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A Concrete Introduction
to Real Analysis
Second Edition
 TEXTBOOKS in MATHEMATICS
Series Editors: Al Boggess and Ken Rosen

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICS, SECOND EDITION
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ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
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ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY
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THE ELEMENTS OF ADVANCED MATHEMATICS: FOURTH EDITION
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ESSENTIALS OF MATHEMATICAL THINKING
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INTRODUCTION TO ABSTRACT ALGEBRA, SECOND EDITION
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INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS
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PUBLISHED TITLES CONTINUED

INTRODUCTION TO NUMBER THEORY, SECOND EDITION

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INVITATION TO LINEAR ALGEBRA
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 TEXTBOOKS in MATHEMATICS

A Concrete Introduction
to Real Analysis
Second Edition

Robert Carlson
CRC Press
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Contents

List of Figures xiii

Preface xv

1 Real numbers and mathematical proofs 1

1.1 Real number axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Field axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Order axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 Proof by induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2 Irrational real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.3 Propositional logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.3.1 Truth tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.3.2 Valid consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.4 Rules of inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.5 Predicates and quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2 Infinite sequences 29
2.1 Limits of infinite sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.1 Basic ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.2 Properties of limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2 Completeness axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3 Subsequences and compact intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4 Cauchy sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5 Continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3 Infinite series 57
3.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 Positive series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3 General series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3.1 Absolute convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.2 Alternating series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4 Power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

ix
x Contents

4 More sums 73
4.1 Grouping and rearrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 A calculus of sums and differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3 Computing the sums of powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

5 Functions 93
5.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.2 Limits and continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2.1.1 Limit as x → ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2.1.2 Limit as x → x0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.1.3 Limit rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.2.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.2.2.1 Rootfinding 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.3 Uniform continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.3 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3.1 Computation of derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.3.2 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.3.3 Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3.3.1 Rootfinding 2: Newton’s Method . . . . . . . 119
5.3.4 Convexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

6 Integrals 131
6.1 Areas under power function graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.2 Integrable functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.3 Properties of integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.4 Arc length and trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.5 Improper integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.5.1 Integration of positive functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.5.2 Integrals and sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.5.3 Absolutely convergent integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.5.4 Conditionally convergent integrals . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

7 The Natural logarithm 171

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.2 The natural exponential function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.3 Infinite products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.4 Stirling’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Contents xi

8 Taylor polynomials and series 193

8.1 Taylor polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.2 Taylor’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3 The remainder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.3.1 Calculating e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.3.2 Calculating π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.4 Additional results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.4.1 Taylor series by algebraic manipulations . . . . . . . . 207
8.4.2 The binomial series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

9 Uniform convergence 217

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.2 Uniform Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.3 Convergence of power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.4 The Weierstrass Approximation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.5 Trigonometric approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.5.1 Solving a heat equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.5.2 Approximation by trigonometric functions . . . . . . . 230
9.5.3 Fourier series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

A Solutions to odd numbered problems 243

A.1 Chapter 1 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
A.2 Chapter 2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
A.3 Chapter 3 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
A.4 Chapter 4 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
A.5 Chapter 5 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
A.6 Chapter 6 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
A.7 Chapter 7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
A.8 Chapter 8 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
A.9 Chapter 9 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Bibliography 293

Index 295
List of Figures

2.1 Graphical representation of a convergent sequence. . . . . . . 32

2.2 A bounded monotone sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3 Nested intervals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Constructing a convergent subsequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1
4.1 Graph of f (n) = n+1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2 Graph of g(n) = sin(πn/10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3 Adding F (j, k) for j = 0, . . . , 6, and k = 0, . . . , 4. . . . . . . . 89

5.1 The graph of 1/x2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

5.2 A convex function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

6.1 Graph of 1 + x + sin(x) with lower Riemann sums. . . . . . . 132

6.2 Graph of 1 + x + sin(x) with upper Riemann sums. . . . . . . 133
6.3 Triangle area 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.4 Triangle area 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.5 Parabolic area 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.6 Parabolic area 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.7 A common refinement of partitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.8 Graph of tan−1 (x). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

