Basic Math for Game Development with

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Kelvin Sung and Gregory Smith

Basic Math for Game Development with

Unity 3D
A Beginner’s Guide to Mathematical Foundations
2nd ed.

Figures and illustrations: Clover Wai

Kelvin Sung
Bothell, WA, USA

Gregory Smith
Caldwell, ID, USA

ISBN 978-1-4842-9884-8 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-9885-5

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9885-5

© Kelvin Sung, Gregory Smith 2019, 2023

Standard Apress

Trademarked names, logos, and images may appear in this book. Rather
than use a trademark symbol with every occurrence of a trademarked
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
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claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Apress imprint is published by the registered company APress

Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY
10004, U.S.A.
To my wife, Clover, and our girls, Jean and Ruth, for completing my life.
—Kelvin Sung
To my wife and our little one, thank you for making my life better each
and every day.
—Gregory Smith
Introduction
Welcome to Basic Math for Game Development with Unity 3D. Because
you have picked up this book, you are probably interested in finding out
more about the mathematics involved in game development or, maybe,
in the details of fascinating applications like Unity. This can be the
perfect book to begin with your exploration.
This book uses interactive examples in Unity to present each
mathematical concept discussed, taking you on a hands-on journey of
learning. The coverage of each topic always follows a pattern. First, the
concept and its relevancy in video game functionality are described.
Second, the mathematics, with a focus on applicability in game
development and interactive computer graphics, are derived. Finally, an
implementation of the concept and derived mathematics are
demonstrated as an example in Unity.
Through interacting with these examples, you will have the
opportunity to explore the implications and limitations of each concept.
Additionally, you can examine the effects of manipulating the various
related parameters. Lastly, and very importantly, you can study the
accompanied source code and understand the details of the
implementations.
In Chapter 2, you will begin by reviewing simple number intervals
in the Cartesian Coordinate System. Chapters 3 and 4 let you examine
and learn about vectors and the rules of their operations to formally
relate positions in 3D space. Chapters 5 and 6 study the vector dot and
cross products to relate vectors and the space that defines them.
Chapter 7 leads you to work in multiple coordinate spaces
simultaneously to address compound issues such as describing motions
inside a navigating spaceship. Chapter 8 introduces quaternions and
the rotation operator and Chapter 9 concludes with the basic math
involved in game development. Throughout this book, you will learn the
mathematical and implementation details of bounding boxes; bounding
spheres; motion controls; ray castings; projecting points to lines and
planes; computing intersections between fast-traveling objects;
projecting objects onto 2D planes to create shadows; computing
reflections; working in multiple coordinate spaces; rotations to align
vectors; and much more!
Who Should Read This Book
This book is targeted toward video game enthusiasts and hobbyists
who have some background in basic object-oriented programming. For
example, if you are a student who has taken an introductory
programming course, or are a self-taught programming enthusiast, you
will be able to follow the concepts and code presented in this book with
little trouble. If you do not have any programming background in
general, it is suggested that you first become comfortable with the C#
programming language before tackling the content provided in this
book.
Besides a basic understanding of object-oriented programming, you
will also need to be familiar with the Cartesian Coordinate System,
basic algebra, and knowledge in trigonometry. Experience and working
knowledge with Unity are not required.

