Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Textbook A Course in Be Algebras 1St Edition Sambasiva Rao Mukkamala Auth Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook A Course in Be Algebras 1St Edition Sambasiva Rao Mukkamala Auth Ebook All Chapter PDF
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-course-in-quantum-
mechanics-1st-edition-nandita-rudra-author/
https://textbookfull.com/product/psychology-in-the-indian-
tradition-1st-edition-k-ramakrishna-rao/
https://textbookfull.com/product/early-childhood-education-in-
chinese-societies-1st-edition-nirmala-rao/
https://textbookfull.com/product/algebras-rings-and-modules-
volume-2-non-commutative-algebras-and-rings-1st-edition-michiel-
hazewinkel/
A course in abstract algebra Nicholas Jackson
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-course-in-abstract-algebra-
nicholas-jackson/
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-course-in-behavioral-
economics-erik-angner/
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-course-in-behavioral-
economics-erik-angner-2/
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-first-course-in-functional-
analysis-1st-edition-orr-moshe-shalit/
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-first-course-in-enumerative-
combinatorics-1st-edition-carl-g-wagner/
Sambasiva Rao Mukkamala
A Course
in BE-algebras
A Course in BE-algebras
Sambasiva Rao Mukkamala
A Course in BE-algebras
123
Sambasiva Rao Mukkamala
Department of Mathematics
MVGR College of Engineering
Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh
India
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. part of
Springer Nature
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Dedicated to my beloved father
M. Brahmanandam
Foreword
vii
Preface
A glance at the table of contents will reveal that this book treats topics in
BE-algebras at the advanced research level. The aim has been to provide the
development of the subject which is honest, rigorous, and at the same time not
pedantic. The book provides a transition from elementary topics to advanced topics
in BE-algebras, and it introduces the reader to some of the abstract thinking that
provides modern abstract algebra.
Since logic is part and parcel of science and technical education, it appears in all
branches of study. The concepts are being continuously updated and revised in the
research structure of many universities around the world. Keeping this in view, 15
chapters are organised in this book with detailed presentations. In continuation
of the literature available on this topic, the present results are explained in a lucid
manner. Many examples are included in order to justify the arguments. Hope that
this book will help the students and researchers to build a strong foundation in
applied abstract algebra and related subject areas.
The introduction explains the origin of the present work in BE-algebras. In
Chap. 2, all the necessary preliminaries are collected and presented for ready ref-
erence of the reader. Chapters 3 and 4 are devoted to the study of basic concepts
like closure operators, fuzzy weak subalgebras, soft BE-algebras, filters and weak
filters of BE-algebras. In Chap. 5, properties of quasi-filters and pseudo filters are
studied including their characterizations. In Chap. 6, the main emphasis is given to
the properties of very true operators of BE-algebras. Chapter 7 deals with
pseudo-complements and their properties in terms of Boolean, closed and dense
elements. In Chap. 8, the notion of stabilizers of BE-algebras is introduced. Some
topological properties are studied with the help of left and right stabilizers. Chapter
9 deals with Bosbach states on bounded BE-algebras, which is the most promising
fields of investigation. In Chap. 10, properties of state operators of BE-algebras are
dealt with to study the properties of state filters and state congruences. Chapters 11
and 12 are devoted to the study of self-mappings and endomorphisms of
BE-algebras. Chapters 13–15 are devoted to the fuzzification of filters, weak filters,
implicative filters, transitive filters, and semi-transitive filters of BE-algebras. In
Chap. 13, we consider the fuzzification of weak filters. In Chaps. 14 and 15, various
ix
x Preface
properties of implicative and transitive filters are investigated. In the final chapter,
notions of transitive and semi-transitive filters are introduced in BE-algebras and
then triangular normed fuzzification is applied to semi-transitive filters.
The book was motivated by the desire I have had to present a course in
BE-algebras and to further the development of the research course in abstract
algebra. The centralized themes of all the chapters of this book summarize what I
have tried to offer the student in this book. In each chapter, the number of examples
presented is made to depend upon the difficulty and importance of the particular
concept presented.