7.1 Area under f (x) = 1/x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

7.2 Two areas under f (x) = 1/x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.3 Graph of log(x). R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
x
7.4 Riemann sum for 1 log(t) dt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Rx
7.5 Midpoint sum for 1 log(t) dt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Rx
7.6 Tangent Riemann sum for 1 log(t) dt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Rx
7.7 Trapezoidal sum for 1 log(t) dt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

8.1 First order Taylor polynomial for ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

8.2 Third order Taylor polynomial for ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.3 Taylor polynomial for cos(x) with center x0 = π/2. . . . . . . 200

9.1 An - tube around f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

xiii
Preface

This book is an introduction to real analysis, which might be briefly defined

as the part of mathematics dealing with the theory of calculus and its more
or less immediate extensions. Some of these extensions include infinite series,
differential equations, and numerical analysis. This brief description is accu-
rate, but somewhat misleading, since analysis is a huge subject which has
been developing for more than three hundred years, and has deep connections
with many subjects beyond mathematics, including physics, chemistry, biol-
ogy, engineering, computer science, and even business and some of the social
sciences.
The development of analytic (or coordinate) geometry and then calculus
in the seventeenth century launched a revolution in science and world view.
Within one or two lifetimes scientists developed successful mathematical de-
scriptions of motion, gravitation, and the reaction of objects to various forces.
The orbits of planets and comets could be predicted, tides explained, artillery
shell trajectories optimized. Subsequent developments built on this founda-
tion include the quantitative descriptions of fluid motion and heat flow. The
ability to give many new and interesting quantitatively accurate predictions
seems to have altered the way people conceived the world. What could be
predicted might well be controlled.
During this initial period of somewhat over one hundred years, the foun-
dations of calculus were understood on a largely intuitive basis. This seemed
adequate for handling the physical problems of the day, and the very suc-
cesses of the theory provided a substantial justification for the procedures.
The situation changed considerably in the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury. Two landmark events were the systematic use of infinite series of sines
and cosines by Fourier in his analysis of heat flow, and the use of complex
numbers and complex valued functions of a complex variable. Despite their
ability to make powerful and accurate predictions of physical phenomenon,
these tools were difficult to understand intuitively. Particularly in the area of
Fourier series, some nonsensical results resulted from reasonable operations.
The resolution of these problems took decades of effort, and involved a careful
reexamination of the foundations of calculus. The ancient Greek treatment of
geometry, with its explicit axioms, careful definitions, and emphasis on proof
as a reliable foundation for reasoning, was used successfully as a model for the
development of analysis.
A modern course in analysis usually presents the material in an efficient but
austere manner. The student is plunged into a new mathematical environment,

xv
xvi Preface

replete with definitions, axioms, powerful abstractions, and an overriding em-

phasis on formal proof. Those students able to find their way in these new
surroundings are rewarded with greatly increased sophistication, particularly
in their ability to reason effectively about mathematics and its applications to
such fields as physics, engineering and scientific computation. Unfortunately,
the standard approach often produces large numbers of casualties, students
with a solid aptitude for mathematics who are discouraged by the difficulties,
or who emerge with only a vague impression of a theoretical treatment whose
importance is accepted as a matter of faith.
This text is intended to remedy some of the drawbacks in the treatment of
analysis, while providing the necessary transition from a view of mathematics
focused on calculations to a view of mathematics where proofs have the central
position. Our goal is to provide students with a basic understanding of analysis
as they might need it to solve typical problems of science or engineering, or
to explain calculus to a high school class. The treatment is designed to be
rewarding for the many students who will never take another class in analysis,
while also providing a solid foundation for those students who will continue
in the ”standard” analysis sequence.
1
Real numbers and mathematical proofs

Simple facts of arithmetic or geometry are often tested by common experience.

If you throw six nuts into a basket, and then add ten more, you get the same
total as if ten went in first, followed by six. The commutativity of addition is
thus testable in a meaningful way.
The same cannot be said for many of the results of mathematics. What
direct experience suggests that there are infinitely many prime numbers, or
that the square root of two is not the quotient of two integers? Is the scarcity
of solutions to the equation