Code Samples
Every chapter in this book includes examples that let you interactively
experiment with and learn the new materials. You can download the
source code for all the projects from the following page:
www.apress.com/.
Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the
author in this book is available to readers on GitHub
(https://github.com/Apress). For more detailed information, please
visit https://www.apress.com/gp/services/source-code.
Acknowledgments
This book and the projects it relates to stem from the results of the
authors’ attempts to understand how to engage learners in exploring
knowledge related to interactive computer graphics, introductory
programming, and video games. Past funding for related projects
includes support from the National Science Foundation for the projects
“Essential Concepts for Building Interactive Computer Graphics
Applications” (Award Number, CCLI-EMD, NSF, DUE-0442420) and
“Game-Themed CS1/2: Empowering the Faculty” (Award Number DUE-
1140410). Projects supported by Microsoft Research and Microsoft
Research Connections include “XNA Based Game-Themed Programming
Assignments for CS1/2” (Award Number 15871) and “A Traditional
Game-Themed CS1 Class” (Award Number 16531). All of these past
projects have laid the foundation for our perspectives and presentation
of the materials in this book. We would also like to thank NSF officers
Suzanne Westbrook, Jane Prey, Valerie Bar, and Paul Tymann for their
invaluable discussions and encouragements, as well as Donald
Brinkman and Kent Foster as they continue to be our best advocate and
supporters at Microsoft. Lastly, we remember and continue to miss
Steve Cunningham, John Nordlinger, and Lee Dirks for their early
recognition of our vision and ideas.
A thank you must also go out to our students, whose honest, even
when brutal, feedbacks and suggestions from CSS385: Introduction to
Game Development, CSS451: 3D Computer Graphics, CSS452: Game
Engine Development, and CSS551: Advanced 3D Computer Graphics at
the University of Washington Bothell inspired us to explore the
approach to present these materials based on an accessible game
engine. They have tested, retested, contributed to, and assisted in the
formation and organization of the contents of this book. The second
author of this book is an alumnus of CSS551.
It must also be mentioned that the teaching brown bag hosted by
Yusuf Pisan offered the opportunity for the discussions with Yusuf,
Johnny Lin, Lesley Kalmin, and Mike Stiber on the topics of linear
algebra applications which sparked the initial idea for this book. A
sincere thank you goes to Yusuf for his enthusiasm and energy in
organizing us and, of course, for the delicious-looking Tim Tam; one
day, I will try them.
We also want to thank Spandana Chatterjee for believing in our
ideas, her patience, and continual efficient and effective support.
Nirmal Selvaraj organized everything and ensured proper progress was
ongoing.
Lastly, a thank you must go to Peter Shirley, our technical reviewer,
whose frank and precise comments made this a much easier to
understand book.
The vehicle models used are free assets, UAA - City Props - Vehicles,
downloaded from the Unity Asset Store under the Unity-EULA. The
cone shape that represents the arrow heads for the axis frames and
vectors in all examples is created based on the utilities developed and
shared by Wolfram Kresse available at
https://wiki.unity3d.com/index.php/CreateCone. The
cosine function plot from Figure 5-5 is based on a screenshot taken
from www.desmos.com/calculator/nqfu5lxaij.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Introduction and Learning Environment
Introduction
Choice of Unity Engine
Setting Up Your Development Environment
Notes on Installing Unity
Unity Editor Environment
Opening the Intro to Unity Project
Working with the Unity Editor
Working with MyScript
To Learn More About Working with Unity
How to Use This Book
Summary
References
Chapter 2:​Intervals and Bounding Boxes
Introduction
Review of Cartesian Coordinate System
Intervals:​Min-Max Range
Working with Examples in Unity
The Interval Bounds in 1D Example
Axis-Aligned Bounding Boxes:​Intervals in Three Dimensions
The Box Bounds Intervals in 3D Example
Collision of Intervals
The Interval Bound Intersections Example
Collision of Bounding Boxes
The Box Bound Intersections Example
 Final Words on Bounding Boxes
The Unity Bounds Class
Summary
Chapter 3:​Distances and Bounding Spheres
Introduction
Distances Between Positions
The Positions and Distances Example
Sphere Colliders or Bounding Spheres
The Sphere Bounds Example
Collision of Bounding Spheres
The Sphere Bound Intersections Example
The Unity BoundingSphere Class
Summary
Chapter 4:​Vectors
Introduction
Vectors:​Relating Two Points
Position Vectors
Following a Vector
Following a Vector from Different Positions
The Position Vectors Example
Vector Algebra:​Scaling
Normalization of Vectors
Direction of Vectors
The Vector Scaling and Normalization Example
Application of Vector:​Velocity
The Velocity and Aiming Example
 Vector Algebra:​Addition and Subtraction
Rules of Vector Addition and Subtraction
Addition and Subtraction with the Zero Vector
Vectors in an Equation
Geometric Interpretation of Vector Addition and
Subtraction
The Vector Add and Sub Example
Examine the Scene
Analyze Controller MyScript Component
Interact with the Example
Details of MyScript
Takeaway from This Example
Application of Vector Algebra
The Windy Condition Example
Summary
Chapter 5:​Vector Dot Products
Introduction
Vector Dot Product:​Relating Two Vectors
Definition of Vector Dot Product
Properties of Vector Dot Product
The Angle Between Two Vectors
The Angle Between Vectors Example
Vector Projections
The Vector Projections Example
Representation of a Line Segment
Inside-Outside Test of a General 1D Interval
 The Line Interval Bound Example
Line to Point Distance
The Line to Point Distance Example
Line to Line Distance
The Line to Line Distance Example
Summary
Vector Dot Product Definition and Implications
Interpreting the Dot Product Results
Insights into the Subtended Angle
The Line Equations
Chapter 6:​Vector Cross Products and 2D Planes
Introduction
3D Coordinate System Convention
Unity Follows the Left-Handed Coordinate System
Vector Cross Product:​The Perpendicular Direction
Definition of Vector Cross Product
Geometric Interpretation of Vector Cross Products
Properties of Vector Cross Product
The Vector Cross Products Example
The Vector Plane Equation
The Position Pn on a Plane
Given a Position on a Plane
Positions on 2D Planes
The Vector Plane Equations Example
Axis Frames and 2D Regions
Bounds on a 2D Plane
 The Axis Frames and 2D Regions Example
Projections onto 2D Planes
The Point to Plane Projections Example
Line to Plane Intersection
The Line Plane Intersections Example
Mirrored Reflection Across a Plane
The Reflection Direction
The Line Reflections Example
Summary
Chapter 7:​Axis Frames and Vector Components
Introduction
Positions in the Cartesian Axis Frame
Components of a Position Vector
The Components of Cartesian Axis Frame Example
Positions in General Axis Frames
Review of Axis Frame Derivation
Position Vectors in General Axis Frames
Components of Position Vectors
The Components of Any Frame Example
Vectors in Axis Frames
Vector Components
The Vectors in Any Frame Example
Motion Control in Axis Frames
The Motion in Axis Frame Example
Axis Frames in Unity
Summary
Chapter 8:​Quaternions and Rotations
Introduction
Rotation Terminologies
Quaternion:​Tuple of Four
Encoding of Angle and Axis
Rotation Operation
Quaternion Rotation Limitation
Rotating Positions and Vectors
The Rotation with Quaternion Example
Quaternion Concatenation
The Quaternion Concatenation Example
Aligning Vector Directions
The Align Vector Directions Example
Interpolation and Chasing Behavior
Interpolation:​Gradual Changes
The Chasing or Home-In Behavior
The Chasing Behavior Example
Aligning Axis Frames
The Unity Quaternion Class
The Align Frames Example
Summary
Chapter 9:​Conclusion
The Final Comprehensive Example
Examine the Scene
Analyze Controller MyScript Component
Interact with the Example
 Details of MyScript
Takeaway from This Example
What’s Next
Index
About the Authors
Kelvin Sung
is Professor with the Computing and Software Systems Division at the
University of Washington Bothell (UWB). He received his Ph.D. in
Computer Science from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Kelvin’s background is in computer graphics, hardware, and machine
architecture. He came to UWB from Alias|Wavefront (now part of
Autodesk), where he played a key role in designing and implementing
the Maya Renderer, an Academy Award–winning image generation
system. At UWB, funded by Microsoft Research and the National
Science Foundation, Kelvin’s work focuses on the intersection of video
game mechanics, solutions to real-world problems, and mobile
technologies. Together with his students and colleagues, Kelvin has co-
authored six books: one in computer graphics and the others in 2D
game engines with Apress.

Gregory Smith
is a software engineer at Virtual Heroes, a company that focuses on
creating training and simulation software in Unreal Engine. He received
his undergraduate degree in Computer Science from Northwest
Nazarene University in 2018 and earned a Master of Computer Science
and Software Engineering degree from the University of Washington
Bothell in 2020. Gregory also owns his own game company, Plus 2
Studios, which he works on in his spare time.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2023
K. Sung, G. Smith, Basic Math for Game Development with Unity 3D
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9885-5_1

1. Introduction and Learning Environment

Kelvin Sung1 and Gregory Smith2
(1) Bothell, WA, USA
(2) Caldwell, ID, USA

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

Know the details of what this book is about
Understand the style that this book uses to present concepts
Install Unity and an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for
developing programming code
Access the accompanying source code and run the example projects
Understand the Unity terminology used throughout this book
Begin to appreciate the intricate details of math for game development