I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. G. Chakradhara Rao of Andhra
University, India, for his guidance and friendly encouragement throughout this
work. I owe special thanks to Prof. K. V. Lakshmipathi Raju, Principal of MVGR
College of Engineering, Vizianagaram, for his motivation and encouragement.
I wish to thank Springer India for agreeing to publish. In addition, I am grateful to
Prof. K. P. Shum of Yunnan University, China, for writing foreword to this book.
I would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers of this book for their valuable
suggestions. Finally, no words can exactly express the unparalleled support and
encouragement given to me by my family members and friends.
The instinct of acknowledging the inspiration due to ingenious works of pioneers
gives me immense pleasure, and fills my heart to the brim, for the motivation that
dawned on me finds its reflection in this mammoth task. I remain grateful to all the
pioneers and my colleague researchers around the world who have contributed to
the theory of BE-algebras and the related areas.
I believe that the reader can find not only a number of interesting results and
methods but also an inspiration for his own investigations in this area. The pub-
lication of this book does not indicate that this field is closed. On the contrary,
I know that it is a quickly developing area and hope that this book will serve as an
orientation for working algebraists in this special subject.
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Order Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Congruences on BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Topological Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Some Concepts of BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Subalgebras of BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2 Subdirectly Irreducible BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 Closure Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Fuzzy Weak Subalgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 Soft BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6 Falling Shadows Applied to (Weak) Subalgebras . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7 Direct Products of BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.8 BE-algebra of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4 Filters of BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.1 Definition and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2 Quasi-ordering and Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3 Homomorphisms and Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4 Congruences and Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.5 Irreducible Filters of BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.6 Segments of BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.7 Associative Filters of BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.8 Dual Atomistic Filters of BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.9 Prime Filters of BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.10 Dual Annihilators of BE-algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
xi
xii Contents
xv
Chapter 1
Introduction
H.S. Kim [190] introduced the notion of a d-algebra. Later, these authors introduced
the notion of a B-algebra as a non-empty set X together with a binary operation ∗
and a constant 0 satisfying the following axioms:
interconnection between the class of quasi-filters and the class of multipliers is studied
with the help of congruences. In Chap. 6, the focus is given to very true operators
of BE-algebras and the filters generated by these operators. Main emphasis is also
given to the properties of the subclasses of v-filters which are prime v-filters and
injective filters.
In Chap. 7, pseudo-complements are introduced in BE-algebras. A great deal of
attention has been paid to study the properties of Boolean elements, closed elements,
and dense elements. The notion of ideals is introduced with the help of pseudo-
complements, and the characterizations of ideals are derived. Chapter 8 is devoted
to stabilizers of BE-algebras. Some topological properties are studied with the help
of left and right stabilizers. Chapters 9 and 10 deal with two typical areas of investi-
gations in BE-algebras. Bosbach states on bounded BE-algebras are one of the most
promising fields, which are investigated in Chap. 9. In Chap. 9, most of the basic
facts about states and pseudo-states are presented along with some more special-
ized results. Pseudo-states and pseudo state-morphisms are introduced in terms of
pseudo-complements of BE-algebras. Chapter 10 grew out of an investigation of state
operators on BE-algebras. Main focus is given to study the relationship between state
filters and state congruences. Subdirectly irreducible state BE-algebras are charac-
terized in this chapter.
Chapter 11 is devoted to a discussion of right and left self-mappings of
BE-algebras. A few characterization theorems of self-distributive BE-algebras,
commutative BE-algebras, implicative BE-algebras, and 3-potent BE-algebras are
established with the help of right and left self-maps. In Chap. 12, the concept of endo-
morphisms and the fundamental homomorphic theorems are described to explain
endomorphic ideals and endomorphic congruences.
