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NANOCELLULOSE
MATERIALS
 MICRO AND NANO TECHNOLOGIES SERIES

NANOCELLULOSE
MATERIALS
Fabrication and Industrial
Applications

Edited by

RAMESH ORAON
Department of Nanoscience and Technology, Central University
of Jharkhand, Brambe, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

DEEPAK RAWTANI
School of Pharmacy, National Forensic Sciences University
(­Ministry of Home Affairs, GOI), Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India

PARDEEP SINGH
Department of Environmental Studies, PGDAV College,
­University of Delhi, New Delhi, India

CHAUDHERY MUSTANSAR HUSSAIN

Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New
Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey, USA
Elsevier
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Contents

Contributors xi

1. Bacterial cellulose nanofibers for separation, drug delivery, wound dressing,

and tissue engineering applications 1
Emel Tamahkar, Aykut Arif Topçu, Işık Perçin, Sevgi Aslıyüce, Adil Denizli

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Support as separation medium 1
1.3 Wound dressings 5
1.4 Drug delivery vehicle 10
1.5 Tissue engineering applications 12
1.6 Conclusions 16
References 16

2. Industrial-scale fabrication and functionalization of nanocellulose 21

Mani Pujitha Illa, Shivakalyani Adepu, Mudrika Khandelwal

2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Nanocellulose production 22
2.3 Functionalization of nanocellulose 27
2.4 Conclusions 33
References 35

3. Nanocellulose in packaging industry 43

Riddhi Trivedi, Prajesh Prajapati

3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Preparation and types of Nano cellulose 45
3.3 Types of packaging 51
3.4 Applications of Nano cellulose in packaging 55
3.5 Conclusion 58
References 59

4. Nanocellulose hybrid systems: carriers of active compounds and aerogel/

cryogel applications 67
Nadia Obrownick Okamoto-Schalch, Natalia Cristina da Silva, Rafael Belasque Canedo da Silva,
Milena Martelli Tosi

4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Production of CNCs or CNFs and application in hybrid systems 68

v
vi Contents

4.3 Production of CNC or CNF hybrid systems 71

4.4 ChNP-CNC-based cryogels: a case study 75
4.5 Conclusion and future challenges 77
References 79

5. Recent developments of bacterial nanocellulose porous scaffolds in

biomedical ­applications 83
Swaminathan Jiji, Kannan Maharajan, Krishna Kadirvelu

5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 Properties of BNC 83
5.3 Importance of BNC in biomedical field 84
5.4 Synthesis and fabrication: development of porous scaffolds 85
5.5 Bacterial porous scaffold in various biomedical applications 88
5.6 Conclusion and future perspectives 98
References 98

6. Characteristic features and functions of nanocellulose for its feasible

application in textile industry 105
P. R Sreeraj, Santosh Kr. Mishra, Purushottam Kumar Singh

6.1 Introduction 105

6.2 Sources of nanocellulose 108
6.3 Classification of nanocellulose structures 108
6.4 Preparation of nanocellulose 108
6.5 General techniques used (specific techniques) 110
6.6 Pretreatment of nanocellulose 112
6.7 Characterization and thermal analysis of nanocellulose particles 115
6.8 Effects of nanocellulose on the properties of the textiles 116
6.9 Applications, advantages, and limitations of nanocellulose 117
6.10 Current trends and future scopes 119
6.11 Conclusions 120
References 120

7. Nanocellulose in plastic industry 123

Sapna Jain, Bhawna Yadav Lamba, Sanjeev Kumar

7.1 Introduction 123

7.2 Plastic in packaging 123
7.3 Bioplastics 126
7.4 Cellulose 127
7.5 Nanocellulosic composites: potential to replace plastics 127
7.6 Conclusions 130
References 131
 Contents vii

8. Nanocellulose in the sports industry 133

Archana Singh, Deepak Rawtani, Shruti Jha

8.1 Introduction 133

8.2 Nanocellulose–morphology and characteristics 139
8.3 Nanocellulose in the sports industry 140
8.4 Conclusion and future prospects 146
References 150

9. Uses of nanocellulose in the environment industry 157

Garvita Parikh, Bansari Parikh, Aarohi Natu, Deepak Rawtani

9.1 Introduction 157

9.2 Nanocellulose-based adsorbent 157
9.3 Photocatalysts based on nanocellulose 162
9.4 Flocculants based on nanocellulose 163
9.5 Nanocellulose uses in effluent treatment plant 164
9.6 Biogenic NPs uses in agriculture 170
9.7 Nanocellulose for air purification 171
9.8 Nanopaper 173
9.9 Nanocellulose uses in energy application 173
9.10 Conclusion 174
References 175

10. Application of nanocellulose as nanotechnology in water purification 179

Birendra Bharti, Vibhanshu Kumar, Himanshu Kumar

10.1 Introduction 179

10.2 NT-enabled multifunctional application of NC 180
10.3 Effective role of NC as biosorbent 181
10.4 Conclusion 195
References 195

11. Cellulose-imidazole engineering hybrid materials/membrane for energy

storage199
Benjamin Raj, Mamata Mohapatra, Arun. K. Padhy, Suddhasatwa Basu

11.1 Introduction 199

11.2 Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) 201
11.3 Concluding remarks 213
Acknowledgment 213
Conflict of interest 213
References 214
viii Contents