xn + y n = z n

convincing evidence that this equation has no positive integer solutions if n is

an integer bigger than 2?
Experience can also mislead. We can easily see 6 nuts, but finding −5 nuts
is more challenging; even professional mathematicians had trouble with neg-
ative numbers through the eighteenth century [5, p. 592-3]. Familiarity with
integers, rational numbers, and a geometric understanding of real numbers as
lengths makes it hard to believe that there is a number whose square is −1.
How then do we develop sound mathematical reasoning? Statements, ideas,
or algorithms need not be valid simply because they are phrased in a precise
way, have been tested in a few cases, or appeal to common intuition. In times
past experts believed that every length could be represented as the ratio of two
integers, and that squares of numbers are necessarily greater than or equal to
0. Brilliant minds believed, along with most calculus students, that except for
isolated exceptional points, all functions have derivatives of all orders at every
point. Even professional logicians seemed unwary of the traps in statements
such as “there is a barber in town who shaves someone if and only if they do
not shave themselves.”
The development of a sophisticated system of reliable mathematical think-
ing was one of the greatest achievements of the ancient Greeks. The accom-
plishment had several components. One part was the development of logic, so
that one has a way to construct valid arguments and to analyze arguments to
assess their validity. In addition the Greeks were able to apply these ideas in
the development of geometry, thereby creating a rich mathematical discipline
with numerous applications that could serve as a model for subsequent math-
ematics. Comments on the development of these mathematical ideas may be
found in [5, pp. 45, 50, 58–60, 171–172].

1
2 A Concrete Introduction to Analysis

The modern view is that reliable mathematics is the result of a rigor-

ous process emphasizing proofs. A small number of foundational axioms are
accepted as true based on their effectiveness as building blocks, their simplic-
ity, and on extensive experience. The foundational axioms for mathematical
proofs may be judged by our experience and intuition, but in the end it must
be admitted that their truth is assumed. The same is true for the logical pro-
cedures which allow us to generate new results based on the axioms. Based
on the axioms and accepted rules of logic, proofs should consist of a careful
and complete sequence of arguments; each step should either be previously
established, or be a logical consequence of previously established results.
The modern concept of mathematical proof is quite mechanistic. In fact
the ideal is to create a system whereby the validity of any proof can be checked
by a computer, and in principle every proof can be generated by a computer.
This development has gone quite a way beyond the original conception of
the Greeks. It must also be admitted that in practice it is rare to see one of
these ideal mathematical proofs. They tend to be long and tedious, with an
astounding effort required to achieve results of mathematical significance. The
mechanistic view is taken as a guide, but in practice proofs are provided in a
more informal style.
Our treatment of analysis begins with a set of axioms for number systems,
including the real numbers. Elementary arguments give us a first taste of
the use of proofs to extend the axioms to a richer algebraic theory. To avoid
getting hopelessly bogged down in technical details, a considerable amount
of foundational material is assumed to be known in advance. Some of this
material includes properties of sets, functions, the equality predicate =, and
the elementary properties of the integers and rational numbers.
A more extensive discussion of proofs follows this introduction to the alge-
braic properties of the real numbers. The proof by induction method provides
several illustrations of the power of proof techniques. Propositional logic al-
lows us to assess the truth of complex statements based on the truth of simple
constituent parts. This introduction to proof techniques concludes with a dis-
cussion of quantifiers and predicates.
The formal treatment of mathematics, with its emphasis on careful proofs,
is a very cautious and sometimes difficult approach, but the resulting struc-
ture has a durability and reliability rarely matched in other subjects. The
choice of the real numbers as the focus for axiomatic characterization is effi-
cient, but it should be noted that there are alternative treatments which place
the emphasis on the integers and rational numbers. Alternatives which define
real numbers in terms of rational numbers are attractive because they mini-
mize the assumptions at the foundations of mathematics. Such an alternative
development may be found in [7, pp. 1–13] and in [9, pp. 35–45].
Real numbers and mathematical proofs 3

1.1 Real number axioms

1.1.1 Field axioms
The first axioms for the real numbers concern the arithmetic functions ad-
dition + and multiplication ·. These properties of + and · are shared with
the rational numbers and the complex numbers, along with other algebraic
structures. A set F such as the real numbers R, with arithmetic functions +
and ·, is called a field if for any a, b, c ∈ F the following axioms F.1–F.10 hold.

