ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE
AND EXPERT
SYSTEMS

MODULE 5
LECTURE 1

Kamanasish Bhattacharjee
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Analytics, SCOPE, VIT
PLANNING
PLANNING VS PROBLEM-SOLVING
Planning Problem Solving
Problem-solving is the systematic search through
The task of coming up with a sequence of actions
a range of possible actions in order to reach some
that will achieve a goal is called planning.
predefined goal or solution.
Planning is typically viewed as a generic term of
Problem solving comprises standard search
problem solving because it deals with search in an
process.
abstract level.
Problem solving is typically more concerned with
Planning is involved in plan generation.
plan execution.
Planner is viewed as the producer or generator of Problem solving just demonstrates one specific
the solution. solution.
Backward planning is typical for planning. In problem solving usually forward approach.
Problem solving is of two types-special purpose
The pre-requirements are almost same for variety and general purpose.
of problems in planning. A special purpose is for one problem.
General purpose is for variety of problems.
STRIPS (Stanford Research Institute Problem
Solver), PDDL (Planning Domain Definition
A* algorithm is an example.
Language) are some of the examples for planning
systems.
REPRESENTATIONS OF PLANNING

STRIPS – STanford Research Institute problem Solver

PDDL – Planning Domain Definition Language

[PDDL was derived from the original STRIPS planning language(Fikes

and Nilsson, 1971), which is slightly more restricted than PDDL: STRIPS
preconditions and goals cannot contain negative literals]
REPRESENTATIONS OF PLANNING

1. Representation of States

2. Representation of Goals

3. Representation of Actions
ACTION SCHEMA
Action(Fly(p, from, to))
PRECOND:At(p, from) ∧ Plane(p) ∧ Airport(from) ∧ Airport(to)
EFFECT: ¬At(p, from) ∧ At(p, to))
• The Precondition is a conjunction of function-free positive literals stating what
must be true in a state before the action can be executed. Any variables in the
precondition must also appear in the action’s parameter list.
• The Effect is a conjunction of function-free literals describing how the state
changes when the action is executed. A positive literal P in the effect is asserted
to be true in the state resulting from the action, whereas a negative literal ¬ P is
asserted to be false. Variables in the effect must also appear in the action’s
parameter list.
ACTION SCHEMA

At(P1, JFK) ∧ At(P2, SFO) ∧ Plane(P1) ∧ Plane(P2) ∧ Airport(JFK) ∧

Airport(SFO)

PRECOND:At(p, from) ∧ Plane(p) ∧ Airport(from) ∧ Airport(to)

Fly(P1, JFK, SFO)

AIR CARGO TRANSPORT PLANNING
AIR CARGO TRANSPORT PLANNING
• The problem can be defined with three actions: Load, Unload, and Fly.
• The actions affect two predicates: In(c, p) means that cargo c is inside plane p,
and
• At(x, a) means that object x (either plane or cargo) is at airport a.
• When a plane flies from one airport to another, all the cargo inside the plane goes
with it.
• Note that cargo is not At anywhere when it is In a plane, so At really means
“available for use at a given location”.
• Solution to the problem – [Load(C1, P1, SFO), Fly(P1, SFO, JFK), Load(C2, P2,
JFK), Fly(P2, JFK, SFO)]
TIRE CHANGE PLANNING
TIRE CHANGE PLANNING
• The goal is to have a good spare tire properly mounted onto the car’s axle.
• The initial state has a flat tire on the axle and a good spare tire in the trunk.
• There are three actions: removing the spare from the trunk, removing the flat
tire from the axle, and putting the spare on the axle.
• A solution to the problem is [Remove(Flat, Axle), Remove(Spare, Trunk),
PutOn(Spare, Axle)]