12. Nanocellulose in electronics and electrical industry 217

Athanasia Amanda Septevani, Dian Burhani, Yulianti Sampora

12.1 Introduction 217

12.2 Fundamentals of nanocellulose in electronics 218
12.3 Cellulose nanopaper as a substrate in electronic devices 220
12.4 Printed electronics 230
12.5 Applications of nanocellulose as green electronics 234
12.6 Future remarks and conclusion 236
References 239

13. Nanocellulose in paper and wood industry 247

Mansi Chugh, Tulsi Chandak, Shruti Jha, Deepak Rawtani

13.1 Introduction 247

13.2 Application in wood and paper industry 247
13.3 Papermaking 249
13.4 Application of NC in papermaking 249
13.5 Pulping 250
13.6 Wet-end chemistry 253
13.7 Paper coating 254
13.8 Other application of NC in papermaking 258
13.9 Challenges and future aspects in wood and paper industry 259
References 260

14. Environmental, legal, health, and safety issue of nanocellulose 265

Gurudatta Singh, Syed Saquib, Ankita Gupta, Swati

14.1 Introduction 265

14.2 Characteristics of nanocellulose 268
14.3 Properties of nanocellulose materials 268
14.4 Preparation and types of nanocellulose 270
14.5 Production and extraction nanocellulose 272
14.6 Application of nanocellulose 274
14.7 Health issues of nanocellulose 275
14.8 Environmental issues related to nanocellulose 281
14.9 Legal issues of nanocellulose 282
14.10 Safety issues of nanocellulose 282
14.11 Conclusion 282
References 283
 Contents ix

15. Integration of geospatial technology for mapping of algae: an economical

perspective for assessing nanocellulose 289
Anamika Shalini Tirkey, Shashikant Shivaji Vhatkar, Ramesh Oraon

15.1 Introduction 289

15.2 Remote sensing applications for mapping spatial algal cover and harmful algal
blooms (HABs) 291
15.3 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) 297
15.4 Sensors and cameras used in remote sensing for algal bloom mapping 301
15.5 Quantitative analyses 302
15.6 Future opportunities 302
15.7 Socioeconomic impact 302
15.8 Climate change 303
15.9 Conclusions 303
References 304

Index 311
Contributors

Shivakalyani Adepu
Cellulose and composites group, Department of Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering,
IIT Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Sevgi Aslıyüce
Department of Chemistry, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
Suddhasatwa Basu
CSIR-Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Birendra Bharti
Department of Water Engineering and Management, Central University of Jharkhand,
Jharkhand, India
Dian Burhani
Research Center for Biomaterial – Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong, Bogor,
Indonesia
Tulsi Chandak
School of Engineering and Technology, National Forensic Sciences University (Ministry of Home
affairs, GOI), Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Mansi Chugh
School of Engineering and Technology, National Forensic Sciences University (Ministry of Home
affairs, GOI), Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Rafael Belasque Canedo da Silva
Departamento de Engenharia de Alimentos, Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos,
Universidade de São Paulo, Rua Duque de Caxias Norte 225, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil;
Postgraduate Programme in Materials Science and Engineering, University of São Paulo, USP/
FZEA, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, Pirassununga, Brazil
Natalia Cristina da Silva
Departamento de Engenharia de Alimentos, Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos,
Universidade de São Paulo, Rua Duque de Caxias Norte 225, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil;
Postgraduate Programme in Materials Science and Engineering, University of São Paulo, USP/
FZEA, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, Pirassununga, Brazil
Adil Denizli
Department of Chemistry, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
Ankita Gupta
Institute of Environment & Sustainable Development Banaras Hindu University Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Mani Pujitha Illa
Cellulose and composites group, Department of Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering,
IIT Hyderabad, Telangana, India

xi
xii Contributors

Sapna Jain
Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Shruti Jha
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India
Swaminathan Jiji
DRDO-BU Center for Life Sciences, Bharathiar University Campus, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,
India
Krishna Kadirvelu
DRDO-BU Center for Life Sciences, Bharathiar University Campus, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,
India
Mudrika Khandelwal
Cellulose and composites group, Department of Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering,
IIT Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Sanjeev Kumar
Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Vibhanshu Kumar
Department of Water Engineering and Management, Central University of Jharkhand, Jharkhand,
India
Himanshu Kumar
Department of Water Engineering and Management, Central University of Jharkhand, Jharkhand,
India
Bhawna Yadav Lamba
Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Kannan Maharajan
Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan,
Shandong Province, China
Santosh Kr. Mishra
Department of Production Engineering, National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu, India
Mamata Mohapatra
CSIR-Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India; Academy of
Scientific & Innovative Research, New Delhi, India
Aarohi Natu
School of Pharmacy, National Forensic Sciences University (Ministry of Home affairs, GOI),
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Nadia Obrownick Okamoto-Schalch
Departamento de Engenharia de Alimentos, Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos,
Universidade de São Paulo, Rua Duque de Caxias Norte 225, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil;
Postgraduate Programme in Materials Science and Engineering, University of São Paulo, USP/
FZEA, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, Pirassununga, Brazil
 Contributors xiii