Fuzzy mathematics is an emerging field where the ordinary concepts are getting
transferred into fuzzy case. In fuzzification of filters, the elements of BE-algebra
are mapped to the real numbers of the interval [0, 1], and hence it is observed that
fuzzy filters are different from ordinary filters. In 1965, L.A. Zadeh [250] initiated
the study of fuzzy sets. Since then many researchers around the world applied fuzzy
concepts to many algebraic structures like rings, semirings, semigroups, modules,
matrices, vector spaces, etc. In 1991, Xi [244] applied the concept of fuzzy sets to
BCK-algebras which are introduced by Imai and Iśeki [118]. In [109], S.M. Hong
and Y.B. Jun applied the idea of fuzzy subalgebras to BCK-algebras. In this work,
some of these fuzzy concepts are applied to weak filters, implicative filters, transitive
filters of BE-algebras.
Chapters 13–15 are devoted to the fuzzification of various filters and implicative
filters of BE-algebras. Chapter 13 starts with a careful development of fuzzy weak
filters and their homomorphic images, and normal fuzzy weak filters, which are sub-
sequently used in our study of implicative filters, transitive filters, and semitransitive
filters. In Chap. 14, properties of implicative filters are investigated and weak implica-
tive filters are introduced in BE-algebras. Fuzzy concept is applied to the classes of
implicative and weak implicative filters. The final chapter gives the reader a leisurely
introduction to transitive filters, semitransitive filters of BE-algebras. Fuzzification
and triangular normed fuzzification are also considered for semitransitive filters.
4 1 Introduction
Preliminary pages include everything up to the main body of the text or introduc-
tion. In this chapter, a few important definitions and results are collected from var-
ious sources for the use in the forthcoming chapters. Some basic and important
properties of BE-algebras, BCK-algebras, some special classes of BE-algebras like
self-distributive, commutative, transitive, implicative and ordered BE-algebras are
observed. Some preliminary properties of ordered relations, partially ordered sets
and congruences are quoted for further reference to the reader.
2.1 BE-algebras
In this section, we present certain definitions and results which are taken mostly
from the papers [118, 124, 152, 153, 239] for the ready reference of the reader.
Hilbert algebras are important tools for certain investigations in algebraic logic since
they can be considered as fragments of any propositional logic containing a logical
connective implication and the constant 1 which is considered as the logical value
true. The concept of Hilbert algebras was introduced by L. Henkin and T. Skolem
for investigations in intuitionistic and other non-classical logics.
Y. Imai and K. Iśeki introduced two classes of abstract algebras: BCK-algebras
and BCI-algebras [118]. It is known that the class of BCK-algebras is a proper
subclass of the class of BCI-algebras. An algebra (X, ∗, 0) of type (2, 0) is said to
be a BCI-algebra if it satisfies the following conditions for all x, y, z ∈ X :
(BCI1) ((x ∗ y) ∗ (x ∗ z)) ∗ (z ∗ y) = 0,
(BCI2) (x ∗ (x ∗ y)) ∗ y = 0,
(BCI3) x ∗ x = 0,
(BCI4) x ∗ y = 0 and y ∗ x = 0 imply x = y.
If a BCI-algebra X satisfies the condition,
(BCI5) 0 ∗ x = 0 for all x ∈ X ,
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 5
S. R. Mukkamala, A Course in BE-algebras,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6838-6_2
6 2 Preliminaries
∗ 0 a b c d
0 0 0 0 0 0
a a 0 a 0 0
b b b 0 0 b
c c b a 0 b
d d a d a 0
∗ 1 a b c
1 1 a b c
a 1 1 a c
b 1 1 1 c
c 1 a b 1
2.1 BE-algebras 7
Proposition 2.1.11 Let (X, ∗, 1) be a negatively ordered BE-algebra. Then for any
x, y, z ∈ X ,
(x ∗ y) ∗ (x ∗ z) ≤ x ∗ (y ∗ z)
(H6) x ∗ 1 = 1,
(H7) x ∗ (y ∗ z) = y ∗ (x ∗ z),
(H8) x ∗ (y ∗ z) = (x ∗ y) ∗ (x ∗ z),
(H9) if x ≤ y, then z ∗ x ≤ z ∗ y and y ∗ z ≤ x ∗ z.