There is an addition function + taking pairs of numbers a, b ∈ F to the

number a + b ∈ F. Properties of addition are

a + b = b + a, (commutativity) (F.1)

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c). (associativity) (F. 2)

There is a number 0 such that

a + 0 = a. (existence of an additive identity) (F.3)

For every number a there is a number b, written (−a), such that

a + b = 0. (existence of an additive inverse) (F.4)

There is a multiplication function · taking pairs of numbers a, b ∈ F to the

number a · b ∈ F. Properties of multiplication are

a · b = b · a, (commutativity) (F.5)

(a · b) · c = a · (b · c). (associativity) (F.6)

There is a number 1 such that
1 6= 0, (F.7)
a · 1 = a. (existence of a multiplicative identity) (F.8)
−1
For every number a 6= 0 there is a number b, written a or 1/a, such that

a · b = 1. (existence of a multiplicative inverse) (F.9)

Finally, there is an axiom describing the interplay of multiplication and

addition.
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c. (distributive law) (F.10)
Before turning to the order axioms, several consequences of the field ax-
ioms will be developed. These results will hold equally well for real numbers,
rational numbers, complex numbers, and certain other algebraic structures
(see Problem 1.4).
4 A Concrete Introduction to Analysis

Proposition 1.1.1. For every a ∈ F,

a · 0 = 0.
Proof. Axioms F.3 and F.10 lead to
a · 0 = a · (0 + 0) = a · 0 + a · 0.
By F.3 and F.4, adding an additive inverse of (a · 0) to both sides gives
0 = a · 0.

The expression −a will be used to denote an additive inverse of a ∈ F.

A multiplicative inverse of a 6= 0 will be denoted a−1 . Both are unique, so
the notation is not misleading. As a first step in answering questions about
uniqueness, consider the uniqueness of the multiplicative identity.
Proposition 1.1.2. Suppose that a, b ∈ F, a 6= 0, and a · b = a. Then b = 1.
Proof. Multiply both sides of a · b = a by a−1 , which exists by F.9. Using the
associativity axiom F.6 for multiplication,
(a−1 · a) · b = 1 · b = b = a−1 · a = 1.

Here is the uniqueness result for multiplicative inverses.

Proposition 1.1.3. Suppose that a, b1 , b2 ∈ F, and a 6= 0. If a · b1 = a and
a · b2 = a, Then b1 = b2 .
Proof. Multiply both sides of a·b1 = a·b2 by b1 . Using the associativity axiom
F.6 for multiplication,
(b1 · a) · b1 = b1 · a · b2 .
Since b1 · a = 1, b1 = b2 .
Proposition 1.1.4. Suppose that a, b ∈ F and a 6= 0. Then there is exactly
one number x ∈ F such that a · x + b = 0.
Proof. For the equation
a·x+b=0
it is easy to find a formula for the solution. First add −b to both sides, ob-
taining
a · x = −b.
Then multiply both sides by a−1 to get
a−1 · a · x = (a−1 · a) · x = 1 · x = x = a−1 · (−b).
Thus there is at most one solution of the equation, and it is simple to check
that a−1 (−b) is a solution.
Real numbers and mathematical proofs 5

The uniqueness of the additive inverse follows from Proposition 1.1.4 by

taking a = 1. If instead b = 0, then Proposition 1.1.4 shows that if the product
x · y of two elements of a field is zero, then at least one factor must be zero.
Proposition 1.1.5. Suppose that x1 , b ∈ F, and x21 = b. If x ∈ F and x2 = b,
then either x = x1 or x = −x1 (or both if x1 = 0).
Proof. First notice that

x21 + x1 · (−x1 ) = x1 · (x1 + (−x1 )) = x1 · 0 = 0,

by the distributive law, so x1 ·(−x1 ) = −x21 . If x2 = b then another application

of the distributive law leads to

(x + x1 ) · (x + (−x1 )) = x2 + (−x21 ) = b − b = 0.