Introduction
When you think of math in a video game, you may picture health bars, attack
stats, experience points, and other game mechanics. You may not consider
the underlying math that enables the in-game physics world, such as
calculating gravity, movements, or enemy chasing behaviors. Additionally,
you may not consider physical interaction in a mathematical manner, such as
collisions between different objects and the reflections of these objects after
they collide. These underlying mathematical computations are critical to
implementing a successful video game. When creating a game, whether you
intend on using a game engine or you intend on performing the
computations yourself, understanding the details and knowing how the
underlying mathematics work and when to use them to create what you
want, where you want, is vital.
Traditionally, math is taught without any application contexts. Typically,
theories are developed based on abstract symbols, formulas are derived to
support these theories, and then numbers are used to verify the formulas.
You are tested on whether you can generate the correct solution based on
how the formulas are applied. It is believed that learning math in this
manner has the benefit of granting learners the ability to understand the
concepts being taught at the pure abstraction level. Then, once understood,
the application of these concepts to different disciplinary contexts becomes
straightforward. For many learners, this assumption is certainly true.
However, for other types of learners, it can be difficult to appreciate the
intricate details in the abstract without concrete examples or applications to
build off. This fact is recognized by educators and often story problems are
introduced after a basic understanding is established to help learners gain
insights and appreciate the formulas. This learning approach is taken on and
exploited in the context of linear algebra and video games.
This book takes you on the journey of learning linear algebra, a branch of
mathematics that is the foundation of interactive graphical applications, like
video games. While the underlying theories can be abstract and complicated,
the application of these theories in graphical object interactions is relatively
straightforward. For this reason, this book approaches linear algebra topics
in a concrete manner, based around game-like examples that you can
interact with. Through this book, you will learn a flavor of linear algebra that
is directly applicable to video games and interactive computer graphics as a
whole.
Every math concept presented in this book is accompanied with concrete
examples that you can interact with and are relevant to video game
development. It is the intent of this book that you will learn and know how
to apply the concepts in solving the problems you are likely to encounter
during game development. A direct consequence of this focused approach is
that readers may find it challenging to apply the knowledge gained
throughout this book to other disciplines, like machine learning or computer
vision. For example, the dot product, which will be covered in Chapter 5, can
be used to calculate intersection positions, and it can also be used in
machine learning algorithms as a data reduction tool; however, this book
will only focus on the video game applications of the dot product. If you are
looking for general knowledge in linear algebra, you should consider a more
traditional textbook. Such a book is likely to cover concepts at levels that are
suitable for applications for multiple problem spaces. If you are interested in
solving problems specific to interacting graphical objects, especially for
game development, then this is the perfect book for you.
After the introduction to the game engine and terminologies in this
chapter, Chapter 2 reviews the Cartesian Coordinate System and number
intervals leading to the exploration of one of the most widely used tools in
game development—bounding boxes. Chapter 3 continues bounding volume
exploration by examining bounding spheres while also beginning the
investigation of relationships between positions. Chapter 4 introduces
vectors to formalize the relationships between positions in 3D space and
applies vector concepts in controlling and manipulating object motions
under external effects like wind or current flow. Chapter 5 presents the
vector dot products to relate vectors, represents line segments based on
vectors, and demonstrates the application of these concepts in computing
distances between objects and motion paths when approximating potential
collisions. Chapter 6 discusses the vector cross product, derives the space
that defines vectors, defines vector plane equation, and illustrates the
application of these concepts in computing intersections and reflections of
moving objects and 2D planes. Chapter 7 examines the axis frame, or the
derived space that contains vectors, analyzes the representation of vectors in
different axis frames, and explains how to work with movements in axis
frames that are dynamically changing, such as object motions in a navigating
spaceship. Chapter 8 introduces the quaternion as a tool for rotating vectors,
analyzes the relevant properties of quaternions, and demonstrates the
alignments of 3D spaces based on quaternions. Finally, Chapter 9
summarizes all of the concepts presented in an aggregated example.

Choice of Unity Engine

Unity is the choice of platform for presenting the mathematical concepts
covered in this book for three reasons. First, Unity provides elaborate
utilities and efficient support for its user to implement and visualize
solutions based on mathematical formulas. Its application programming
interface (API) implements the basic and many advanced linear algebra
functionalities, while the Entity-Component-System (ECS) game object
architecture allows straightforward user scripting. These qualities give Unity
a close pairing of math concepts to your programming code, assisting in the
visualization of the mathematical solution that you are trying to understand.
This close pairing cannot be understated and is the backbone of this book.
The second reason for choosing Unity is that, being a game engine, the
system allows for a high degree of intractability with the solution as well as
the ability to visualize that solution. For example, in addition to being able to
examine the results of a ray and 2D plane intersection computation in real
time, you will also be able to manipulate the ray and the 2D plane to observe
the effects on the intersection. The ability to interact, manipulate, and
examine the application of mathematical concepts in real time will give you a
greater understanding and appreciation for that concept. Third and finally,
Unity is chosen because there is no better way to learn math concepts for
video games than through a popular game engine!
While this book is meant for readers who may be interested in building a
video game in Unity, the focus of this book is on the math concepts and their
implementations and not on how to use Unity. This book teaches the basic
mathematical concepts that are relevant to video game development using
Unity as a teaching instrument. This book does not teach how to use the
math provided by Unity in building video games. You should focus on
understanding the math rather than the Unity-specific functionality. For
example, a position in 3D space in Unity is located at
transform.localPosition; you should focus on working with that
position and not be concerned about the Unity.Transform class.
Ultimately, you should be able to take what you have learned in this book
and apply to developing games in any game engine.

Note Unity Technologies is the name of the company; the game engine
is most often referred to as Unity, though it is sometimes called Unity 3D.
For simplicity, this book refers to the entire game engine system as Unity.

Setting Up Your Development Environment

There are two main applications that you will work with when using Unity.
The first is the game engine editor, which will be referred to as Unity or
Unity Editor throughout this book. The Unity Editor can be thought of as the
graphical interface to the Unity game engine. The second application you will
need is a script editing Integrated Development Environment (IDE).
Microsoft’s Visual Studio Community 2019 is the IDE of choice for
developing the C# script examples in this book. This software will be
referred to as the Script Editor, or the IDE, throughout the rest of this book.
To begin your download and installation of Unity and Visual Studio
Community 2019, go to https://store.unity.com/download?
ref=personal, accept the terms, and then download Unity Hub.

Note If you ever find yourself stuck at a certain point in this book,
whether on installing Unity or just using it, there is a plethora of tutorials
 online, many of which were referenced in the development of this book
and will be listed at the end of this chapter.

Notes on Installing Unity

This book is based on Unity in its most basic form. Unless you know what to
specify when installing features or desire extra features, it is suggested you
follow the default settings. Please begin downloading, installing, and
launching the Unity Hub if you haven’t already. When Unity Hub is up and
running, navigate to the Installs tab on the left side, and select the Install
Editor button in the top right. From here, you will be prompted with a list of
different Unity versions. The version that this book uses is 2021.3.25f1. If
you do not see this version in the selected list, you can go to this link
https://unity3d.com/get-unity/download/archive and find it
there to download. It should be noted that while this book is based on Unity
2021.3.25f1, any version at or newer than this version should suffice but is
not guaranteed.
After selecting your Unity version, you will be prompted with options to
install extra features. As mentioned previously, this textbook only requires
the default options. These options, if you are running on Windows 10 or 11,
should only be the suggested IDE, “Microsoft Visual Studio Community
2019.” If you already have Visual Studio 2019 installed, then you may
uncheck that option. Once you have selected all the features you want, begin
the install process and then move onto the next section to begin familiarizing
yourself with the source code used throughout this book.

Unity Editor Environment

It should be noted, again, that in this book Unity is used as a tool for learning
math concepts for game development and not as a game building editor. This
means many Unity-specific and game building–related information that do
not pertain to the concept at hand will simply be skipped. For example, this
book does not discuss how to create or save Scenes or how to build a final
executable game. If these are subjects of interests, you should consider
research through the many online tutorials or for example refer to the Learn
tab of the Unity Hub. It should also be noted that all examples throughout
this book will be run and interacted with through the editor and not as
games. This will become clearer as the first example is discussed.
Now that you have Unity and the IDE installed and ready to go, you can
refer to the GitHub repository located at
https://github.com/Apress/Basic-Math-for-Game-
Development-with-Unity-3D. After downloading the repository, open
Unity Hub and add the Chapter-1Introduction project. Directions on
how to do this can be seen in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1 Opening Chapter-1-Introduction (the Intro to Unity Project) from

Unity Hub
As Figure 1-1 shows, to add a project, navigate to the Projects tab and
then select the Open button. From here, navigate to where you downloaded
the source code to this book. You will notice that the file structure is
organized according to chapters. The first example you should open using
the Open button is Chapter-1-Introduction. Note that after a project
is opened, you need to click the newly opened project to launch it.
Figure 1-1 also establishes where the Learn tab is located. Here you can
view and select Unity sponsored tutorials. The “Foundational Tutorial”
category contains tutorials that will be very helpful to those who have never
used Unity before as it contains tutorials such as “Welcome to Unity
Essentials” and “Explore the Unity Editor.” At the end of this chapter, there
are some additional suggestions as to which tutorials to follow if you are
new to Unity or just need a refresher.