Ramesh Oraon
Department of Nanoscience and Technology, Central University of Jharkhand, Brambe, Ranchi,
Jharkhand, India
Arun. K. Padhy
Department of Chemistry, Central University of Jharkhand, Brambe, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Bansari Parikh
School of Pharmacy, National Forensic Sciences University (Ministry of Home affairs, GOI),
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Garvita Parikh
School of Pharmacy, National Forensic Sciences University (Ministry of Home affairs, GOI),
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Işık Perçin
Department of Biology, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
Prajesh Prajapati
School of Pharmacy, National Forensic Sciences University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Benjamin Raj
CSIR-Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Deepak Rawtani
School of Pharmacy, National Forensic Sciences University (Ministry of Home Affairs, GOI),
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Yulianti Sampora
Research Center for Chemistry – Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Kawasan PUSPIPTEK,
Serpong South Tangerang, Indonesia
Syed Saquib
Institute of Environment & Sustainable Development Banaras Hindu University Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Athanasia Amanda Septevani
Research Center for Chemistry – Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Kawasan PUSPIPTEK,
Serpong South Tangerang, Indonesia
Archana Singh
School of Engineering and Technology, National Forensic Sciences University (Ministry of Home
Affairs, GOI), Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Gurudatta Singh
Institute of Environment & Sustainable Development Banaras Hindu University Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Purushottam Kumar Singh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BIT Sindri, Jharkhand, India
P. R Sreeraj
Department of Production Engineering, National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli,
Tamil Nadu, India
Swati
Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh,
India
xiv Contributors

Emel Tamahkar
Department of Bioengineering, Bursa Technical University, Bursa, Turkey
Anamika Shalini Tirkey
Department of Geoinformatics, School of Natural Resource Management, Central University
of Jharkhand, Brambe, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Aykut Arif Topçu
Department of Medical Services and Techniques, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey
Milena Martelli Tosi
Departamento de Engenharia de Alimentos, Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos,
Universidade de São Paulo, Rua Duque de Caxias Norte 225, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil;
Postgraduate Programme in Materials Science and Engineering, University of São Paulo, USP/
FZEA, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, Pirassununga, Brazil
Riddhi Trivedi
School of Pharmacy, National Forensic Sciences University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Shashikant Shivaji Vhatkar
Department of Nanoscience and Technology, Central University of Jharkhand, Brambe, Ranchi,
Jharkhand, India
CHAPTER 1

Bacterial cellulose nanofibers for

separation, drug delivery, wound
dressing, and tissue engineering
applications
Emel Tamahkara, Aykut Arif Topçub, Işık Perçinc, Sevgi Aslıyüced, Adil Denizlid
a
Department of Bioengineering, Bursa Technical University, Bursa, Turkey
b
Department of Medical Services and Techniques, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey
c
Department of Biology, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
d
Department of Chemistry, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey

1.1 Introduction
Bacterial cellulose (BC) nanofibers can be produced by bacteria, plants, and algae.
Among them the most utilized source is Acetobacter xylinum due to the production effi-
ciency. Although BC has similar chemical structure with plant cellulose, BC attracted
tremendous interest with its high purity devoid of hemicellulose and lignin thus, avoid-
ing the purification cost [1]. BC presents many advantages over plant cellulose regard-
ing the production expenses. Cost-efficient bacterial culture medium is utilized in the
preparation of BC. Also the synthesis is simple and requires no special equipment and
any harsh chemicals [2]. BC is synthesized as a pellicle composed of unoriented fibers
of cellulose chains resulting in 3D nanofibrous network. These nanofibers are approxi-
mately 50–100 nm in diameter. BC is formed via beta glycosidic bonds, and glucan
chains are linked through intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bonds [3].
BC is one of the mostly used biomaterial for academic, industrial, and pharmaceu-
tical areas designed as drug delivery vehicle, wound dressing, separation medium, and
tissue engineering scaffold. BC presents excellent potential for these areas with its high
water absorption capacity, high porosity, high purity, and high mechanical strength. Also
BC can be fabricated in any size and shape due to its in-situ moldability properties sug-
gesting great applicability for diverse applications [4]. Thus, the aim of this chapter is
focused on the recent developments of BC in these application areas.

1.2 Support as separation medium

As BC nanofibers exhibit nanoporous structure, biocompatibility, high water-holding
capability, and chemical stability, they have big potential to be used for separation and
removal of many compounds. BC nanofibers are attractive materials to be prepared
Nanocellulose Materials: Fabrication and Industrial Applications © 2022 Elsevier Inc.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823963-6.00004-1 All rights reserved. 1
2 Nanocellulose materials: fabrication and industrial applications

as a separation media for the removal of environmental pollutants and purification of

biologically important molecules. BC nanofibers are resistant to different environmental
conditions and have high surface area with nanofibrous network [5]. Separation pro-
cesses based on many intermolecular interactions need to be selective and specific to
target molecules. Thus, modifications of BC using in separation applications have great
importance for preparation of effective adsorbents [6]. BC nanofibers with their unique
properties can be functionalized by many different chemical methods to show good
bio-affinity properties. BC nanofibers also can be prepared by combining natural and
synthetic polymers, thus changing surface and bulk properties.
Protein-specific BC-based nanofibers were prepared by Denizli and coworkers.
Göktürk et al. designed human serum albumin imprinted composite BC nanofibers for
proteomic applications. Molecular imprinting is a promising technique to obtain selec-
tive binding sites formed via polymerization around the template molecule with further
extraction of the template from the polymeric material. Molecularly imprinted poly-
mers (MIP) show great potential with high selectivity. As albumin is a high-abundance
protein, they fabricated albumin imprinted composite BC nanofibers via metal ion
coordination interactions using N-methacryloyl-(L)-histidine methyl ester (MAH) and
Cu(II) ions (Fig. 1.1A).They tested selectivity of albumin imprinted BC by using human
transferrin and myoglobin as competitive agents. Furthermore, the depletion of human
serum albumin from artificial human plasma was performed by albumin-imprinted