Either x + x1 = 0 or x + (−x1 ) = 0.
As is typical in arithmetic, write b/a for a−1 b, and ab for a · b. In any
field the positive integers can be defined recursively, 2 = 1 + 1, 3 = 2 + 1,
4 = 3 + 1, etc, but, unlike the rationals or reals (see Problem 1.4), some of
these “integers” may not be different from 0. With this caveat in mind, here
is the quadratic formula.
Proposition 1.1.6. (Quadratic formula): Suppose that b, c, x1 ∈ F, and
x1 satisfies the equation
x2 + bx + c = 0. (1.1)
Suppose in addition that 2 6= 0. Then there is a d ∈ F satisfying d2 = b2 − 4c
such that the numbers
−b + d −b − d
x1 = , x2 = ,
2 2
are solutions of (1.1), and every solution x ∈ F is one of these.
Proof. Since 2 6= 0, the number 2 has a multiplicative inverse and 2−1 ·b = b/2
is defined. For x ∈ F,

b b2 b2
(x + )2 = x2 + (2−1 + 2−1 )bx + = x2 + bx + ,
2 2·2 4
and (1.1) is equivalent to

b b2 − 4c
(x + )2 = . (1.2)
2 4
If
d = 2(x1 + b/2),
6 A Concrete Introduction to Analysis

then d ∈ F,
b2 − 4c
(d/2)2 = ,
4
and x1 = (−b + d)/2 satisfies (1.2). Similarly, if x2 = (−b − d)/2, then

b
(x2 + )2 = (−d/2)2 = d2 /4 = (b2 − 4c)/4,
2
so x2 also satisfies (1.2).
Finally, if x is any solution of (1.1), then

b b2 − 4c
(x + )2 = = (d/2)2 .
2 4
By Proposition 1.1.5
b d
x+ =± ,
2 2
so x must have the form
b±d
x=− .
2

1.1.2 Order axioms

The existence of an ordering relation ≤ for the field of real numbers is one
of the ways to distinguish it from the field of complex numbers, as well as
many other fields. For instance, in establishing the quadratic formula we had
to worry about the possibility that 2 = 1 + 1 and 0 were the same number.
This will not be the case if F satisfies the order axioms. By definition a field
F is an ordered field if for any a, b, c ∈ F the following axioms O.1–O.6 hold.
There is a relation ≤ satisfying

a ≤ a, (O.1)

a≤b and b ≤ a implies a = b, (O.2)

a ≤ b and b ≤ c implies a ≤ c, (O.3)
either a≤b or b ≤ a, (O.4)
a≤b implies a + c ≤ b + c, (O.5)
0≤a and 0 ≤ b implies 0 ≤ a · b. (O.6)
As additional notation, write a < b if a ≤ b and a 6= b. Also write a ≥ b if
b ≤ a and a > b if b ≤ a and b 6= a.
Proposition 1.1.7. If F is an ordered field and a ≤ 0, then 0 ≤ −a.
Real numbers and mathematical proofs 7

Proof. Add −a and use O.5 to get

0 = a + (−a) ≤ 0 + (−a) = −a.

Proposition 1.1.8. If F is an ordered field, then 0 < 1.

Proof. By O.4 either 0 ≤ 1 or 1 ≤ 0. Let’s show that 0 < 1 in either case.
First suppose 0 ≤ 1. Axiom F.7 says 0 6= 1, so 0 < 1 in this case.
If instead 1 ≤ 0, then 0 ≤ −1 by Proposition 1.1.7. Now by Proposi-
tion 1.1.1
0 = (−1) · (1 + (−1)) = −1 + (−1) · (−1),
and so (−1) · (−1) = 1. By O.6 it then follows that 0 ≤ (−1) · (−1) = 1. Again,
0 6= 1 by F.7, so 0 < 1.

Proposition 1.1.9. Suppose F is an ordered field. If a, b, c ∈ F, a < b, and

b < c, then a < c.
Proof. Axiom O.3 gives a ≤ c, so the case a = c must be ruled out. If a = c,
then by O.5,
a − a = 0 < b − a = b − c.
This gives c − b ≤ 0, and the hypotheses give c − b ≥ 0, so O.2 leads to b = c,
contradicting our assumptions.
Proposition 1.1.10. If F is an ordered field then all positive integers n satisfy
n − 1 < n. In particular n 6= 0.
Proof. Start with 0 < 1, the conclusion of Proposition 1.1.8. Adding 1 to both
sides n − 1 times gives n − 1 < n. The combination of 0 < 1 < · · · < n − 1 < n
and Proposition 1.1.9 gives 0 < n.