Opening the Intro to Unity Project

To open a project from Unity Hub, simply click it. The first time you try to
open any projects from this book, you will encounter the following two
steps:
 Unity will invite you to select the version to use; you can simply select the
version you just installed.
Unity will display an information dialog box titled, “Opening Project
in Non-Matching Editor Installation,” you can simply click
the Continue button.
The first time opening a project will take a while for Unity to copy the
support library and perform system configuration. Once you open
Chapter1-Introduction, you should be confronted with a window
similar to the screenshot in Figure 1-2. If you do not see a screen similar to
that of Figure 1-2, make sure the IntroToUnity scene is open and not an
Untitled scene. To open the IntroToUnity scene, find it in Asset folder
under the Project Tab and double-click to open it.

Figure 1-2 Running the IntroToUnity scene in the Chapter-1Introduction project

Figure 1-2 shows a very simple scene. There is the Controller game
object and three different spheres. Each sphere is named after the design
pattern placed upon it: CheckerSphere, BrickSphere, and
StripeSphere. In this screenshot, the Controller object is selected so
you can observe the MyScript component on the right. The Controller
object and the MyScript component are present in every example in this
book and will be described in detail. The purpose of this example is to
familiarize you with how examples are organized and to establish
terminologies that will be used throughout the book.

Working with the Unity Editor

Figure 1-2 is an example of what the Unity Editor looks like and is one of the
two editors you will be working in. The other editor, the Script Editor, or IDE,
will be discussed later. Figure 1-3 illustrates the various functionalities of the
Unity Editor.

Figure 1-3 The Unity Editor Environment

Figure 1-3 overlays the editor in Figure 1-2 with labels identifying the
different windows presented by the Unity Editor and establishes the
terminologies that will be used from here on:
A: The Play and Pause buttons: In the top-center area, you can see the Play
and Pause buttons. These buttons control the running (or playing) of the
game. Feel free to click the Play button, give the system a few seconds to
load, and then observe the movements of the spheres in the scene. If you
click the Play button again, the game will stop running. You will learn
more about and work with these buttons later.
B: The Scene View window: The main 3D window in the top-left region of
the Unity Editor is the main area for performing interactive editing. In
 Figure 1-2, this window is displaying the Scene View of the game.
C: The Scene and the Game View tabs: Above the Editor Window (B), you
can spot the Scene and Game tabs. If you select the Game tab, then Unity
will switch to the Game View which is what a player will see in an actual
game. An example of the Scene View next to the Game View can be seen in
Figure 1-4.

Figure 1-4 The Scene View (top) and the Game View (bottom)

Note Please pay attention to the differences between the Scene and
Game Views. The Scene View is meant for the game designer to set up a
 game scene, while the Game View is what a player of the game would
observe while playing the game. While both views can be invaluable tools
for examining the intricate details of the mathematical concepts, you will
be working exclusively with the Scene View.

Note To help distinguish between the Scene and the Game Views, as
depicted in Figure 1-4, in all the examples for this book, the Scene View
has a skybox-like background, while the Game View window has a
constant, light blue backdrop. Once again, you will be working exclusively
with the Scene View, the view with the skybox-like background.

EXERCISE
Working with the Scene View Window
Left-click and drag the Scene View tab to see that you can configure and
place the Scene View window at different configuration locations
throughout the Unity Editor or even outside as an independent window.
This is the case for most of the Unity tabs, including the Game View
window. Figure 1-4 shows the Scene View and Game View windows as
two separate windows that can be examined simultaneously.

Figure 1-5 is a close-up view of the Hierarchy Window, which is labeled as D

in Figure 1-3.

Figure 1-5 The Hierarchy Window

Note The crossed-out finger icon next to the last object,

zIgnoreThisObject, disables click-select functionality in the editor
 window. In all examples, objects that are not meant to be interacted will
have the crossed-out icon next to them.

D: The Hierarchy window: In the Unity Editor, this window (Figure 1-5) is
typically anchored to the left of the Scene View and above the
Project/Console Windows (F). The Hierarchy Window displays every
object and its parental relationship to other objects in the scene. Just like
the Scene View and Game View, the Hierarchy Window can be moved and
placed wherever you desire. You should observe the different objects
within the Hierarchy Window. There is the Controller, which will be
discussed later, but for now know that it contains the script that supports
your interaction with the scene; the CheckerSphere, which is the
checkered sphere; as well as the BrickSphere and StripeSphere,
which also correspond to their object’s descriptions. Finally, there is the
zIgnoreThisObject object; this last object supports the setup of the
game environment for the learning of math concepts specific to each
example. You will never need to interact with this object, and therefore
this book will ignore this object as its details can be distracting. You are, of
course, more than welcome to examine and explore this object, and any
others, at your leisure.

Note Try clicking the different objects in the Hierarchy Window and
observe how the Scene View highlights the object you have selected while
the Game View does not. This simple feature underscores how the Scene
View is meant for scene edits while the Game View is not.

EXERCISE
Observe Differences Between the Scene View and Game View
Select different spheres in the Hierarchy Window and switch between the
Scene and Game Views to observe the differences between these two
views. You should notice that the selected sphere is highlighted in the
Scene View and not in the Game View. It is essential to differentiate
between these two views when you manipulate the scene in examining
concepts. Once again, and very importantly, all examples in this book
work exclusively with the Scene View.

Figure 1-6 is a close-up view of the Inspector Window, which is labeled as E

in Figure 1-3.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
glad of the people who come in. But, here we have all nations
and all kinds, and if they were to get burgher rights quickly
then that would be the end of our independence, and then they
could send us away where they liked. I would like His
Excellency to bear that in mind.

"His Excellency.—I do not see how the old burghers can have it
both ways. They cannot have a very large population streaming
in to develop the resources of the country, and giving it a
much higher position in the world than it would otherwise
have, and at the same time exclude these people from
participation in the Government of the country.

"President.—Your Excellency must bear this in mind. There is

no Gold Law in the world that is so liberal as that of the
Republic."

The President then recurred to the right which the Uitlanders

might obtain, of voting for the Second Volksraad after two
years, and becoming eligible to seats in it after four years,
and said that it was in the Second Volksraad that their own
interests were dealt with—not in the First. The High
Commissioner asked if the Second Raad could act without
consent of the First. The President acknowledged that the
latter could alter any law which "appears to be against the
general welfare," but contended that it had no wish to go into
gold field matters, though it has the power, and that it had
interfered with action of the Second Rand in but three or four
instances. The High Commissioner remarked that Uitlanders who
abandoned their own nationality to wait years for full
citizenship in the Republic might have the latter prospect
taken away from them at any moment by a single resolution of
the First Raad. The President replied: "They haven't done it
yet. The legislatures of all the world have the same power."
To which the High Commissioner made answer: "This power
existing, the new comers cannot be expected—I should not
recommend one of them—to give up his present citizenship for
 the mere chance of becoming a citizen of the new country."

