PROJECT REPORT

2023-24
IN
‘Dancing light’
Developed by

Zaiba Daphedar
T.Y.B.Sc. (PHYSICS)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree.

OF
BACHELAR OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS
SHRI ANAND COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, PATHARDI.

SAVIRTIBAI PHULE UNIVERSITY, PUNE

 Shri Anand College, Pathardi
Dist- Ahmednagar

Department of Physics

Certificate
This is to certified that, Ms. NIKAM KIRAN BHARAT has satisfactorily

completed the project work on Dancing light ‘in partial fulfillment for B.Sc.

Degree in physics of University of Pune during the academic year 2014-2015

Project In charge Head of

Department

Internal examiner Exter nal examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My heart is fulfilled with cheer while giving this project report in your hand behind every
success there are hands of many people and & without any guidance it becomes difficult
to achieve any success.

For this project on “Simple IC-555 tester” I have kindly guidance of Dr.N.R. Dhumne I
have very much thankful to him for his valued suggestion giving me a lot of information
for completing this project. They help me to solve many problems and basic concepts of
electronic components.

I am also specially thankful to Prof.Dr. S.B. kalokhe ,Prof.Dr.A.B.Pawase Prof.

Dr.V.K.Gade & spetial thank for N.N.Shinde because this project unsuccessful without
noble guidance of them & thankful to thire valuable suggestion .

I also thank for all the non-teaching staff of my college for their support in completing
the work successfully .
My classmates have been of great help to me during the project work .My ideas were
shaped &refined progressively through my discussion with them from time to time. I
can not miss to thank them all . There were some persons like Anjum mirza , Ayaz
shaikh,Rashmi rathod,& offcoures my dear mom who are not directly but indirectly
involved in my practical work.

Thanks to you all…….

Zaiba daphedar.
 INTRODUCTION

In electronic we study different types of electrical circuit. In electronic the

every device has it’s has specific circuit as per requirement and is depends on device.
We can test some circuit in electronics we can make circuit by own ideas according to
circuit diagram .

Here make project in electronics the name as project is “THE SIMPLE IC-
555 TESTER” . This circuit chosen for making project from the book electronics for you
& internet.

In this project we are interested to check the operating condition of the IC555.
Component List
1. LED
2. Resistor-100ohm(3)
3. Diode
4. Switch
5. Power supply
6. IC socket
7. IC 555
 Chapter-2

Passive Component

Resistor
Resistance of a conductor is its property to oppose current. Resistor is a
component with a known specified value of resistance. Resistor is the most common
component in all types of electronic equipment ranging from radio your pocket to color
T.V in our house. In resistor, current is directly proportional to the applied voltage.
Resistor opposes or resists the flow of current passing through it. It can be connected in
the circuit in either direction because it does not have polarity. The symbol
is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit. The resistance offered by a
conductor depends mainly on resistivity, but it also depends on length of conductor (l)
and cross-sectional area (A). Mathematically,
𝑙
R=𝛒
𝐴

Where is resistivity or specific resistance. Resistivity is resistance of a conductor of unit

area per unit length. Its S. I. unit is Ω m. It depend on nature of material lof resistor and
its physical conditions such as temperature and pressure. Reciprocal of resistivity is
conductivity. The main characteristics of resistor are its resistance (R=V/I) measured in
ohm and the power rating (P=VI) in watt (W).

Main characteristics of resistor:-

(i) The tolerance is taken into consideration while selecting a particular

resistance. The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual
rated resistance value.
(ii) The power rating of resistor, is maximum power (I 2R) it can dissipate without
excessive heat. Power rating gives limit of maximum current a resistor can
safely carry.
(iii) Temperature coefficient:- Resistivity of material is affected by temperature.
The material whose resistance increases with increase in temperature then it
has negative temperature coefficient (PTC). When resistance decreases with
increase in temperature then it has negative temperature coefficient (NTC).
 The temperature coefficient (α) of resistor is change in resistance per unit
marked resistance for change in temperature I . e.
𝑅𝑇−𝑅𝑂
α=
𝑅𝑜𝑇
Where, RT- resistance at temperature T

Ro-marked resistance at T=0 0C

Common applications of a resistor are:-

(i) To limit current.

(ii) To provide load.
(iii) To establish proper values of voltage (IR) drop.
Types of Resistors:-

There are two main types of resistors: (a) fixed resistors.

(b)Variable resistors.