It is proved in [200] that every Hilbert algebra is a self-distributive BE-algebra
but the converse is not true. It can be seen in the following example.
Example 2.1.16 Let X = {1, a, b}. Define a binary operation ∗ on X as follows:
∗ 1 a b
1 1 a b
a 1 1 1
b 1 1 1
Proposition 2.1.18 ([1]) In any implication algebra (X, ∗), the following hold for
all x, y ∈ X :
(1) x ∗ (x ∗ y) = x ∗ y,
(2) x ∗ x = y ∗ y,
(3) There exists a unique element 1 ∈ X such that,
(a) x ∗ x = 1, 1 ∗ x = x and x ∗ 1 = 1,
(b) if x ∗ y = 1 and y ∗ x = 1, then x = y.
From the above proposition, it is clear that every implication algebra is a BE-
algebra. In [200], equivalency among Hilbert algebras, self-distributive BE-algebras
and commutative BE-algebras is derived. In 2002, Halaš [106] showed that commuta-
tive Hilbert algebras are implication algebras and Diego [69] proved that implication
algebras are Hilbert algebras. Hence in conclusion, it is observed that
z ≤ x → y if and only if z ∧ x ≤ y
10 2 Preliminaries
∗ 1 a b c
1 1 a b c
a 1 1 b c
b 1 a 1 c
c 1 a b 1
(y ∗ x) ∗ x ≤ (y ∗ x) ∗ ((x ∗ y) ∗ y)
= (x ∗ y) ∗ ((y ∗ x) ∗ y)
= (x ∗ y) ∗ y.
∗ 1 a b c
1 1 a b c
a 1 1 a a
b 1 1 1 a
c 1 1 a 1
2.1 BE-algebras 11
Theorem 2.1.37 ([203]) Let X be a transitive BE-algebra. Then the following are
equivalent.
(1) X is commutative;
(2) y ≤ x implies x = (x ∗ y) ∗ y for x, y ∈ X ;
(3) (x ∨ y) ∗ (y ∨ x) = 1 for all x, y ∈ X .
1 = bm ∗ (· · · ∗ (b1 ∗ (x ∗ y)) · · · )
= bm ∗ (· · · ∗ (x ∗ (b1 ∗ y)) · · · )
...
...
= x ∗ (bm ∗ (· · · ∗ (b1 ∗ y)) · · · )
Notation 2.1.41 For any non-empty subset A of an ordered BE-algebra, the smallest
filter containing A is called the filter generated by A, which is denoted by A.
Obviously we have A ⊆ B whenever A ⊆ B for any two subsets A and B of X .
Clearly A ∪ {1} = B. If A contains the element 1, then A = B. Moreover, if B
is a filter of X , then
If A = {a}, then denote {a} by a and call this principal filter generated by a. Hence
a = {x ∈ X | a n ∗ x = 1 for some n ∈ N } where a n ∗ x = a ∗ (· · · ∗ (a ∗ x) · · · )
and a occurs n times.
In what follows, F(X ) denotes the class of all filters of a BE-algebra X . Then, for
any two filters F and G of a BE-algebra, it can be easily seen that F ∩ G is the
infimum of both F and G. Now, in the following theorem, we obtain that F(X )
forms a complete lattice.
Theorem 2.1.44 For any ordered BE-algebra X, F(X ) forms a complete distribu-
tive lattice.