{484}

"His Excellency.—If the President thinks we are asking too

much … I must report to Her Majesty's Government that the
President rejects our friendly suggestions.

"The President.—I would be misleading you if I should tell you

that I can give all the strangers the franchise in a very
short time. I would consider that our independence was
sacrificed thereby: but I say this, let His Excellency keep
impartially in view my points of difficulty, and let him make
his proposals and submit them to us, so that we can consider
them and judge about them. … I have already said that perhaps
means may be found to alter the form of oath. … I would now
like His Excellency to propose a scheme.

"His Excellency.— … What I suggest is this: That every

foreigner who can prove satisfactorily that he has been
resident in the country for five years, and that he desires to
make it his permanent place of residence, that he is prepared
to take the oath to obey the laws, to undertake all the
obligations of citizenship, and to defend the independence of
the country, should be allowed to become a citizen on taking
that oath. This should be confined to persons possessing a
certain amount of property, or a certain amount of yearly
wages, and who have good characters. In order to make that
proposal of any real use for the new citizens who mostly live
in one district in the Republic, and a district which only
returns one member in 28 to the First Raad, and one in 28 to
the Second Raad, I propose that there should be a certain
number of new constituencies created, the number of which is a
detail upon the discussion of which I will not now enter. But
what is vital from my point of view is that the number of
these districts should not be so small as to leave the
representatives of the new population in a contemptible
minority.

"President.—With us the majority of the enfranchised burghers

constitutes the ruling voice, and must be listened to in the
Volksraad. If the 60,000 came in immediately, they would swamp
the 30,000. … I mean this: that if they are all enfranchised then
they would at once form the majority of the whole population,
and the majority of enfranchised burghers, according to our
law, must be listened to by the Volksraad; since in a Republic
we cannot leave the sovereign voice out of account.

"His Excellency.—This is pure theory, that the Volksraad have

to do what the majority of the people desire. The Volksraad
does what it considers right in its own eyes; it is elected by
the people, and does what it thinks right, and the President has
made it quite clear during the last year or two that anything
the Volksraad does is law."

At an afternoon meeting on the same day, there was a long

discussion of the dynamite grievance of the Uitlanders, and
the President wished to bring up other points; but the High
Commissioner objected:

"His Excellency.—I think the discussion will be of

interminable length if we are to proceed in this way, and if
we cannot approach one another on the point on which I have
made my suggestions, and which lies outside all the pending
questions between the two Governments, these other
controversies may as well be allowed to go on in the usual
course. If the President to-morrow will give me an answer on
the first subject I raised, and then wishes to bring forward
his grievances, I will consider them to-morrow. I do not want
to go on with a long list of my own until I understand what is
the basis on which I stand in regard to what I consider the
most important question of all.

"President.—I think it would be as well if we returned in a

little while to discuss our points, but I would like to give
His Excellency some things to think over. The first point I
would like to mention is my wish that Swaziland should now be
handed over to me as a portion of my land. … Secondly, the
demand made with regard to the damages for the Jameson Raid,
Mr. Chamberlain said he was against paying the million, but he
is not against paying the expenses incurred. Thirdly, that
differences such as those now existing between us, should be
settled by arbitration, and then no war or quarrel could arise
between us. … These are some of the questions I wish His
Excellency to think about."

At the opening of the Conference on the third day, the

President sought to commit the High Commissioner to an
"understanding," that "if we came," he said, "to some
agreement on the franchise Her Majesty's Government then would
engage not in any way to concern itself with internal affairs in
the Republic any longer, and that in future questions that
then may arise, whether out of the Convention or otherwise,
Her Majesty would agree to have such questions referred to
arbitration." The High Commissioner declined to deal with the
subject of the franchise as a matter of "bargain." It was a
subject of grievances and discontent, dangerous to the
Republic and dangerous to the relations between the Republic
and Great Britain, which ought to be dealt with on its merits
alone. Nevertheless, after some controversy, he said:

"His Excellency.— … As far as the Jameson Indemnity is

concerned I know that a despatch is on the way to me at this
present moment, which forwards a statement from the British
South Africa Company examining the details of the claim which
has been sent in, and asking that the question of the amount
payable in respect of the Raid may be submitted to
arbitration. I have received a telegram that that despatch is
coming. The position is this—the British Government have
admitted in principle that the Company must pay what is fairly
due on account of that raid; but the question of the amount is
 still under discussion, and I hope that this proposal will lead
to a settlement. As to the question of arbitration, which I
think is the matter that interests the President most, I am in
so far entirely with him that I want if possible to have in
future as few questions to discuss with the Government of the
South African Republic, as I now have with the Government of
the Orange Free State. I feel that the President will need, if
he accepts my scheme of franchise, or any other similar
proposal, to have some assurance that there shall not be
perpetual controversies between him and England, and that if
there are controversies, some regular way of dealing with them
should be devised.
{485}
The President once proposed that some question, or a number of
questions, should be submitted to the President of the Swiss
Republic. The British Government refused that on the general
principle—from which I am sure they will not depart—that they
will not have any foreign Government, or any foreign
interference at all, between them and the South African
Republic. But if some other method can be devised of
submitting to an impartial tribunal questions that may in
future arise between us, and perhaps even some questions which
exist at present—but in any case to provide for the future—if
such a plan can be devised and suggested to me, I will lay it
before Her Majesty's Government and do what I can personally
to assist in a satisfactory solution of the matter. The
President must understand that I cannot pledge Her Majesty's
Government in any way on this subject. The question has taken
me by surprise; I didn't come here contemplating a discussion
on it, but I must say if it could be satisfactorily arranged
while excluding the interference of the foreigner, it would
seem to me to open a way out of many difficulties. But all the
same, I adhere firmly to my proposal that we should first try
and settle on the scheme which the President would accept as
regards the matter which I put forward."

At the close of the morning interview, both parties expressed

hopelessness of agreement. On meeting again in the afternoon,
the President submitted in writing the following proposals
concerning the franchise: "As the purpose I had in view at
this Conference principally consists in the removal of
existing grounds of disagreement and further to provide for
the friendly regulation of the way of settling future disputes
by means of arbitration, the following proposals with regard to
the franchise must be considered as conditional and dependent
on the satisfactory settlement of the first mentioned points,
and on the request that my request to incorporate Swaziland in
the South African Republic shall be submitted by the High
Commissioner to Her Majesty's Government. Subject to the
foregoing I undertake to submit without delay to the approval
of the Volksraad and the people the following proposals about
the franchise:

"I. Every person who fixes his residence in the South African
Republic has to get himself registered on the Field-cornets'
books within fourteen days after his arrival according to the
existing law; will be able after complying with the conditions
mentioned under 'A.,' and after the lapse of two years to get
himself naturalised; and will five years after naturalisation,
on complying with the conditions mentioned under 'B.,' obtain
the full franchise.