(a)Fixed resistor:- A fixed resistor is a two terminal resistor whose resistance has been
fixed. This is achieved by keeping resistivity, length and cross-sectional area of
conductor constant.Resistor values are often identified by a color coed scheme. The
colorbands are printed on resistance near its end. On most resistors of 5% tolerance or
greater, there are usually four bands, with the first three aligned towards one end of the
resistor and the fourth on the opposite end. The first two bands denote the first and
second significant digits of the resistor value, the third band represents a multiplier, and
the fourth band represents the resistor tolerance. But in some resistors only three bands
are there and some have five bands. The colors used with codes and the number they
represent are below

Fixed resistors are often used in a voltage division circuit.

Carbon composition and carbon film resistor, metal oxide resistor, metal film resistor and
wire-wound resistors are commonly used fixed resistors.

Color code

Colour 1st digit 2nd digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 0 10 -
Brown 1 1 10 -
Red 2 2 10 -
 Orange 3 3 10 -
Yellow 4 4 10 -
Green 5 5 10 -
Blue 6 6 10 -
Violet 7 7 10 -
Gray 8 8 10 -
White 9 9 10 -
Gold - - - +_5%
Silver - - - +-10%
No colour - - - +-20%

(b)Variable resistor:-A resistor whose value can be changed between zero and a

maximum certain value is a variable resistor. Symbol is

In has sliding arm(S) attached to the shaft which can be rotated in almost
complete cycle.As the shaft rotates, the point of contact of the sliding arm on a carbon
composition resistance element changes. Movement of the arm changes the distance
between arm terminal B and terminal of stationary resistance AC. As shown in fig. (a)
As we move the sliding arm, the resistance between B and A increases where as that
between B and C decreases.
In fig. (b), with anticlockwise rotation of arm, the resistance between terminals B and C
increases, While that between B and A decreases.

Variable resistors made of carbon of power rating ½ W to 2W are available in

market they have resistance of 1 KΩ to 5MΩ. Such variable resistors also act as controls
and often combined with ON-OFF switches and value control of radio receivers.
Characteristics of Diode

Theory :

Diode is semiconducting device comprising a P N junction form by doping two regain

of a semiconductor crystal using trivalent and pentavalent impurities due to the
different concentration of charge carriers in the two regions, there is migration of holes
and electrons across the junction followed by combination of this wherever possible.
Due to the recombination process in the vicinity of the junction, the n region gets divide
of electrons and becomes positive where as the p region becomes negative as a
consequence of losing some holes this is the depletion or space charge region it is due
to redistribution of charges that a potential difference of about. Some hundreds of
millivolts gets established across the junction and prevents further infiltration of
established across on either sided of the junction. This is however a dynamic
equilibrium, not a static one. (There is no net transport of charge in the either direction).
The situation can change if a forward bias is applied across the device such that p region
is connected to the positive terminal and the n region to the negative terminal of
battery connected externally. The electron now start drifting towards the p region and
the holes move towards the region. In the n region this holes meet the electron to
recombine and more electrons are supplied to the material by the terminal wire. Thus,
an electron current in the external current in the external circuit is built up that follows
from N to P region. The conventional current flows in the apposite direction.

It is therefore logical to expect that the resistance offered by a diode when it is

forward biased should be very small and that when its revers biased must be fairly high.
This indeed so. The forward resistance typically few ohms whereas the reverse
resistance is several hundreds kilo ohms. This fact is sometimes expressed by stating
that a forward bias diode act as a close switched and as an open switch when it is
reverse bias incidentally this features make a diode and ideal rectifier.

The excellent conductivity of P N junction in the forward direction means that particle
diode can be very small. Therefore the stray capacitance associated with them re also
small which unable to user to employ such semiconductor diodes even at high
frequencies.

For each recombination of free electrons and holes occure4 an electron from the
negative terminal to the battery enters the n type material. It then drifts towards the4
junction. Similarly, in p type near the terminal of the battery, for each electron that
breaks it bond, hole is created. This hole drifts towards the junction. Note that junctio9n
there is a contentious electron current in the external circuit. The current in p type
material is due to the movement of holes. The current continues as long as the battery
is in further reduced. More majority carriers diffused across the junction> This result in
an increased curr3ent through the P N junction.

P N junction with reverse biased:

If we connect the battery to the PN-junction diode, such that the negative terminal
of the battery is connected to p-region are attracted towards the negative terminal the
battery. The electrons in the n-region are attracted towards the positive terminal of the
battery. Thus the majority carriers are drown away from the4 junction. This action
widens the depletion region an increases the barriers potential.