It is helpful to establish some facts about multiplication in ordered fields

in addition to O.6.
Proposition 1.1.11. In an ordered field, suppose that 0 ≤ a ≤ b and 0 ≤ c ≤
d. Then 0 ≤ ac ≤ bd.
Proof. The inequality a ≤ b leads to 0 ≤ b − a. Since 0 ≤ c, it follows from
O.6 that
0 ≤ bc − ac,
or
ac ≤ bc.
By the same reasoning,
bc ≤ bd.
8 A Concrete Introduction to Analysis

Axioms O.3 and O.6 then give

0 ≤ ac ≤ bd.

Proposition 1.1.12. In the ordered field F, suppose b ≤ 0 ≤ a. Then a·b ≤ 0.

Proof. By Proposition 1.1.7
0 ≤ −b,
so by O.6
0 ≤ a · (−b) = −(a · b).
and
a · b ≤ 0.

Proposition 1.1.13. In an ordered field F, if 0 < a ≤ b, then 0 < 1/b ≤ 1/a.

Proof. Proposition 1.1.12 implies that the product of a positive and negative
number is negative. Since a·a−1 = 1, a−1 > 0, and similarly for b−1 . Applying
O.6 gives
b − a ≥ 0,
a−1 b−1 (b − a) ≥ 0,
a−1 − b−1 ≥ 0
or
a−1 ≥ b−1 .

It is also convenient to be able to compare numbers with integers. For this

we need another order axiom, called the Archimedean Property.

For every a ∈ F there is an integer n such that a ≤ n. (O.7)

Proposition 1.1.14. Suppose F is an ordered field satisfying the Archimedean

property. If a > 0 and b > 0, then there is an integer k such that a ≤ k · b.
Proof. Since b 6= 0, it has a positive multiplicative inverse. For some integer
m then, 0 < b−1 ≤ m. Proposition 1.1.11 yields 1 ≤ b · m. Similarly, if a ≤ n
then
a · 1 ≤ n · m · b,
and we may take k = n · m.
Another consequence of O.7 is used quite often in analysis.
Lemma 1.1.15. In an ordered field satisfying the Archimedean property, sup-
pose a ≥ 0 and a < 1/n for every positive integer n. Then a = 0.
Real numbers and mathematical proofs 9

Proof. The only choices are a = 0 or a > 0. If a > 0 there is an integer n such
that 1/a ≤ n, or a ≥ 1/n. Since this possibility is ruled out by the hypotheses,
a = 0.
The axioms F.1–F.10 and O.1–O.7 discussed so far describe properties
expected for the real numbers. However, these axioms are also satisfied by the
rational numbers. Since our axioms do not distinguish between the rational
and real numbers, but these number systems are distinct, there must be some
properties of the real numbers that have not yet been identified.

1.2 Proofs
The idea of carefully reasoned mathematical proofs dates back to the ancient
Greeks. In rough outline the plan is to present a sequence of statements in
order to reach a correct conclusion. Each statement in the sequence should be
true, and its truth can be established in two ways. First, a statement may be
true because its truth was established before the current proof was started.
Second, a statement may be true because it follows from true statements by
a rule of inference.
Probably the simplest and most familiar examples of such arguments in-
volve algebraic manipulations. As an illustration, consider the proof that the
square of an odd integer is odd. If t is an odd integer, then

t = 2n + 1. s.1

Since both sides are equal, their squares are equal, so

t2 = (2n + 1)(2n + 1). s.2

The distributive law says that for all real numbers x, y, z,

(x + y)z = xz + yz. s.3

Apply this property with x = 2n, y = 1, and z = 2n + 1 to find

t2 = 2n(2n + 1) + (2n + 1) = 2[n(2n + 1) + n] + 1. s.4

If
m = n(2n + 1) + n, s.5
then m is an integer and
t2 = 2m + 1, s.6
which is odd.
10 A Concrete Introduction to Analysis

1.2.1 Proof by induction

There is an amusing story from the childhood of the famous mathematical
scientist Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855). His elementary school teacher,
wanting to keep the class busy, assigns the problem of adding the numbers
from 1 to 100. Gauss’s hand goes up more or less instantly, and the correct
answer
(100 × 101)/2 = 10100/2 = 5050
is produced. Actually Gauss is supposed to have solved the more general
problem of finding the sum
n
X n(n + 1)
k = 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = .
2
k=1

This problem has the following elementary solution.