"A.—
1. Six months' notice of intention to apply for naturalisation;
2. Two years' continued registration;
3. Residence in the South African Republic during that period;
4. No dishonouring sentence;
5. Proof of obedience to the laws; no act against Government
or independence;
6. Proof of full State citizenship and franchise or title
thereto in former country;
7. Possession of unmortgaged fixed property to the value of
£150 approximately, or occupation of house to the rental of
£50 per annum, or yearly income of at least £200. Nothing,
however, shall prevent the Government from granting
naturalisation to persons who have not satisfied this
condition;
8. Taking of an oath similar to that of the Orange
Free State.

"B.—
1. Continuous registration five years after naturalisation;
2. Continuous residence during that period;
3. No dishonouring sentence;
4. Proof of obedience to the laws, &c.;
5. Proof that applicant still complies with the condition A(7).

"II. Furthermore, the full franchise shall be obtained in the

following manner:—
(a.)
Those who have fixed their residence in the South African
Republic before the taking effect of Act 4, 1890, and who get
themselves naturalised within six months after the taking
effect of this Act on complying with the conditions under 1A,
shall obtain the full franchise two years after such
naturalisation on proof of compliance with the conditions
mentioned under 1B (altering the five into two years). Those
who do not get themselves naturalised within six months under
Article 1,
(b.)
Those who have been resident in the South African Republic for
two years or more can get themselves immediately naturalised
on compliance with the conditions under 1A., and shall five
years after naturalisation obtain the full franchise on
compliance with the conditions under 1B.
(c.)
Those who have been already naturalised shall five years after
naturalisation obtain the full franchise on compliance with
the conditions under 1B."

At the meeting next day, the High Commissioner presented to

 the President a written memorandum in reply to the proposals
of the latter. He admitted that "the scheme proposed is a
considerable advance upon the existing provisions as to
franchise," but said that he could not recommend its
acceptance as adequate to the needs of the case. "Under this
plan," he continued, "no man who is not already naturalised,
even if he has been in the country 13 or 14 years, will get a
vote for the First Volksraad in less than 2½ years from the
passing of the new law. There will be no considerable number
of people obtaining that vote in less than five years, that is
if they come in and naturalise. But I fear the majority of
them will not come in, because the scheme retains that
unfortunate provision, first introduced in 1890, by which,
owing to the two stages—first, naturalisation with a partial
franchise, and then, after five years, full franchise—a man
has to abandon his old citizenship before he becomes a
full-fledged citizen of his new country. My plan avoided this.
My doctrine is that, however long a period of residence you
fix before a man becomes a citizen of your State, you should
admit him, once for all, to full rights on taking the oath of
allegiance. And this is especially important in the South
African Republic, because, owing to the facility and frequency
with which laws—even fundamental laws—are altered, the man who
takes the oath and thereby loses his old country will never
feel quite sure that something may not happen in the interval,
when he is only half a citizen, to prevent his becoming a whole
one. The vote for the First Volksraad is the essential point.
According to the present constitution of the Transvaal, the
First Volksraad and the President really are the State. But
under this scheme it will be a considerable time before any
number of Uitlanders worth mentioning can vote for the First
Volksraad, and even then they will only command one or two
seats. My point was to give them at once a few
representatives. They might be a minority, even a small
minority.
{486}
I have said over and over again I do not want to swamp the old
burghers. But as long as the representatives of the new comers
are entirely excluded from the supreme legislative council,
they will, as a body, remain an inferior caste. The
co-operation and gradual blending of the two sections of the
population will not take place. The old separation and
hostility will continue. I see no prospect here of that
concord to which I had looked both to bring about a more
progressive system of government, and to remove causes of
friction between the Government of the South African Republic
and Great Britain. For these reasons I regret to say the
scheme seems to me so inadequate that I think it would be
wasting the time of the Conference to discuss its details."

The President rejoined in another memorandum, which added one

more to his former proposals, namely this: "I am ready to
propose and to recommend to the First Volksraad to increase
the number of members of the First Volksraad, whereby the Gold
Fields will be represented by five, instead of as now by two,
members."

The response to this by the High Commissioner was a review, at

length, of all that had been proposed, leading to the
conclusion which he expressed as follows:

"If I am asked whether I think they will satisfy the Uitlander

community, and are calculated to relieve the British
Government from further solicitude on the score of its
Uitlander subjects, I cannot answer in the affirmative. Still
less can I encourage the idea that the British Government can
be asked to give something in exchange for such legislation
as the President proposes. My own proposal was put forward in
no bargaining spirit. I asked myself, in advancing it, what is
the smallest measure of reform that will really be of any use,
that is to say, which will allay the present unrest and enable
the Uitlanders to exercise within a reasonable time an
appreciable influence on the Government of the country. It was
in that spirit that I suggested the outline of a scheme,
 intentionally not working it out in detail (for I was ready to
listen as to details), but indicating a certain minimum from
which I am not prepared to depart. … When I came here I came
in the hope that I might be able to report to Her Majesty's
Government that measures were about to be adopted which would
lead to such an improvement in the situation as to relieve Her
Majesty's Government from pressing for the redress of
particular grievances on the ground that the most serious
causes of complaint would now gradually be removed from
within. I do not feel that what His Honour has seen his way to
propose in the matter of franchise or what he indicates as the
extreme length to which he might, at some future time, be
willing to go in the extension of local government is
sufficient to justify me in reporting in that sense."

The Conference was ended by a last memorandum from the

President, in which he said: "As it is my earnest wish that
this Conference should not be fruitless, I wish to make the
following proposal to His Excellency, viz.:—As according to
his own admission my proposal about franchise is an important
step in the right direction, I shall be prepared to lay my
proposal before the Volksraad and to recommend it, even though
His Excellency does not fully agree with it. From his side I
shall then expect that His Excellency will lay before and
recommend to Her Majesty's Government my request about
arbitration on future matters of difference under the
Convention. His Excellency will, however, readily understand
that if Her Majesty's Government should not meet me so far, so
as to grant my acknowledged fair request for arbitration, it
could be with difficulty expected that the people of the South
African Republic would approve of my comprehensive proposal
with regard to franchise."

Great Britain,
Papers by Command: 1899, C. 9404.

SOUTH AFRICA: The Transvaal: A. D. 1899 (May-August).

Advice to President Kruger from Cape Afrikanders, and
from Holland and Germany.

Several private letters written at the time of these

occurrences by Sir J. E. De Villiers, a leading Afrikander,
Chief Justice of Cape Colony, and one of the Commissioners who
negotiated the Convention of 1881, addressed to persons who
might have influence with President Kruger, were made public a
year later. In the first of these letters, written to
President Steyn of the Orange Free State, on the 21st of May,
1899, Justice De Villiers used strong expressions, as follows:
"On my recent visit to Pretoria I did not visit the President
as I considered it hopeless to think of making any impression
on him, but I saw Reitz, Smuts, and Schalk Burger, who, I
thought, would be amenable to argument, but I fear that either
my advice had no effect on them, or else their opinion had no
weight with the President. I urged upon them to advise the
President to open the Volksraad with promises of a liberal
franchise and drastic reforms. It would have been so much
better if these had come voluntarily from the Government
instead of being gradually forced from them. In the former
case they would rally the greater number of the malcontents
around them, in the latter case no gratitude will be felt to
the Republic for any concessions made by it. Besides, there
can be no doubt that as the alien population increases, as it
undoubtedly will, their demands will increase with their
discontent, and ultimately a great deal more will have to be
conceded than will now satisfy them. The franchise proposal
made by the President seems to be simply ridiculous. I am
quite certain that if in 1881 it had been known to my fellow
Commissioners that the President would adopt his retrogressive
policy, neither President Brand nor I would ever have induced
them to consent to sign the Convention. They would have
advised the Secretary of State to let matters revert to the
condition in which they were before peace was concluded; in
other words, to recommence the war. … If I had any influence
with the President I would advise him no longer to sit on the
 boiler to prevent it from bursting. Some safety-valves are
required for the activities of the new population. In their
irritation they abuse the Government, often unjustly, in the
press, and send petitions to the Queen; but that was only to
be expected. Let the Transvaal Legislature give them a liberal
franchise and allow them local self-government for their
towns, and some portion of the discontent will be allayed. The
enemies of the Transvaal will not be satisfied; on the
contrary, the worst service that can be done to them is the
redress of the grievance, but it is the friends of the country
who should be considered."

{487}

On the 31st of July, the Justice wrote still more urgently and
impatiently to a Mr. Fischer, who was in close relations with
the Transvaal President: "I do not think that President Kruger
and his friends realize the gravity of the situation. Even now
the State Secretary is doing things which would be almost
farcical if the times were not so serious. Some time ago I
begged of him to drop the censorship of telegrams because it
serves no useful purpose and only delays the publication of
lies by a few days. His answer was that the Government should
not disseminate lies by its own wires. He might as well have
said Government should not disseminate lies by its own
post-office. To crown all, I see that he has now gone so far
as to stop a private telegram (which had been paid for)
because it contained a lie. I really do not know where he is
going to stop or whether he intends to guarantee that all
telegrams allowed to pass contain the truth and nothing but
the truth. Could you not induce him to stop such childish
nonsense? The Transvaal will soon not have a single friend
left among the cultivated classes. Then there is the Franchise
Bill, which is so obscure that the State Attorney had to issue an
explanatory memorandum to remove the obscurities. But surely a
law should be clear enough to speak for itself, and no
Government or Court of Law will be bound by the State
Attorney's explanations. I do not know what those explanations
are, but the very fact that they are required condemns the
Bill. That Bill certainly does not seem quite to carry out the
promises made to you, Mr. Hofmeyr, and Mr. Herholdt. The time
really has come when the friends of the Transvaal must induce
President Kruger to become perfectly frank and take the
newcomers into his confidence. It may be a bitter pill to have
to swallow in yielding to further demands, but it is quite
clear to the world that he would not have done as much as he
has done if pressure had not been applied. What one fears is
that he will do things in such a way as to take away all grace
from his concessions. Try to induce him to meet Mr.
Chamberlain in a friendly manner and at once remove all the
causes of unrest which have disturbed this unhappy country for
so many years. As one who signed the Convention in 1881, I can
assure you that my fellow Commissioners would not have signed
it if they had not been led to believe that President Kruger's
policy towards the Uitlanders would have been very different
from what it has been."

Three confidential despatches sent to President Kruger, in the

same period, by the Minister for Foreign Affairs in the
Netherlands government were laid before the States General at
The Hague, October 25, 1900, and made public through Reuter's
press agency, as follows:

"In the first despatch, which is dated May 13, 1899, the
Minister states that news received from different capitals
leads him to believe in the imminence of the danger of a
violent solution of the problem in South Africa. As a faithful
friend he counsels Mr. Kruger in the true interests of the
Republic to show himself as conciliatory and moderate as
possible, and adds that he learns from a trustworthy source
that the German Government fully shares that opinion. Mr.
Kruger replied that he had always been conciliatory and did
not desire war, but that he could not sacrifice the
independence of the Republic. He was willing enough to grant
the suffrage, but he could not tolerate Englishmen remaining
subjects of the Queen while receiving at the same time the
right to vote in the Republic. In the second despatch, dated
August 4, 1899, the Netherlands Minister for Foreign Affairs
advised President Kruger, in the interests of the country, not
to refuse peremptorily the British proposal for an
international commission. Mr. Kruger replied that the
commission would not be international, but an Anglo-Transvaal
commission. He intended to ask for further information from
Great Britain as to the scope and composition of the
commission, and did not mean to give a decided refusal.
Finally, the Netherlands Minister, in a telegram dated August
15, 1899, stated that the German Government entirely shared
his opinion as to the inadvisability of declining the English
proposal, adding that the German Government, like himself, was
convinced that any request to one of the Great Powers at such
a critical moment would be barren of result and highly
dangerous to the Republic. To this Mr. Kruger replied that the
British proposal would result in very direct interference by
the English in the internal affairs of the Republic. He added
that he had no intention of appealing to a Great Power."

Speaking in the German Reichsrath, on the 10th of December,

1900, the Imperial Chancellor, Count von Bülow, referred to
the above publications by the Dutch government, and confirmed
them, saying that it was in accordance with the views of the
German Government that the Dutch Foreign Minister "strongly
advised Mr. Kruger to maintain a moderate attitude. In June,
1899, Mr. Kruger was advised by Germany through the Dutch
Government to invite mediation, but Dr. Leyds informed the
Dutch Minister in Paris that Mr. Kruger did not consider 'that
the moment had yet come for applying for the mediation of
America.' Some time afterwards Mr. Kruger made the attempt to
obtain arbitration, but 'feeling had become too heated,' and
in August Mr. Kruger complained to the Dutch Government that
arbitration could not be arranged. The answer to this
complaint is given in the Dutch Yellow-book under the date of
 August 15, 1899, and points out that the German Government
would at that date have regarded any appeal to a Great Power
as hopeless and as very dangerous for the Republics. The
German Government also shared the Dutch view that Mr. Kruger
ought not to reject the English proposal then before him."

SOUTH AFRICA: The Transvaal: A. D. 1899 (July-September)

Amendment of the Franchise Law.

After much discussion and many changes, an amended Franchise

Law was adopted by the First Volksraad of the Republic and
published on the 26th of July. It conceded to foreigners who
had already been resident in the Republic for seven years a
possibility of obtaining full burgher rights simultaneously
with the taking of the oath of allegiance, but subjected the
proceeding to conditions which would make it, in Uitlander
opinion, of service to very few. The judgment of Sir Alfred
Milner, the High Commissioner, as expressed to Secretary
Chamberlain, was to the effect that "the bill, as it stands,
leaves it practically in the hands of the Government of the
South African Republic to enfranchise or not enfranchise the
Uitlanders as it chooses. If worked in a liberal spirit, its
clumsy and unreasonable provisions may be got over.
{488}
But if it is to be enforced rigidly, there will be practically
unlimited opportunities of excluding persons whom the
Government may consider undesirable, nor does the tone of the
debate in the Raad leave much doubt as to the spirit in which
some at least of the authors of the Bill would like to see it
worked." His criticism applied especially to the certificate
required from every applicant. "The certificate," he said,
"which every applicant must obtain from three different
officials, as to (a) continuous registration and domicile, (b)
obedience to the laws, (c) committing no crime against the
independence of the country, is one which these officials,
even if well disposed, would be able in hardly any case to
give. None of them can have any such knowledge of the
Uitlander population as would enable them to give this
comprehensive certificate; it is acknowledged that some of the
Johannesburg lists have been lost; and the Field-cornet has, I
believe, held his present office for less than four years."
Moreover, a requirement of "continuous" registration "may
mean," said the High Commissioner, "(and I cannot understand
what else it could mean) registration for seven years in one
ward and district; so that a person having resided and been
registered in one district and subsequently removed to another
would forfeit the benefit of his first period of residence. Even
if this were not so, he would doubtless have to get a double
set of certificates."