The increased barrier potential makes if more difficult for the majority carriers to
diffuse across the junction. However, the barrier potential is helpful to the minority
carriers in crossing the junction. In fact, as soon as the minority carrier is Jon rated, it is
swept across the junction because of the barrier potential. The rate of Jon ration of
minority carriers depends upon temperature. If the temperature is fixed, the rate of join
ratio of minority carriers remains constant therefore, the current due to the flow of
minority carriers remains the same whether the battery voltage is low or high. Of this
region this current is called reverse saturation current is very small as the number of
minority size is small it is of the order of Nano amperes in silicon diode and
microampere in germanium diode.

The voltage at which the junction current increase abruptly prints diode is reverse
bias, is known as breakdown voltage. There are two types of process which can cause
junction breakdown. One is called zener breakdown and the other is avalanche
breakdown.

On the country reverse bias applied to the device such that the P-region is connected
to the negative and N-region to the positive of the battery creates condition adverse to
the free flows of charge across the junction. In this case there is winding of the
depletion region electrons move away from the other junction towards the positive
terminal of the battery creates condition adverse to the free flow charge carries across
the junction increases and it opposes the charge carriers of the motion of charge
carriers. Limiting voltage that diode can withstand without significant flow of current
under reverse bias condition is called PIV-peak inverse voltage.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

SEMICONDUCTOR:

Semiconductor devices such as diode and transistors are made from a soingle crystal
of semiconductor materia .

Intrinsic semiconductor

To make semiconductor device, the first step is to obtain the sample of

semiconductor in its purest form. A semiconductor is less than is not only part in
hundred million parts of semiconductor intrinsic (pure) semiconductor material to which
certain specified types of impurities have been added. The process of deliberately
adding impurities to a semiconductor material is called doping.

EXTRENSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Doping is done after the semiconductor material has been refined to high degree of
purity. A doped semiconductor is called an extrinsic semiconductor.

For making an N-type semiconductor, we add pentavalent impurity to an intrinsic

semiconductor. Instead, we add trivalent impurity to the semiconductor the result is P-
type semiconductor.
 The P and N type material taken separately a very limited use if we can join a peace3
of P-type material to a peace of N-type material such that formed. It is called
semiconductor diode.

P-N junction with forward bias:

If we connect the battery to the P-N junction diode such that the positi9ve terminal of
the battery is connected to P-side and negative terminal to the N-side In this condition
the P-N junction is said to be forward biased.

When the P-N junction is forward biased, holes are repelled from the positive
terminal of the battery are compare to move towards the junction. The electrons are
repelled from negative terminal of the battery and drifts towards the junction. Because
of the acquired energy, some of the holes and free electrons penetrate the depletion
region. This reduces and so does the barrier the junction. These carries recombine and
cause movement of charges carriers in the space-charges region.

The main point to note is the lack of a separation in the device between the two
terminals, such as exists in a harmonic diode, and it’s obvious compactness. How such a
continuous mass can allow current flow in one direction but prevent it in the other will
be an interesting discussion to be covered.

DIODE SYMBOL
 As a summary of the symbol used for the different deio0des and the direction of
current flow associated with them. It should be noted that the arrow in the
semiconductor symbol points in the forward-biased condition.

LED (Light Emitting Diode):-

The p-n junction diode can emit light through a process known as
electroluminescence i.e. when solid is excited by electrostatic field, it emits light. When
a diode is kin forward biased, majority of carriers on both sides of the junction will cross
the junction potential barrier. Some of the electrons combine with hole, on other side.
When electron with high energy combines with hole, they return to ground stat. During
this process, photon is released with energy difference during transition from higher
energy level to ground stat. This energy is radiated in the form of light.

The material used for red light LED is GaAsP4 which gives wavelength 6600A0

Advantages of LED:-
1) LED are of small size and of light weight.
2) It is possible to arrange large number of LEDs in small space.
3) They have large life as compared with incandescent lamps.
4) They take 1µ second to turn ON or OFF; hence they are suitable for high
operating speed.

Visible LED

When current flows through a GaAsSP4 P-N junction visible light is emitted from the
region of depletion layer. This happens due to a recombination of minority carriers.
When an electron falls from the conduction into the valance energy band is released in
the form of visible light. (This mechanism upper side to that of photodiode) such a light
emitting diode referred as an LED.

LED used as indicator have a solid state reliability of 10^6 hours .Lifetime this are used in
optical switching circuits and then can be switched on/OFF in one hours.

SWITCH:

Switch is a device which can turn on or off current in an electrical circuit. It is the
most important part of a switching circuit.

The switches can be broadly classified into the following three types.

1. Mechanical Switches
2. Electrical Mechanical Switches of Relay
3. Electronic Switches

1. Mechanical Switches:
A Switch which required mechanically in order to turn on or off current in an
electrical circuit is Known as mechanical switch.
2. Electronic Mechanical Switch:
It is a mechanical switch is appeared electronically to turn on or off current in
an electrical circuit is known as electro mechanical switch.
3. Electronic Switch:
It is a device which can burn on or off current in an electrical circuit with the
help of electronic devices is known as electronic switch e.g. tubes or transistors.
 POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load.
The primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to
another and, as a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power
converters. Some power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are
built into larger devices along with their loads. Examples of the latter include power
supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a
power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy sources, including
electrical energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel
cells, electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators, solar power
converters, or another power supply.

All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source,
and a power output that delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power
input and output consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit connections, though
some power supplies employ wireless energy transfer in lieu of galvanic connections for
the power input or output. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as
well, for functions such as external monitoring and control.

General classification
A rackmount, adjustable regulated power supply

Functional

Power supplies are categorized in various ways, including by functional features. For
example, a regulated power supply is one that maintains constant output voltage or
current despite variations in load current or input voltage. Conversely, the output of an
unregulated power supply can change significantly when its input voltage or load current
changes. Adjustable power supplies allow the output voltage or current to be programmed
by mechanical controls (e.g., knobs on the power supply front panel), or by means of a
control input, or both. An adjustable regulated power supply is one that is both adjustable
and regulated. An isolated power supply has a power output that is electrically
independent of its power input; this is in contrast to other power supplies that share a
common connection between power input and output.

Mechanical

Power supplies are packaged in different ways and classified accordingly. A bench power
supply is a stand-alone desktop unit used in applications such as circuit test and
development. Open frame power supplies have only a partial mechanical enclosure,
sometimes consisting of only a mounting base; these are typically built into machinery or
other equipment. Rack mount power supplies are designed to be secured into standard
electronic equipment racks.

Power conversion method

Power supplies can be broadly divided into linear and switching types. Linear power
converters process the input power directly, with all active power conversion components
operating in their linear operating regions. In switching power converters, the input
power is converted to AC or to DC pulses before processing, by components that operate
predominantly in non-linear modes (e.g., transistors that spend most of their time in
cutoff or saturation). Power is "lost" (converted to heat) when components operate in
their linear regions and, consequently, switching converters are usually more efficient
than linear converters because their components spend less time in linear operating
regions.
Types
DC power supply

A DC power supply is one that supplies a voltage of fixed polarity (either positive or
negative) to its load. Depending on its design, a DC power supply may be powered from
a DC source or from an AC source such as the power mains.

AC-to-DC supply

Schematic of basic AC-to-DC power supply, showing (from L-R) transformer, full-wave
bridge rectifier, filter capacitor and resistor load

Some DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such power
supplies will sometimes employ a transformer to convert the input voltage to a higher or
lower AC voltage. A rectifier is used to convert the transformer output voltage to a
varying DC voltage, which in turn is passed through an electronic filter to convert it to an
unregulated DC voltage. The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage
variations; the remaining voltage variations are known as ripple.

DC power supply (12v) Often used for mobile devices at home such as CBs and Ham
Radios.

The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum amount of filtering that must
be provided by a power supply. In some applications, high ripple is tolerated and
therefore no filtering is required. For example, in some battery charging applications it is
possible to implement a mains-powered DC power supply with nothing more than a
transformer and a single rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the output to limit
charging current.

Linear regulator
The function of a linear voltage regulator is to convert a varying DC voltage to a
constant, often specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they often provide a current
limiting function to protect the power supply and load from overcurrent (excessive,
potentially destructive current).

A constant output voltage is required in many power supply applications, but the voltage
provided by many energy sources will vary with changes in load impedance.
Furthermore, when an unregulated DC power supply is the energy source, its output
voltage will also vary with changing input voltage. To circumvent this, some power
supplies use a linear voltage regulator to maintain the output voltage at a steady value,
independent of fluctuations in input voltage and load impedance. Linear regulators can
also reduce the magnitude of ripple and noise present appearing on the output voltage.
 Printed Circuit Board (PCB)
Steps in making PCB:-