Then clearly (F(X ), ∩, ∨) is a complete lattice with respect to set inclusion. Let
F, G, H ∈ F(X ). Then clearly F ∩ (G ∨ H ) ⊆ (F ∩ G) ∨ (F ∩ H ). Conversely,
let x ∈ F ∩ (G ∨ H ). Then x ∈ F and x ∈ G ∨ H . Then there exists g ∈ G and
h ∈ H such that g ∗ (h ∗ x) = 1. Now letting
b1 = h ∗ x and b2 = b1 ∗ x
h ∗ b2 = h ∗ (b1 ∗ x)
= h ∗ ((h ∗ x) ∗ x)
= (h ∗ x) ∗ (h ∗ x)
=1∈H
b1 ∗ (b2 ∗ x) = (h ∗ x) ∗ ((b1 ∗ x) ∗ x)
= (h ∗ x) ∗ (((h ∗ x) ∗ x) ∗ x)
= ((h ∗ x) ∗ x) ∗ ((h ∗ x) ∗ x)
=1
Corollary 2.1.45 Let X be an ordered BE-algebra. Then the class F(X ) of all filters
of X is a complete lattice with respect to theinclusion ordering ⊆ in which
for any
set {Fα }α∈ of filters of X , in f {Fα }α∈ = Fα and sup{Fα }α∈ = Fα .
α∈ α∈
In the following theorem, we derive a necessary and sufficient condition for every
proper filter of an ordered BE-algebra to become a maximal filter.
Theorem 2.1.48 A proper filter M of an ordered BE-algebra X is maximal if and
only if M ⊆ F ⊆ X implies M = F or F = X for any filter F of X .
x ∧ y = x ∧ z implies x ∧ y = x ∧ (y ∨ z)
x ∨ (y ∧ z) = (x ∨ y) ∧ (x ∨ z),
x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z).
if x ∨ z = y ∨ z and x ∧ z = y ∧ z, then x = y.
Hence a distributive lattice is a lattice in which the operations of join and meet dis-
tribute over each other. The prototypical examples of such structures are collections
of sets for which the lattice operations can be given by set union and intersection.
Definition 2.2.3 Let (X, ∗, 1) be a BE-algebra. By a B E-ordering or simply order-
ing, we mean a binary relation ≤ on the BE-algebra X defined for all x, y ∈ X as
follows:
x ≤ y if and only if x ∗ y = 1.
4.—A ORDEM
Por ora, não. O povo inteiro pronunciava os votos cada dia mais
formaes de uma abstenção decidida. Deixal-os, os politicos, fazer
systemas e revoluções, cartas, juntas, programmas, côrtes, leis;
deixal-os comer e engordar e devorarem-se: elles cançarão!
Já desanimados, tinham cançado Mousinho e Passos; mas havia
gente nova, para uma terceira investida, um terceiro liberalismo: a
Ordem. Mas como póde haver ordem nos factos, se as idéas são
uma desordem? Como conciliar as instituições e as idéas, quando
as primeiras, reconhecendo a aristocracia n’uma segunda camara,
a, theocracia n’uma religião d’Estado obedecem ainda ao
pensamento do primeiro romantismo, ou do tradição historica?
quando o segundo fez recuar essa tradição para o campo vago de
uma poesia, além de insufficiente para dar consistencia ao
organismo social, falsa e artificial, obra de litteratos, paixão de
archeologos e eruditos, inaccessivel ao povo? Como conciliar essas
instituições com o principio da soberania do individuo, já combinado
pela revolução com o da soberania do povo? e com o systema da
concorrencia livre, prejudicado pela revolução, tambem, com o
systema da protecção ás industrias? Essa ordem é um cháos, de
instituições e idéas. Já não ha, é claro, uma Anarchia systematica,
tal como a concebera Mousinho; mas em vez d’ella ha uma mistura
de elementos contradictorios, liberaes, democraticos, romanticos,
d’onde sae a supposta ordem da constituição de 38.
Assim, tambem, já não ha bandidos: os marechaes voltaram e
juraram; mas sob a paz apparente lavram os germens de novas
desordens. A anarchia fôra até 36 um systema. Agora pedia-se
ordem; mas as vida antiga ia continuar contra a vontade dos
homens já saciados, já desejosos de gozar em paz o fructo dos
seus trabalhos. Rodrigo apparecia á frente dos setembristas e
cartistas fusionados para o descanço: Rodrigo sceptico desde o
berço, mas talvez crente em que no scepticismo estivesse a
sabedoria, e por isso na constituição de 38 o porto desejado da vida
liberal.