250

200
B
MIP2 BCNFs
Adsorbed Hb (mg/g)

150 MIP1 BCNFs

NIP2 BCNFs
100
NIP1 BCNFs
C
50

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Equilibrium concentration (mg/mL)
A B
Fig. 1.1 (A) Scanning electron microscope images of BC (top), molecularly imprinted BC (middle)
and nonimprinted BC (bottom). (B) The adsorption capacity of hemoglobin onto MIP-BC and NIP-BC.
(A) Adapted with permission from [7], (B) Adapted with permission from [10].
 Bacterial cellulose nanofibers for separation, drug delivery, wound dressing, and tissue engineering applications 3

BC nanofibers and efficiency of these BC nanofibers was shown with SDSPAGE and
2D gel electrophoresis analyses [7]. Tamahkar et al. aimed to deplete human serum
albumin from human serum to provide easier study of low-abundance proteins, which
have potential value for clinical diagnosis, for proteomic applications. For this purpose,
they produced cibacron blue F3GA (CB) bound BC nanofibers. Specific surface area
of CB-bound BC nanofibers was obtained as 914 m2/g and albumin binding capac-
ity of CB-bound BC nanofibers was found as 1800 mg/g. Elution of albumin from
CB-bound BC nanofibers was achieved by 1 M NaCl and reusability was shown. In
addition, albumin was purified from human serum successfully by using CB-bound BC
nanofibers [8]. Saylan et al. developed lysozyme-imprinted BC (Lyz-MIP/BC) nano-
fibers for recognition of lysozyme. They applied surface molecular imprinting method
by imprinting lysozyme on the surface of BC nanofibers in the presence of metal ions.
The maximum lysozyme adsorption capacity of lysozyme-imprinted BC nanofibers
obtained was 71.1 mg/g. Bovine serum albumin and cytochrome c were chosen as
competitive proteins in this study and lysozyme-imprinted BC nanofibers showed
high selectivity for lysozyme against these proteins. Reusability and high characteris-
tic properties of lysozyme-imprinted BC nanofibers were also shown by authors [9].
Bakhshpour et al. fabricated a hemoglobin-imprinted film onto BC nanofibers. They
preferred surface imprinting method by taking advantage of metal ion coordination
interactions using MAH and copper ions. Hemoglobin was selectively purified from
hemolysate using hemoglobin surface–imprinted BC nanofibers. Authors indicated
structural and geometrical complementarity between recognition sites and template
hemoglobin molecules by performing selectivity studies using cytochrome c, lysozyme,
bovine serum albumin, and myoglobin. Maximum hemoglobin binding capacity of
hemoglobin-imprinted BC nanofibers was 208.39 mg/g (Fig. 1.1B) [10]. Tamahkar
et al. designed surface-imprinted BC nanofibers for cytochrome c purification. They
used metal ion coordination interactions using copper and MAH as a functional mono-
mer orienting cytochrome c molecules. After determining optimum experimental con-
ditions they have obtained high recognition capacity. Authors also extracted cytochrome
c from rat liver extract and eluted cytochrome c from cytochrome c–imprinted BC
nanofibers successfully. Thus, they presented a novel, cheap, and simple procedure for
efficient purification of cytochrome c [11]. Another study from Denizli and coworkers
was reported for BC nanofibers as a protein adsorbent. 4-vinylimidazole (VIm) and a
household monomer, MAH, were used as metal-chelating monomers. These monomers
were complexed with Cu(II) and Ni(II) metal ions for carrying out metal ion coordina-
tion interactions with proteins. They have chosen hemoglobin as a model protein and
the maximum hemoglobin binding capacity of the modified BC nanofibers was found
as 47.40 mg/g [12].
The removal of some toxic substances from environment was also achieved by using
BC nanofibers. Derazshamshir et al. used N-methacryloyl-(L)-amido phenylalanine as a
4 Nanocellulose materials: fabrication and industrial applications

functional monomer for the preparation of phenol-imprinted BC nanofibers by surface

imprinting approach. They have applied surface-imprinted BC (BC-MIP) nanofibers
to real wastewater samples from Ergene basin in Turkey and evaluated phenol removal
efficiency of BC-MIP nanofibers. 2-chlorophenol, 4-chlorophenol and 2,4-dichloro-
phenol were used as computing agents and phenol removal efficiency was obtained as
97% [13].
Hou et al. presented functional BC membranes for water/oil separation for a solu-
tion to oil spill accidents that cause serious environmental pollution. They modified BC
nanofibers by hydrolyzing of tetraethoxysilane and obtained BC@SiO2 networks that
were capable of separation of oil/water emulsions with high separation efficiency. Thus,
they developed a promising potential wastewater treatment tool due to renewable and
biodegradable nature of BC nanofibers [14]. Jin et al. prepared polyethyleneimine-BC
nanofibers for the removal of copper and lead ions from aqueous solutions. Maximum
binding capacities of polyethyleneimine-BC for copper and lead ions were obtained as
141 and 148 mg/g, respectively. Adsorption processes of these metals reached equilib-
rium in 30–60 min and were fitted with the Freundlich model. They demonstrated that
polyethyleneimine-BC nanofibers are reusable and good alternative tools as bioadsor-
bents for heavy metal removal from wastewater [15]. Yang et al. prepared an efficient
adsorbent by in-situ functionalization of poly(m-phenylenediamine) nanoparticles (NPs)
on BC. Optimized poly(m-phenylenediamine) BC showed the Langmuir adsorption
model with adsorption capacity of 434.78 mg/g for Cr(VI) ions. Authors observed high
stabilization of poly(m-phenylenediamine) on BC and reusability of poly(m-phenyl-
enediamine) BC nanofibers [16]. Shoukat et al. modified BC nanofibers with titanium
oxide (TiO2) and prepared novel TiO2-BC nanofibers for the removal of lead ions from
aqueous solutions. A concentration of 100 mg/L of lead was removed with 90% effi-
ciency by TiO2-BC nanofibers in 120 min at pH 7.0 at room temperature. TiO2-BC
nanofibers could be used three times without any decrease in lead adsorption capacity.
Authors suggested TiO2-BC nanofibers as an effective, stable, and reusable tool for the
removal of lead from wastewater samples [17]. Chen et al. prepared attapulgite/chitosan
(ATP/Chi) composite with BC nanofibers exhibiting high binding capacity for metal
ions such as lead, copper, chromium, and anionic organic dyes including Congo red.
ATP/Chi BC nanofibers were reusable after five adsorption-desorption cycles. ATP/
Chi BC nanofibers with their multifunctional properties were effective tools to remove
pollutants from environmental wastewater [18]. Hu et al. fabricated an organic–inorgan-
ic composite material combining BC and Ca-montmorillonite (Ca-MMT) to remove
methylene blue (MB) and tetracycline (TC) from complex wastewater. Adsorption
characteristics were well fitted with the Langmuir model and were suitable for a pseu-
do-second-order model. The removal of both MB and TC was successfully achieved
even in the presence of other coexisting molecules. Low-cost Ca-MMT composite
BC nanofibers were effectively reusable. The adsorption amount of the binary system
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Bierly, William. (See Byerly)
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Bloomsbury Great Close, 125n, 187
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Blumsberrie Fieldes, 110n
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Boak, Ann, 66, 67n
Boak, E., 66
Bochier, Thomas, 3n
Boddington, John, 169
Bol, Ferdinand, 55
Boldero, John, 184
Boldero, Mrs., 184
Bolingbroke, Lord, 149
Bolton, Charles Powlett, 2nd Duke of, 65
Bonomi, —, 151
Booker, Mr., 12
Booth, Rev. Chas., 11
Bootle, Mrs., 169
Borde, Doctor, 119, 125
Boreman, Robert, 139
Borrett, Edw., 70
Bosomysynne, 23n
Boswell, Alexander, Lord Auchinleck, 57
Boswell, Jas., 57
Boswell, John, 121
Boteler, Sir Robert, 137
Bothwell, Lord, 6n
Bothwell House, 6n
Bottomley, Joseph, 44n, 46
Boundary of parish, 1–2
Bowen, —, 57
Bower, J., 84
Bowes, Robert, 28
Bowes, William, 144
Bowl, The, 110, 111, 112n
Bowl Yard, 111
Bowne, Madame, 56
Boyle, Roger, 1st Earl of Orrery, 79
Bradley, James, 76
Bradshaw, Mr., 91
Braithwait, Mr., 18
Bramston, Sir John, 145n
Bransby, Robert, 79
Braynsgrave, William, 20
Brereton, W., 56
Brett, Richard, 21, 42, 43
Brewer, Thomas, 46n, 50
Bringhurst, Anne, 121n
Bringhurst, Isaac, 118n, 119, 121
Briscowe, James, 20n, 24n, 107
Briscowe, Joan (née Wise), 107, 119
Bristol, George Digby, 2nd Earl of, 52, 54
Bristol, John Digby, Earl of, 23n, 47n, 50, 51
Bristol House (Nos. 55 and 56, Great Queen Street), 42–58, 59, 60,
63, 65
Bristow, John, 149
Bristowe, Jas., 119
British Lying-In Hospital, 103
Broad Street, 101, 106–111
Brock (Brooke), Thos., 92
Bromeley, Robert, 108
Bromley, Sir John. (See Brownlow.)
Brooke, Catherine, Lady, 51
Brooke, Robert Greville, 2nd Baron, 51n
Brooks, Mr., 61
Broome, Peter, 7n
Broomwhoerwood, Thomas, 11
Brown and Barrow, Messrs., 63
Browne, Henry, 47, 48
Browne, Henry, 5th Viscount Montagu, 65
Browne, Isaac Hawkins (father and son), 84, 85
Browne, Robert, 126
Browne, Thomas, 126
Browne, Tom, 68
Brownlow (Bromley), Sir John, 102, 112
Brownlow, Sir John, 103, 105
Brownlow, Sir Richard, 103
Brownlow Street, 103
Brownlow Street Lying-In Hospital, 103
Brudenell, Anne, Countess of Cardigan, 90
Brudenell, Robert, 2nd Earl of Cardigan, 90
Buck, George, 28
Buck, John, 7
Buck, Margaret, 6, 7
Buck, Matthew, 20, 24
Buckeridge, Edmund, 145n
Buckeridge, Nicholas, 145n
Buckeridge, Sara, 145n
Buckingham, George Villiers, 1st Duke of, 91n
Buckingham, George Villiers, 2nd Duke of, 91n
Buckingham, Katherine, Duchess of, 91n
Buckingham and Normanby, John Sheffield, Duke of, 74
Bucknall Street, 145
Buckner, John, (afterwards Bishop of Chichester), 138, 139
Buckridge Street, 145
Burges, Thos., 87, 92
Burgh, Ulick de. (See Clanricarde).
Burghe, Edw., 59n, 60n, 67n
Burn, Thomas, 167
Burnet, Gilbert, Bishop of Salisbury, 75
Burnett, —, 71
Burrage, Thomas, 21
Burton, Thomas, 27, 29, 30, 31n, 32, 35n, 37
Burton, Thomas, 11
Burton, Walter, 29, 30, 31, 35, 40
Burton and Co., 11
Burton Lazars, 24, 27, 117–126
Byerly (Bierly), William, 6, 8n, 94
Byng, Ed., 65n
Byrcke, — Esq., 119
Byrn, Wm., 71

Calley (Cawley), Sir W., 42, 93

Cantelowe Close, 187, 188
Cardigan, Anne, Countess of, 90
Cardigan, Robert Brudenell, 2nd Earl of, 90
Carew, Anne, 6, 7
Carew, George, Dean of Windsor, 6n
Carew, Sir George, Baron Carew of Clopton and Earl of Totnes, 6
Carew, Lady Martha, 125
Carew, Peter, 6
Carew, Thomas, 119, 122, 125
Carew, Sir Wymonde, 119, 122, 125, 127
Carlisle, Charles Howard, 3rd Earl of, 92
Carlisle, Edward Howard, 2nd Earl of, 92
Carlisle, James Hay, Earl of, 19
Carnwath, Robert Dalyell, Earl of, 43
Carpenter, John, 186, 187
Carter, Benjamin, 120
Carter, Rev. Philip, 59n, 70
Cartwright, William, 74n
Cary, Lord, 101n
Case, Thomas, 78n
Castell, Samuel, 179
Castle Street, 112n, 113, 114
Castlehaven, Countess of, 102
Catton, Charles (Senior), 11, 12
Catton, Charles (Junior), 12
Cavendish, Lord Charles, 162
Cavendish, Hon. Henry, 162
Cavendish, Hon. John, 162
Cavendish, William, 3rd Earl of Devonshire, 54
Cecil, Robert, Earl of Salisbury, 36
Chaloner, Joan, Lady (widow of Sir Thomas Legh), 124, 126
Chaloner, Sir Thomas, 126n
Chamberlain, Dr., 82
Chamberlain’s Stable, 5n
Chandler, Nathaniel, 29n
Chandler, Samuel, 29n
Chandos, Henry, Duke of, 75n
Chapman, George, 135
Charing Cross Road, 118, 119
Charles I., 13
Charles Street (now Macklin Street), 30
Chaworth, Lady, 91, 92
Chaworth, Patricius, 3rd Viscount, 91
Cheek, Phineas, 11
Cheeke, —, 70
Chequer, The, Broad Street, 125
Chichester, John Buckner, Bishop of, 138, 139
Chippendale, Thomas, 58, 67n
Chippendale, William, 57, 58
Christmas, John, 23n
Christmas, William, 23
Christmasse estate, 30n
Church of All Saints, West Street, 115–116
Church of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, 127–140
Church Close (Williamsfeild), 144n, 145
Church Lane, 145
Church Street, 145
City of London, Corporation of, 16, 186, 187
City of London School, 187
Clanricarde, Marquess of, 2nd Earl of St. Albans, 46, 47, 50, 59
Clanricarde House, Great Queen Street, 37, 50
Clare, John Holles, 1st Earl of, 100, 188
Clarendon, Lord, 97n
Clarke, John (Rector), 139
Clarke, John, 32n
Clarke, Mrs. Mary, 84
Clarke (alias Sadler), Thomas, 80
Clements, Thomas, 3n
Clerke, Katherine (alias Smyth), 24
Cleveland, Duchess of, 53n
Clifton, Gervase, Lord, 101n
Clifton, Katherine, Duchess of Lennox, 101, 102
Clifton, Robert, 106, 109
Clive, Catherine (Kitty), 70, 71
Clive, George, 71
Clyff, Richard, 3
Coach Office, No. 55, Great Queen Street, 56
Coal Yard (afterwards Goldsmith Street), 21, 22
Cobham, Lord, 144n
Cock Alley, 108
Cock and Coffin, High Holborn, 3n
Cock and Pye Fields, 112
Cock and Pye Inn, Marshlands, 112
Cockerell, F. P., 63
Cockerell, Professor C. R., 63
Cockpit Side, 94
Cockshott (Cockeshute, Cockshoote), Richard, 20, 24
Coke, Edward, 148
Coke, John, 3
Coke, Sir Thomas, Lord Lovel, 148
Colchester, Richard, Lord (afterwards 4th Earl Rivers), 69, 70
Colchester, Thomas Darcy (afterwards Viscount), 67
Cole, Bassitt, 21
Cole, Francis, 9n
Cole, Salomon, 21n
Colleton, Sir John, 70n
Colleton, Sir Peter, 69n
Colleton (alias Johnson), Mrs. Elizabeth, 69, 70
Collins, William, 138
Colmanhedge Field, 123
Colman’s Hedge, 123
Cologan, John, 165
Column at Seven Dials, 113–114
Combe, Harvey Christian, 149
Complin, Mrs. Eleanor, 92
Compton, Sir Henry, 46n, 47n, 50
Con, Seignior, 67
Conduit Close, 123
Connaught Rooms, Freemasons’ Tavern, 55, 63
Const, Francis, 90, 91n
Constable, Dorothy, Lady, 51n
Constable, Sir William, 51
Conway, Anne, Lady, 78
Conway, Edward, 1st Viscount (Secretary), 30
Conway, Edward, 2nd Viscount, 59n, 60, 71n, 73n, 78
Conway, Edward, 3rd Viscount, and 1st Earl of Conway, 37n, 78, 82n
Conway, Francis Seymour, 5th Baron Conway, 61n
Conway, Popham Seymour, 78, 82
Conway, Ursula, Marchioness of Normanby, 82
Conway House, 46n, 60, 63, 78–83, 84
Cony, Sir William, 138
Cook, William, 6
Cooper, John, 71
Cooper, Thos., 71
Coote, Sir Charles, 79
Coote, Richard, 4th Earl Bellamont, 56, 76
Cope, Dame Dorothy, 126n
Cope, Isabella (afterwards Lady Rich), 126
Cope, Sir Edward, 119, 120
Cope, Sir Walter, 126
Cope (Rope), Master, 126n
Corben, J. F., 138
Cornwallis, Sir Charles, 16, 29, 31
Cornwallis, Francis, 18
Cornwallis, Sir William, 30n
Coronell, Augustine, 95n
Corrance, John, 95n, 100n
Cotham, Philip, 3n
Cotton, Sir John, 51
Covert, Thomas, 88
Cowles Field, 147
Cowles Pasture, 147
Cowper, Sir John, 7, 9n
Cowper, John, 9
Cowper, Margaret, 9
Crace, John, 71
Crane, Sir Robert, 137
Cranigh (Crainck), Burrard (Burcharde, Buckharte), 5, 6
Craven, Earl of, 96n
Crewe, Master, 11n
Crews, Robert, 150
Crofts, John, 39
Cromwell, Thomas, 123n
Crook, Thos., 59n
Cross at Aldewych, 23
Cross Lane, 18
Cross Street (now Newton Street), 27
Crouch, Gilbt., 96
Crouton, John, 23n, 144n
Crown, The, Broad Street, 109
Crown, The, Great Queen Street, 89
Crown, The, High Street, 125, 144
Crown Court, 106, 109
Cruce, John de, 23, 107
Curtis, William, 18n

Dalcona Close (Pursefield), 34

Dallison, Sir Chas., 8n
Dalyell, Sir Robert, Earl of Carnwath, 43
Dance, George (the younger), 187
Dandridge, Bartholomew, 56, 57
Daniell, William, 187
Darby, Mary (afterwards Robinson) (“Perdita”), 77–78
Darcy, Elizabeth (afterwards Lady Savage and Countess Rivers), 59,
67, 68, 73n, 90
Darcy, Thomas, Baron Darcy of Chich, afterwards Earl Rivers, 67
Darell, Henry, 16, 17
Darrell, William, 94
Dashwood, Lady Anne, 76
Dashwood, Sir Samuel, 76
D’Aubigny, Seigneurs. (See Stuart).
Davies, W. L., 138
Davis, —, 89, 92
Davison, Henry, 159
Dawes, Sir William, Archbishop of York, 110n
Dayrell’s Buildings, 16, 17
Deane, Jeremy, 38n
de Cruce, John, 23, 107
De la Chambre, John, 18
Denmark, Prince George of, 142
Denmark House, 67
Denmark Place, 121, 144
Denmark Street, 120, 121, 142
Densyle (Densyll), Master, 119, 125
Devereux, Robert, 3rd Earl of Essex, 88
Devil’s Gap, 36n
Devonshire, Charles Blount, Earl of, 126n
Devonshire, William, 3rd Duke of, 162
Devonshire, William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of, 54
Dickens, Col. Guy, 89
Dickenson, —, 83
Dickenson, —, 84
Dickey, William, 176
Digby, Lady Anne (afterwards Countess of Sunderland), 54
Digby, George, 2nd Earl of Bristol, 52, 54
Digby, Sir George, of Coleshill, 50
Digby, John, 1st Earl of Bristol, 23n, 47n, 50, 51
Digby, Hon. John, 51, 52n
Digby, Sir Kenelm, 42, 43, 93
Dilleage, Lord, 73
Dillingham, Gilbert, 139
Dive, Sir Lewis, 46n, 50
Dodswell, Jonathan, 29n
Dorset, Earl of, 6, 19, 106
Doughty, Thomas, 5
Doughty, Thomas, Junior, 5
Douglas, Captain, 97n
Douglas, John, 173
Douglas, Sylvester, Baron Glenbervie, 172, 173
Downe, Earl of, 102, 106
Downes, Edward, 119
Downes, Francis, 119, 122, 126
Downes, John, 69n
Downes, Penelope (afterwards Countess Rivers), 69n
Downes, Robert, 119
Drake, Geo., 170
Drury House, 23n, 34
Drury Lane (Aldewych), 23, 25, 30, 35, 107
Drury Lane. (See also Aldwych Close.)
Duckett, William, 6n
Dudley, Alice, Lady, 93n, 120, 121, 128, 129, 130, 135
Dudley, Sir John. (See Lisle).
Dudley, Sir Robert, 135
Dudley Court, 121
Duke Street (afterwards Sardinia Street), 100
Dummer, Thos., 66
Dunbar, Mary, Viscountess, 137
Dunn, George E., 132
Dyott, Jane, 145n
Dyott, Simon, 145n
Dyott Street, 145
Dysart, Countess of, 102n
Dyxson, Thomas, 3

Eagle and Child, High Holborn, 3n

Earl Street, 113
Eaton, Madame, 92
Edlyn, Edmund, 31n, 32
Edmonds, Jane, 29
Edwards, Thomas, 134
Eldon, John Scott, 1st Earl of, 155
Elliott, Magdalen, 88
Ellys, Thos., 3n
Elm Field, 23n, 101, 112n
Elmes, Anthony, 29, 108n
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 5
Endell Street, Nos. 23 and 25, 105
Ennys, Captain, 97n
Essex, Elizabeth Paulet, Countess of, 61, 72, 86n, 88
Essex, Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of, 88
Evans, Galfridus, 139
Evelyn, George, 31n
Evelyn, John, 12, 53, 113
Everard, Rev. Chas., 11
Everard, Wm., 11
Eversley, Charles, Viscount, 160
Exchequer Office, 113
Exeter, Countess of, 96

Fairfax, Dorothy (afterwards Lady Constable), 51n

Fairfax, Ferdinando, 2nd Lord, 51, 52
Fairfax, Thomas, 1st Lord, 51n
Fairfax, Thomas, 3rd Baron, 51
Falcon (Falcon and Greyhound), High Holborn, 10, 13, 14, 15
Falconer, Elizabeth, 89, 92
Fanshawe, J., 83
Farmer, Thomas, 18
Farmhouse in rear of No. 196, Tottenham Court Road, 188
Farnham, John, 5
Fauconberg, Thomas, 1st Lord, 55n, 137
Faulkner, Miss, 89
Fawlcon Yard, 15n
Feathers Court, High Holborn, 8
Feltham, manor and messuages in, 123, 124
Fenowillet, Peter, 115
Ferrand, William, 87n
Ferrers, Washington, Earl, 75n
Fielding, Henry, 71
Finch, Heneage, 1st Earl of Nottingham, 79
Finch, Sir Heneage, 79
Finch, Sir Henry, 78
Finch, Sir John, 79
Fire at Freemasons’ Hall, 62
Firmin (Firman), William, 8
Fisher, Cuthbert, 169
Fisher, Sir Edward, 119n
Fisher, Sir Thomas, 21n
Fisher, Thos., 3n
Flaxman, John, 151
Flitcroft, Henry, 130, 131, 132
Flood, John, 119n, 122n
Flood, William, 119n, 122n
Flood. (See also Lloyd.)
Florence, Henry L., 63
Flower, Geo., 9
Floyd (Flood), Robert. (See Lloyd.)
Fonseca, Don Manuel, 37n
Foote, Anne, 109n
Foote, James, 109n
Foote, Robert, 109n
Foote, Thomas, 109n
Forrester, Mary, 90
Fort, Edward, 37n
Fortescue, John, 10, 11n
Fortescue, Sir John, 23n
Fortescue Lane (alias Drury Lane), 23n
Foster, Henry, 34n
Foster, Margaret, 34n
Fotherly, John, 27n, 29, 31
Foxcroft, Isaac, 97, 99n
Francis, Matthew, 101n
Francklin, Richard, 90
Francklyn, Mrs., 87, 90–91
Francklyn, Rev. Thomas, 87, 89, 90
Freeman, Sir Ralph, 47n, 50n
Freeman, W. G., 70
Freemasons, Trustees for, 73n, 75
Freemasons’ Hall and Tavern, 47, 55, 59–84
French Ambassador, 96, 97
Froude, Mr., 90
Froude, Ashburnham, 90n, 92

Gage, George, 93
Galloway, Thomas, 82
Gallows, 144
Gally, Henry, 139
Gandy, J. M., 63
Garnault, —, 71
Garrett, Frauncis, 107n
Garrick, David, 67, 90
Gate House (near Broad Street), 110
Gate House (Great Gate) St. Giles’s Hospital, 118, 121, 125, 145
Gate Street, 5, 10
Gate Tavern, High Holborn, 15
Gatteker, Thos., 185
Gaussen, Samuel, 182
Gentleman, George, 8n
George, Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), 78
George, The, Broad Street, 125
George, The, High Holborn, 8
Gerard, Frances (née Godman), 21, 107
Gerard, Francis, 21, 107n
Gerard, Philip, 21n
Gerbier, —, 44, 45
Gerrard, Sir Thomas, 6
Gibbert, Mr., 13, 14
Gibbons, Walter, 28
Gibbs, Tristram, 120
Giffard, John, 10
Gifford, Dr. Andrew, 94
Gifford, Philip, 126
Gilbertson, Rev. Lewis, 153n, 169
Glenbervie, Sylvester Douglas, Baron, 172, 173
Gloucester, Duke of, 75
Glynn, John, 183
Goddard, Alexander, 3n
Godfrey, Jno., 172
Godman (afterwards Gerard), Frances, 21, 107
Godman, Olive, 21, 107
Godman, Thos., 21n
Goldsborough, Edward, 7
Goldsborough, Grace, 8
Goldsborough, Robert, 8
Goldsborough, William, 7
Goldsmith Street, 18–22
Goodman, George, 15n
Goodyer, Lady Dinely, 56
Goring, George, Earl of Norwich, 88
Gosling, Geo., 153
Gower, John, 1st Earl of, 149
Gower, Lady, 70n
Gower Street, 185
Granby, John Manners, Marquess of, 91
Grange, Sir John, 125n
Grape Street (formerly Vine Street), 124
Graunge, John, 119, 122
Gray and Davidson, Messrs., 132
Grayhound. (See Greyhound.)
Great Close of Bloomsbury, 125n, 186
Great Gate, St. Giles’ Hospital. (See Gatehouse.)
Great Portland Street, No. 122 (formerly 47), 58
Great Queen Street (Queen Street), 11n, 14, 34, 92, 149