(1) To start the designing of layout or sketching for given circuit. We

should know the exact circuit diagram with component list. Also
we physical dimension of the component used in the circuit.
(2) On a rough page draw sketches of layout try to get minimum size
of layout & then draw on a graph paper to reduce the ckt which
obtain check the component size & space of the lids & between the
components.
(3) Draw the ground line & power supply line which must have the
maximum space.
(4) Components or lines should not cross each other & overlap
physically; also two component should go in common whole.
(5) Line thickness of the path should be very small about 1.5
millimeter earth, resistor, transistor etc. with the symbol.
(6) Remember that only small dimension component like resistor IC’s
etc. are mounted on PCB while bulky components like transformer
relays etc. are normally not mounted on PCB.
(7) The gap between two lines is critical & depends on component
used.
(8) Outside connection can be done by wire.
(9) Some times to avoid crossover the troubles few wire connections
or jumpers are needed but only two or three. To avoid overlapping
of conducting path on PCB jumps are used for two points.
(10) Sockets for IC’s are soldered on PCB due to that IC’s is can be
easily changed ‘T’.
(11) Two connections are kept sufficient a part from each other to avoid
the short circuit or leakage between two points.
(12) Now, make the final layout of the v graph paper draw the mirror
image of the ckt. It is kept on thin copper of required side between
paper and copper clad keep the carbon paper with the help of clips,
fits both paper on copper clad lastly check the ckt again.
(13) Again paint the ckt by using any good oil of oil paint with the help
of zero number brush also with the help of zero number brush also
with the help of nail paint we paint the ckt allow the paint to dry
for few hours. This is resistive material of coating for etching.
Eatching:-

Eatching is the process of the removing the unwanted copper from

copper clad. For etching process Fecl3 solution i.e. ferric chloride is used
insert PCB in a ferric chloride solution check time to time how the etching is
going on stern the solution after some time for quick & better action of
etching. The fresh solution will be always used to increase the rate of
etching, also for past etching process put the solution in sun light or under
the table lamp or hot water is used for making solution.

When the total unnecessary copper clad has been removed, the clad is
taken out quickly from the solution, after etching copper is removed accepts
the region which is under the paint i.e. resistive coating. The paint acts as a
resistive material. In etching process paint alone hot to remove the copper
under the paint.

Wash the PCB under the tap water removed the oil paint with the help
of alcohol, acetone or nail paint remover.

Check the etched design, if one of connection is loss during etching

then try to connect with the soldering & if there is miner contact in between
track, then removed with help of blade.

Now drill the small holes mounting the components according to the
position of components mount the component on backside of copper. So
that lids will come out on the copper side, fit the components with soldering
& to avoid the dry soldering.

Check the continuity between the paths with the help of multimete4r
& also change the continuity between the components.

Printed circuit boards are used to route electrical current and signals
through copper tracks which are firmly bonded to an insulating base.

Advantages of PCB are over normal wiring:-

(1)PCBs are necessary for interconnecting large number of electronic

components kin a very small area with minimum parasitic wiring
effects.
 (2)PCBs are suitable for mass production worthless chance of wiring
error.

(3)Small components can be easily mounted on PCB.

(4)Servicing is simplified.

(5)Construction is truly a work of art.

(6)By using PCBs, the electronic equipment becomes more reliable,

small in size and less costly.

PCB diagrams of circuit:-

 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF SIMPLE IC 555 TESTER

Most IC-555 is used to generate frequency, and sometimes we need to know. Is it

good or bad? But normal multicenter cannot check it. Thus, I make a simple 555 ICs
tester circuit. Which is tested correctly and faster.

How it works
Resistors R1-R3 acts as limit current and reduce voltage to LED1-LED3. Which is
LEDs show state on “Trigger” or “Low” or “High”. The Diode D1 is set voltage to pin 2
less than 1/3 VCC (0.7 volts). When slide switch S1 at position 2 (Trigger IC).

Before apply voltage to this circuit, we must put the test IC to socket completely.
When enter voltage to the circuit and switch S1at position 3 (no trigger) will see
LED1 (low) glow show that the output in state” low” voltage at the B point about 0.2
volts.
Next, trigger at pin 2 by slide S1 come to position 2 cause voltage at pin 2 about 0.7
volts. Thus the output voltage will change state is “high” voltage at point B about 3.5
volts. The LED2 ( High) and LED3 (Trigger) glow and when switch S1 come to
position 3 will cause LED2 and LED3 go out.

In this case above will show that IC-555 is good. But apply the power supply to this
circuit, then switch S1 to position 2. The LED1 will glow but after that slide S1 come
to position 3 but LED1 still glow up. If when apply voltage to this circuit then LED2
will also still grow (S1 at position 2). And slide S1 come to position 3 also still not
change state show that this IC-555 bad.
 BIBILIOGRAPHY
A. Reference book
1. Integrated circuits- K.R. Botkar
2. Basic electronics-Bornard Grob
3. Electronics principals-Albert Paul Malvino
4. A Monograph on electronic design devices-N.C. Ghoyl & R.K. Khetan
5. Data Handbook –BPB
B. Textbook
1. Essential Electronics –S.K. Kshirasgar
2. Electronic componants- P.C.Rao & D.C. Sutraw

c. Website
http://www.bel-india.com

http://www.electronics.com

http://www.student.com