Simultaneously with the publication of the new Franchise Law

it was announced that the Executive Council had decided to
give the Witwatersrand Gold Fields a representation of five
members (out of 31) in the First Volksraad, as well as
representation by the same number in the Second Volksraad. To
the British Agent at Pretoria, Mr. Conyngham Greene, this
seemed to be "so wholly inadequate as not to be worthy of
serious consideration."

In view of the complexities and uncertainties involved in the

new Franchise Law, the High Commissioner addressed the
following communication to the government of the South African
Republic, August 1:

"Her Majesty's Government authorize me to invite President

South African Republic to appoint delegates to discuss with
delegates to be appointed by me on behalf of Her Majesty's
Government, whether Uitlander population will be given
immediate and substantial representation by franchise law
recently passed by Volksraad, together with other measures
connected with it, such as increase of seats, and, if not,
what additions or alterations may be necessary to secure that
result. In this discussion it should be understood that the
delegates of Her Majesty's Government would be free to make
any suggestions calculated to improve measures in question and
secure their attaining the end desired."

The reply to this proposal was given by the Boer government to

the British Agent at Pretoria in two notes, the first, dated
August 19, as follows: "With reference to your proposal for a
joint enquiry contained in your despatches of the 2nd and 3rd
August, Government of South African Republic have the honour
to suggest the following alternative proposal for
consideration of Her Majesty's Government, which this
Government trusts may lead to a final settlement.

(1.) The Government are willing to recommend to the Volksraad

and the people a 5 years' retrospective franchise, as proposed
by His Excellency the High Commissioner on the 1st June, 1899.

(2.) The Government are further willing to recommend to the

Volksraad that 8 new seats in the First Volksraad, and, if
necessary, also in the Second Volksraad, be given to the
population of the Witwatersrand, thus with the 2 sitting
members for the Goldfields giving to the population thereof 10
representatives in a Raad of 36, and in future the
representation of the Goldfields of this Republic shall not
fall below the proportion of one-fourth of the total.

(3.) The new Burghers shall equally with the old Burghers be
entitled to vote at the election for State President and
Commandant-General.

(4.) This Government will always be prepared to take into

consideration such friendly suggestions regarding the details
of the Franchise Law as Her Majesty's Government, through the
British Agent, may wish to convey to it.

(5.) In putting forward the above proposals Government of

South African Republic assumes:
 (a) That Her Majesty's Government will agree that the
present intervention shall not form a precedent for future
similar action and that in the future no interference in
the internal affairs of the Republic will take place.

(b) That Her Majesty's Government will not further insist

on the assertion of the suzerainty, the controversy on the
subject being allowed tacitly to drop.

(c) That arbitration (from which foreign element other than

Orange Free State is to be excluded) will be conceded as
soon as the franchise scheme has become law.

(6.) Immediately on Her Majesty's Government accepting this

proposal for a settlement, the Government will ask the
Volksraad to adjourn for the purpose of consulting the people
about it, and the whole scheme might become law say within a
few weeks.

(7.) In the meantime the form and scope of the proposed

Tribunal are also to be discussed and provisionally agreed
upon, while the franchise scheme is being referred to the
people, so that no time may be lost in putting an end to the
present state of affairs. The Government trust that Her
Majesty's Government will clearly understand that in the
opinion of this Government the existing Franchise Law of this
Republic is both fair and liberal to the new population, and
that the consideration that induces them to go further, as
they do in the above proposals, is their strong desire to get
the controversies between the two Governments settled, and
further to put an end to present strained relations between
the two Governments and the incalculable harm and loss it has
already occasioned in South Africa, and to prevent a racial
war from the effects of which South Africa may not recover for
many generations, perhaps never at all, and therefore this
Government, having regard to all these circumstances would
highly appreciate it if Her Majesty's Government, seeing the
 necessity of preventing the present crisis from developing
still further and the urgency of an early termination of the
present state of affairs, would expedite the acceptance or
refusal of the settlement here offered.
(Signed) F. W. REITZ."

The second note, which followed on the 21st of August, was

in these terms:

{489}

"In continuation of my despatch of the 19th instant and with

reference to the communication to you of the State Attorney
this morning, I wish to forward to you the following in
explanation thereof, with the request that the same may be
telegraphed to His Excellency the High Commissioner for South
Africa, as forming part of the proposals of this Government
embodied in the above-named despatch.

(1.) The proposals of this Government regarding question of

franchise and representation contained in that despatch must
be regarded as expressly conditional on Her Majesty's
Government consenting to the points set forth in paragraph 5
of the despatch, viz.:
(a) In future not to interfere in internal affairs of the
South African Republic.
(b) Not to insist further on its assertion of existence of
suzerainty.
(c) To agree to arbitration.

(2.) Referring to paragraph 6 of the despatch, this Government

trusts that it is clear to Her Majesty's Government that this
Government has not consulted the Volksraad as to this question
and will only do so when an affirmative reply to its proposals
has been received from Her Majesty's Government.
(Signed) F. W. REITZ."
The above notes were repeated by cable, in full, to the
Colonial Secretary, at London, and, on the 28th of August, he
returned by the same medium his reply, as follows:

"Her Majesty's Government have considered the proposals which

the South African Republic Government in their notes to the
British Agent of 19th and 21st August have put forward as an
alternative to those contained in my telegram of 31st July.
Her Majesty's Government assume that the adoption in principle
of the franchise proposals made by you at Bloemfontein will
not be hampered by any conditions which would impair their
effect, and that by proposed increase of seats for the
Goldfields and by other provisions the South African Republic
Government intend to grant immediate and substantial
representation of the Uitlanders. That being so, Her Majesty's
Government are unable to appreciate the objections entertained
by the Government of the South African Republic to a Joint
Commission of Inquiry into the complicated details and
technical questions upon which the practical effect of the
proposals depends. Her Majesty's Government, however, will be
ready to agree that the British Agent, assisted by such other
persons as you may appoint, shall make the investigation
necessary to satisfy them that the result desired will be
achieved and, failing this, to enable them to make those
suggestions which the Government of the South African Republic
state that they will be prepared to take into consideration.
Her Majesty's Government assume that every facility will be
given to the British Agent by the Government of the South
African Republic, and they would point out that the inquiry
will be both easier and shorter if the Government of the South
African Republic will omit in any future Law the complicated
conditions of registration, qualification and behaviour which
accompanied previous proposals, and would have entirely
nullified their beneficial effect. Her Majesty's Government
hope that the Government of the South African Republic will
wait to receive their suggestions founded on the report of the
British Agent's investigation before submitting a new