2 × (1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n)

(1 + 2 + ... + (n − 1) + n)
=
+ (n + (n − 1) + . . . + 2 + 1)
= n(n + 1).
Each vertical sum is n + 1, and there are n such sums.
What about higher powers? For instance you could be planning to build
a pyramid of height n with cubes of stone. At the top you will use 1 cube of
stone. Moving downward, each layer is a square of stones, with the k-th layer
having k × k = k 2 stones. In order to make labor and transportation plans it
will be helpful to know the total number of stones if the height is n, which
amounts to
Xn
k2 .
k=1

There is a simple formula for this sum,

n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
k2 = .
6
k=1

Along with many other problems, the verification of this formula for every
positive integer n can be handled by the technique known as proof by induc-
tion. After introducing proofs by induction, several important applications of
the method are given. The more general problem of finding formulas for the
sums of powers
Xn
km
k=1

is treated in a later chapter.

Real numbers and mathematical proofs 11

Proof by induction is one of the most fundamental methods of proof in

mathematics, and it is particularly common in problems related to discrete
mathematics and computer science. In many cases it is the method for es-
tablishing the validity of a formula, which may have been conjectured based
on a pattern appearing when several examples are worked out. The following
formulas provide a pair of classic illustrations:
n
X n(n + 1)
k = 1 + 2 + ··· + n = , (1.3)
2
k=1

n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
k 2 = 1 + 2 2 + · · · + n2 = . (1.4)
6
k=1

The first formula (1.3) had an elementary noninductive proof, but the
second (1.4) is more of a challenge. Let’s test some cases. If n = 1 then the
sum is 1 and the righthand side is 1 · 2 · 3/6 = 1. If n = 2 then the sum is 5
and the right-hand side is 2 · 3 · 5/6 = 5. The first two cases are fine, but how
can the formula be checked for every positive integer n?
The brilliant induction idea establishes the truth of an infinite sequence of
statements by verifying two things:
(i) that the first statement is true, and
(ii) whenever the n-th statement is true, so is statement n + 1.
Sometimes it is convenient to modify this idea, showing that whenever the
first n statements are true, so is statement n + 1.
Let’s try this out with the list of statements
n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
S(n) : k 2 = 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 = .
6
k=1

As is often the case, verification of the first statement is simple.

1
X 1(2)(3)
k 2 = 12 = 1 = .
6
k=1

Now suppose that n is one of the numbers for which the n-th statement
S(n) is true:
n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
k 2 = 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 = .
6
k=1

The next case is a statement about the sum

n+1
X
k 2 = 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 + (n + 1)2 .
k=1
12 A Concrete Introduction to Analysis

Since the n-th statement is true, we may make use of it.

n+1
X
k 2 = 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 + (n + 1)2
k=1

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= [12 + 22 + · · · + n2 ] + (n + 1)2 = + (n + 1)2
6
n(2n + 1) 6(n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
= (n + 1)[ + ]= ,
6 6 6
since the identity n(2n + 1) + 6(n + 1) = (n + 2)(2n + 3) is easily checked.
This shows that if S(n) is true, then so is the statement
n+1
X (n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
S(n + 1) : k 2 = 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 + (n + 1)2 = .
6
k=1

If the formula (1.4) is true in case n, then it is true in case n + 1. But since
it is true in the case n = 1, it must be true for every positive integer n. Why
does this follow? Suppose some statement S(n) is not true. Then there must
be a smallest positive integer n0 such that the statement S(n0 ) is true, but
S(n0 + 1) is false. This is impossible, since it has been shown that whenever
S(n) is true, so is S(n + 1). The false statement S(n) can’t exist!
The proof by induction method commonly arises in questions about con-
crete mathematical formulas which are clearly either true or false. When trying
to establish the general procedure for proof by induction a bit of care is re-
quired. There are statements which do not have a well defined truth value (T
or F). One example is This statement is false. If the statement is true, then it
is false, and if it is false, then it is true! We shouldn’t run across any of these
self referential statements.
Here are some additional formulas that can be proved by induction.
n−1
X 1 − xn
xk = , x 6= 1.
1−x
k=0

Case n = 1 is
1 − x1
1= .
1−x
Assuming case n is true, it follows that
(n+1)−1 n−1
X X
xk = xk + xn
k=0 k=0

1 − xn 1 − xn + xn (1 − x) 1 − xn+1
= + xn = = , x 6= 1.
1−x 1−x 1−x
It is a bit more challenging to establish the next result, the Binomial
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