Não, não podia ser: a confusão dos elementos não podia dar a
ordem nas instituições. Foi a rainha quem fez da Costa Cabral um
instrumento para restaurar a carta (1842), cudilhar Rodrigo e os
ordeiros fusionados, e os romanticos? Talvez fosse; talvez não
fosse: logo o vermos. Mas o facto é que o status quo não era viavel,
apezar das affirmações em contrario dos vencidos.
Palmella com o seu romantismo aristocratico pugnára pela
conservação de uma camara de pares vitalicia, hereditaria; mas a
revolução veiu e destruiu-a. Depois, em 38, o meio-termo creou a
camara dos senadores temporarios, electivos. É verdade que,
extincta ou protestante por miguelista, a antiga aristocracia não
podia preencher os lugares da camara; mas não é menos verdade
que um senado temporario e electivo só é viavel dentro de um
systema de representação de orgãos e classes da sociedade; sendo
uma chimera, um accessorio inutil, uma duplicação van (como agora
mesmo se vê em França), quando procede, como a camara-baixa,
do suffragio popular, directo ou indirecto.
A antiga aristocracia demittira-se, é verdade; mas a liberdade e a
concorrencia tinham creado um poder real e novo, uma plutocracia:
a classe dos burguezes ricos que não podiam deixar o seu poder, os
seus interesses, á mercê dos acasos das eleições; que não
pactuavam com o individualismo, nem com a democracia, querendo
para si o dominio seguro a que de facto lhes dava direito o seu
poder estavel. Derrubadas todas as authoridades em holocausto á
doutrina, só uma não podiam os doutrinarios destruir: o dinheiro. O
dinheiro, pois, creou para si uma doutrina nova, que teve por
defensor Costa-Cabral. Era um quarto, ou quinto liberalismo que
surgia e vencia todos os anteriores.
Guizot e Luiz-Philippe tiveram de fazer em França o mesmo que
D. Maria ii e Cabral fizeram cá. Aos burguezes diziam—enriquecei-
vos! e ás instituições e garantias reformavam-nas no sentido de
crear e consolidar a nova aristocracia dos ricos. Era uma fórma de
Ordem que escapou ás previsões dos romanticos: os seus medos e
coleras tinham-se voltado e consumido contra a democracia! O
inimigo surgia abruptamente d’onde o não esperavam, e bateu-os
com a maxima fortuna. Restaurou-se a carta, sem ser necessario
um tiro: é verdade tambem que da mesma fórma caíra em 10 de
setembro. Os romanticos sinceros, ingenuos, esperando a acção
dos meios moraes, esqueciam a força dos elementos positivos: a
ordem que tinham fundado era uma bola de sabão. Um sopro
desmanchou-a.
E assim devia ser tambem, perante a natureza das doutrinas. Pois
se a unica fonte da authoridade moral e politica era o individuo, pois
se a propriedade era a sagração de uma personalidade soberana,
onde se havia de ir buscar o mandato, senão á vontade da maioria?
como se havia de desconhecer a importancia suprema da riqueza?
Porque protestavam, pois, contra os setembristas, chamando
ignaras ás maiorias? e contra os cabralistas chamando nomes aos
argentarios? Ou o dominio do numero, ou o imperio do dinheiro: eis
ahi onde a liberdade conduzia fatalmente. Onde conduziria, senão á
affirmação de uma authoridade cega do numero ou das forças
brutas, a doutrina que negára a authoridade social em nome da
natureza do individuo?
Falhára a conclusão democratica; mas ia vencer a aristocracia
nova: assim terminavam no absolutismo illustrado os diversos
liberalismos.
NOTAS DE RODAPÉ: