the organisation will be. The fact that organisations
perform better when people work in teams than individually those with soft skills are therefore demanded by firms whose
performance largely depends on both individual and team performance (Schmutz et al., 2019). Organisations consider people with
soft skills to be a great asset towards performance of their organisations.
There are employers who prefer soft skills to hard or technical skills since soft skills are learned over a longer of period than hard
skills (Fakhretdinova et al., 2021; Qizi, 2020). Short courses and in-house training may be used to equip people with hard skills but
it is not easy for soft skills. People who possess soft skills help organisations to have good relationships with other stakeholders,
mainly customers who are very important for organisations to gain and sustain a competitive advantage (Weber et al., 2020). Apart

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from soft skills being important to organisations, they are also essential to those who possess them as well. People with soft skills
are more likely to progress career-wise easily than those with insufficient amounts of the skills (Tripathy, 2021). Moreover, it is
difficult to automate soft skills in workplaces since soft skills are owned and used by human beings (Ubalde & Alarcón, 2020). This
entails that those possessing sufficient soft skills have bigger value and have greater bargaining power than those with limited soft
skills.
Development of soft skills in higher education

Developing soft skills among students in HEIs is very important to help students become competent, employable and become
successful in their careers. Some HEIs have been successful in achieving this goal others have not (Tripathy, 2021). Generally, the
ability of higher education institutions (HEIs) to offer market driven skills and competences to their students has been questionable
for years (Igwe et al., 2022). Stakeholders are concerned with what HEIs produce for the labour market Employers for instance, are
with the view that HEIs do not know what they (employers) need or they do not have ability to offer to their respective students
(Abelha et al., 2020).
When it comes to soft skills the situation has been worse since curricula developed in HEIs are not able to sufficiently impart relevant
soft skills to the students (Vera & Tejada, 2020). In order to solve the problem, various methods and approaches have been suggested
which challenge traditional ways of teaching HEIs. For instance, Garcia et al (2020) found game-based learning to be a relevant
approach in the acquisition of soft skills on undergraduate software engineering courses. Game-based learning is a pedagogical
method of learning that takes advantage of digital and non‐digital games to support the students’ knowledge acquisition and cognitive
development. Feraco et al (2023) posits that extra-curricular activities are determinants of successful acquisition of soft skills among
students. Deep et al. (2019) argues that problem-based learning is another effective way of improving soft skills delivery in HEIs.
For effective delivery in higher education, lecturers are expected to possess these soft skills since they cannot deliver what they don’t
have (Tang, 2020).

Research Methods
This is an explorative study which made use of both qualitative and quantitative data. Data was collected from students of one of
higher learning institutions in Tanzania who were pursuing management and administrative undergraduate programmes. A sample
of 364 was drawn from a population of 3945 using a simple random technique. Sample size was calculated by using Yamane’s
formula. Data was collected using a standard questionnaire and qualitative interviews. Out of 364 questionnaires distributed 342
(93.9%) were properly filled and included in the study for data analysis. Descriptive data analysis was conducted to obtain means
and standard deviations. Twenty-two (22) were not included for a number of reasons including having too many missing values or
not being filled at all while other respondents did not return the questionnaires.

Purposive sampling technique was used to identify students for qualitative interviews. Respondents for included interviews were
those who were identified by their class leaders and Lecturers as students with highest levels of soft skills in comparison with the
rest of the students. The identified respondents were informed on the purpose of the study and asked whether they consent being
included in the study for interviews. Interviews were conducted in a room and before interviews started the respondents were
informed that they were free not to answer any of the questions and opt not to proceed with the interviews when they feel the need
to do so. A total of 16 respondents were interviewed. Each interview was assigned a code from R1 to R16. The researcher decided
to stop at the 16th respondent after realising that data saturation was reached. The decision was made after noting that no new relevant
information was collected from the respondents (Mwita, 2022). Descriptive analysis was used to analyse quantitative data while
content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data.

Analysis and Findings

Demographic data
Data by using questionnaires was collected from a total of 342 which comprised 167 males (48.8%) and 175 females (51.2%).
Interviews were collected from 9 male respondents and 7 female respondents. This means the study included a total of 358
respondents.

Table 1: Demographic data

Respondents/gender Male Female Total

Respondents for questionnaires 167 175 342

Respondents for Interviews 9 7 16

Total 176 182 358

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Quantitative findings
Ranking of soft skills based on their relevance
After evaluating their soft skill levels, candidates were also asked to indicate which skills they considered to be more relevant for
their career success. The most relevant skill was supposed to be rated 1 and least skill 10. The findings show that communication
skills were the most relevant followed by leadership skills, decision making skills, teamwork/orientation, problem solving and work-
ethic skills. The sixth most relevant skills were adaptability to change, innovation/creativity skills, being tolerant to stress and
customer orientation was the last one.
Table 2: Ranking of soft skills

Soft skill Mean Std dev

Communication skills 2.743 2.2192
Leadership skills 4.184 2.5718
Decision Making skills 4.383 2.0355
Team work/orientation skills 4.57 2.2987
Problem solving skills 4.965 2.2259
Work-ethic skills 6.012 2.2367
Adaptability to change 6.225 2.3553
Innovation/creativity skills 6.573 2.3985
Being tolerant to stress 7.31 2.6258
Customer orientation 7.715 2.386
N=342

Students’ self-evaluation
The Respondents were asked to evaluate themselves against 10 soft skills. Each candidate was asked to rate him/herself on a scale
of one to five where one is very low and 5 very high. The findings show that respondents believe that on average they are good in
customer orientation skills followed by communication skills, decision making, problem solving skills, work-ethic and adaptability
to change. The seventh skills were innovation & creativity skills, followed by being tolerant to stress, team orientation and lastly
leadership skills.
Table 3: Students’ self-evaluation

Soft skill Mean Std dev

Customer orientation 4.27 3.6186
Communication skills 4.029 0.8349
Decision Making skills 4.003 1.7952
Problem solving skills 3.971 0.8523
Work-ethic skills 3.962 0.8673
Adaptability to change 3.883 0.9018
Innovation/creativity skills 3.839 0.969
Being tolerant to stress 3.792 0.993
Team work/orientation skills 3.722 0.9326
Leadership skills 3.643 0.9449
N=342

Qualitative findings
Relevance of soft skills

Respondents were asked to say whether they find soft skills to be relevant or not. All 16 respondents were in agreement that soft
skills are relevant and important determinants of their career success.
Acquiring jobs

The respondents were of the opinion that soft skills are important since they are given top priority by employers. The respondents
believed that possessing soft skills will help them acquire jobs earlier than those with little or no soft skills. When probing why they
think soft skills are highly demanded by employers, the respondents believed that business success is a function of employees’ soft
skills.

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“soft skills are highly demanded in the labour market. People who can communicate well, work in teams effectively, have problem
solving skills and alike, have a bigger chance of securing good jobs unlike those who possess only hard skills”. (R5)
Another respondent added that,

“Although it is important to have these skills to be marketable in the labour market, even when one wishes to establish his/her own
business, soft skills are very important for a business to excel.” (R2)
Getting along and working with others

Generally, the respondents had an opinion that soft skills increase their ability to get along and work with others easily. It was found
that having soft skills help them to realise that people are of different personalities, demands and preferences. With this in mind,
those with soft skills can easily work with different people.

“Success in anything largely depends on how one can collaboratively work with others. Even here at the University, having soft skills
can help a person to perform well in exams and other extracurricular activities. We need soft skills to be able to communicate with
others, understand each other and work harmoniously” (R1)
The above quotation gives an impression that the participants recognized that soft skills are not only important in helping them
acquire jobs in the future but they are also important in their studies.

Increase confidence
It was found that the respondents believe that having soft skills increase their confidence which is an important element in any career
success. It was found that the respondents believed that they were confident to speak in front of small and big audiences because they
were in possession of soft skills.
“having soft skills makes us confident, these skills help us to interact with others easily and these interactions require a great deal
of soft skills that give us ability to speak, work, negotiate and do other things with boldness” (R8)
It was the view of the respondents that their level of confidence was the result of their level of soft skills. This therefore made them
have more efforts in developing their soft skills.

Contribution of HEIs contribute in developing soft skills

The respondents were asked to narrate how HEIs contribute toward development of soft skills and whether they were satisfied with
it. The respondents had different opinions, however, the majority mentioned assigning group works as one effort that HEIs show in
helping students in developing their soft skills particularly teamwork. It was found that when Lecturers assign group work, students
find time to work with their colleagues which is important for them to acquire teamwork skills in the process.

“group work that is assigned to us plays a great role in developing our soft skills, especially team work. In secondary schools we
were not used to doing a lot of group assignments as we do at the university level. In groups we meet people of different types and
learn how to work while embracing the differences.” (R5)
While it is evident that working in groups was important, yet the respondents lamented that only few students take group work
seriously as the result few students benefit from these assignments.

Another important issue raised was creating a conducive environment for various social clubs and associations. It was found that the
HEIs allow various clubs and associations that students can voluntarily join. The respondents were of the view that these associations
are potential sources of development of soft skills to students since they expose students to various opportunities such as networking
and meeting new people, volunteering, working collaboratively in projects as well as collecting, processing and disseminating
information which build their communication skills.

“allowing social clubs on our campuses has significantly contributed to developing soft skills. These clubs make learning of soft
skills easy as they put a lot of aspects into practice. If the university keeps on supporting these clubs, they will help us and the coming
generations to master these skills in an out-of-class environment.” (R15)
It was also noted that some Lecturers have personal initiatives to help students develop soft skills. The respondents narrated that there
are Lecturers who spare time to speak and teach students on how they can develop the skills. Nature of assessments that are done by
these Lecturers was also an important issue raised by the respondents. It was found that some Lecturers ask questions that challenge
their creativity and problem-solving skills which are among important soft skills.

Further, participants were asked whether they are satisfied with the efforts of HEIs in developing soft skills. The respondents
expressed dissatisfaction with development of soft skills in HEIs. It was found that soft skills have to be taught using more practices
than theories but curricula in HEI put more emphasis on theories than practices. Further, assessment methods which are used in HEIs
discourage development of soft skills to students. More marks are allocated in how students can answer questions in exam rooms
where students write what they know. This means exams are more knowledge-based and not skill-based. One of the respondents
explained that,

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“I think we need to have a better education system that exposes us to the environment that challenges our ability to use soft skills.
Exams that we write may challenge very few aspects of soft skills but not all. (R12)
The above quotation shows dissatisfaction of how students are assessed. It implies that the assessment is biassed by not sufficiently
assessing possession of soft skills.

Beside that one of the respondents commented on how curricula are designed,
"Teaching and learning in HEIs in general does not allow students to acquire sufficient soft skills. The curricula are not designed to
help students to learn and be assessed our levels of soft skills” (R1)
Students’ self-initiatives to develop their soft skills

When respondents were asked on how they work to develop their soft skills various initiatives were identified;

Joining clubs and associations

Respondents opined that social clubs and associations are important in developing their soft skills. It was found that in these
associations, members are exposed to various learning opportunities that help them to acquire a great deal of soft skills. Participants
narrated that these associations help them to engage in various projects and work in teams. It was noted that these clubs open doors
for members to attend conferences and workshops that help them to network with other people from different places of the world.
Networking is among important soft skills which also helps them to acquire other soft skills.
one of the respondents, commented that,

“I am a member of four associations and I am active in all of them. Apart from connecting me with other people, these clubs offer
me numerous platforms to learn other soft skills. Clubs have helped me to travel to various regions of this country and learn how
diverse we are. I have confidence to speak to other people without fear because in clubs we are built to be confident. Lastly, in clubs
it is easy for one to learn working in teams.” (R4)
Taking leadership roles

Participants explained that they take various leadership roles within and outside their University. It was observed that out of 16
respondents involved in interviews, nine (9) had different leadership roles. Others were Class representatives, others were leaders in
religious affiliations, and others were leaders in clubs and associations within the University. The respondents admitted that being a
leader comes with a number of advantages particularly in developing their soft skills such as leadership, communication, teamwork,
decision making and problem-solving skills.

“Being a leader helps me to put into practice what I learn in a class and in other places. Taking leadership roles is very important
and I believe it may help one to acquire other soft skills easily. Being a leader has taught me how to leave with different types of
people and ways to approach different problems” (R8)

Although the respondents showed how being leaders at the university helped them in developing soft skills, during interviews, it was
observed the majority of them had the habit of taking leadership roles at secondary and primary school levels.

Reading self-development books

Reading books was also another thing that the respondents mentioned that they were involving themselves in doing. Participants
mentioned various skills they acquire from reading books such as creativity, problem solving, leadership and critical thinking.

“I love reading books and they have been teaching me a lot. There are books that teach how to communicate, negotiate and be
creative. Books have been helping me to become a better person. Mostly, one can learn a lot of soft skills that a college or University
cannot teach” (R16)

The respondents explained that, apart from buying books in bookstores, the internet has increased their access to different types of
books as they can easily download electronic books online.

Watching videos
It was found that participants spare their time to watch videos that teach on how to develop soft skills. It was observed that YouTube
was the major source of these videos that they use for learning soft skills.

“For years I have been watching videos on Youtube and I believe they have significantly contributed to developing my speaking
skills. I am a great fan of TedTalks. There is a lot that one can learn from these videos.” (R11)

The above quotation summarises how important videos can be in helping students to develop their soft skills. It was found that this
may be used to supplement what students miss when they learn in the classroom environment as far as soft skills are concerned.

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Attending soft skills training

Attending training programmes that focus on improving soft skills is another initiative that was mentioned to be effective in helping
students to master soft skills. Participants explained that they sometimes find time to attend short training sessions that are organised
by individuals and various organisations within and outside their Universities.

“In campuses, there are a number of learning opportunities through learning. Various organisations tend to arrange soft skills
training that some of us attend. Moreover, there are other workshops that are organised outside our campuses which we sometimes
attend when we have chances to do so.” (R3)
One of the challenges cited was affordability of these programmes. Participants explained that they sometimes fail to pay for the
facilitation fees which deny them an opportunity to learn.

“Some training opportunities come with cost implications. We sometimes fail to attend these sessions when the fees are unaffordable.
Sometimes they may be affordable but they are conducted far from our campuses which means there are some travelling costs which
are not always affordable.” (R6)

Discussion
When participants were asked to identify soft skills that they find more relevant, communication, leadership and decision making
were given more weight than the rest of soft skills. What they perceive to be relevant for their career success is in consistency with
what employers consider to be relevant as shown in various empirical evidences (such as Hirudayaraj et al., 2021; Kačamakovic &
Shehu Lokaj, 2021; Robles, 2012). When the participants were asked to evaluate themselves on the extent of skills, they possess in
each soft skills attribute it was noted that Leadership skills that they considered to be the second most relevant skills was the skill
that they lacked most, among the 10 soft skills. Other skills that participants ranked low among themselves are team work/orientation,
being tolerant to stress and innovation. However, by considering mean scores, the participants considered themselves as above
average since leadership skills which were the skills that they considered themselves having low level of skills had mean score of
3.643 which is above the midpoint of 2.5. This gives an impression that students in higher learning generally perceive themselves to
have considerably sufficient levels of soft skills which contradicts perceptions of employers who generally consider them to be below
average (Mgaiwa, 2021; Mwita, 2018). The problem that arises in this contradiction is, students may consider themselves employable
while employers consider them otherwise. Qualitative findings show that the role played by HEIs in fostering soft skills among
students is unsatisfactory. Students are of the view that these institutions could have more efforts to help them acquire sufficient soft
skills before they transit to the labour market. Their views are consistent with previous local studies and others which were done
outside Tanzania (Demissie et al., 2021; Kessy, 2020).

The issue of the ability of HEIs to empower students with soft skills is a global issue. Education and employment stakeholders are
not satisfied with how these institutions operate, something that makes it difficult for them to sufficiently develop soft skills for their
respective students. However, there is huge potential in HEIs in helping their students to acquire soft skills. As per this study’s
findings, when HEIs acknowledge the need for students to learn these skills, a supporting environment could be established to help
students access knowledge and skills. More importantly, this study shows that self-initiatives of students may help in bridging the
skill gap. The success or failure of students in having sufficient skills therefore largely depends on them. However, without
institutional support from HEIs these initiatives could not be as effective as expected. Students could be eager to learn these soft
skills out of a classroom environment yet facing numerous challenges such as inflexible university schedules that do not give them
time to take part in extracurricular activities which have been proven to be important in soft skill development (Siddiky, 2020).

Conclusion
This study focused on exploring how soft skill development is done in HEIs by considering the roles of both HEIs and students as
well. The study sought to establish what soft skills students consider to be relevant than others followed by evaluating themselves on
the level of soft skills they possess. Communication, leadership, decision making, teamwork/orientation and problem solving were
the top five most relevant soft skills as per students’ evaluation. On the other hand, students perceive that they have more of customer
orientation, communication, decision making, problem solving and work-ethic skills. HEIs play a minimum role in developing soft
skills for students. To bridge the soft skill gap, students use various self-initiatives which include joining clubs and associations,
taking leadership roles, reading self-development books, watching videos and attending soft skills trainings
HEIs should design special programmes to help students understand the relevance of soft skills and help them acquire the skills
while on campus. HEIs should design calicular that focus on imparting students with both hard and soft skills since they are equally
important for students’ career success. In line with this, curricular development and reviews have to consider other stakeholders’
opinions particularly those of employers. Students should also find different mechanisms to help them acquire the skills to supplement
what they taught in HEIs.
The study has a number of limitations. Firstly, the findings were obtained from one HEI and from students who were taking
management and administrative programmes only. This limits their ability for generalisations. Data from interviews were collected
from students who were perceived to have considerably higher levels of soft skills. future studies, could consider including those

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with lower levels of soft skills to obtain more insights challenges they face in acquiring soft skills. Lastly, data was collected from
students only, other HEIs stakeholders particularly lecturers were not included in data collection.

Acknowledgement
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.M.M.; methodology, K.M.M; S.K..; formal analysis, K.M.M; S.K..; investigation, S.O; N.H.M; S.K;
resources, K.M.M.; writing—original draft preparation, K.M.M; S.K; S.O.; N.H.M.; writing—review and editing, K.M.M;S.K; S.O.; N.H.M
Funding: This research didn’t receive fund from any agency or individual
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly
available due to restrictions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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