DEVELOPMENT OF SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Surveying instruments were developed gradually. It is believed that, an extensive use

of surveying instruments came about during the early days of the Roman Empire. This
re-markable engineering ability of Romans is clearly demons-trated by their extensive
construction of structures and buildings which continue to exist even up to this modern era. It
will be noted that many surveying instruments and devices evolved from those which were
earlier used in astronomy. The following instruments were the early forerunners of our present-
day surveying instruments.

MEASURING TAPE

A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible ruler. It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic,
fibre glass, or metal strip with linear-measurement markings. It is a common measuring tool.
Its design allows for a measure of great length to be easily carried in pocket or toolkit and
permits one to measure around curves or corners. Today it is ubiquitous, even appearing in
miniature form as a keychain fob, or novelty item. Surveyors use tape measures in lengths of
over 100 m (300+ ft).

HISTORY

The first record of a people using a measuring device was by the Romans using marked
strips of leather, but this was more like a regular ruler than a tape measure. On July 14, 1868,
a patent was filed by one Alvin J. Fellows of New Haven, Connecticut. Fellows' rule, although
crude and flimsy, was the first attempt to make a spring tape measure. On 3 January 1922,
Hiram A. Farrand received the patent he filed in 1919 for his spring tape measure. Sometime
between 1922 and December 1926, Farrand experimented with the help of The Brown
Company in Berlin, New Hampshire. It is there Hiram and William Wentworth Brown began
mass-producing the tape measure. Their product was later sold to Stanley Works.

USES:

Tapes are used in surveying for measuring horizontal, vertical or slope distances. Tapes are
issued in various lengths and widths and graduated in variety of ways. The measuring
tapes used for surveying purposes are classified in 4 types according to the material from
which they are manufactured:

Linen or Cloth Tape. It is made of linen cloth with brass handle at zero end whose
length is included in the tape length. It is very light and handy, but cannot withstand
much wear and tear. So it cannot be used for accurate work. It is little used in
surveying except for taking subsidiary measurements like offsets.

Metallic Tape. The tape is reinforced with copper wires to prevent stretching or
twisting of fibers and is then called as metallic tape. They are available in many
lengths but tapes of 20 m and 30 m are more commonly used.

Steel Tape. It is made of steel ribbon varying in width from 6 mm to 16 mm. It is

available in lengths of 1, 2, 10, 30 and 50 meters. It cannot withstand rough usage
and therefore it should be used with great care.

Invar Tape. It is made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%). It is 6 mm wide and
is available in lengths of 30 m, 50 m and 100 m. It is costly and delicate and should be
thus handled with great care.

HOW TO USE:

How to Read a Tape Measure

1. Find/read the markings. On a standard tape measure, the biggest marking is the inch mark
(which generally has the biggest number, if it has them).

2. As the increments decrease, so does the length of the mark. For example, ½" has a bigger
mark than ¼" which has a bigger mark than ⅛", and so on.

3. Read 1 inch. The space from the largest mark to another is 1 inch.

4. Read one-half inch. Same principle as reading one inch, only this time the space between
the second-biggest mark and the biggest is read. You can think of a half-inch mark as half
way between a full inch.

5. The remaining markings follow a similar pattern. ¼" is half of ½". ⅛" is half of ¼". Most
tape measure markings go as small as 1⁄16;". This tape divides one more time, down to 1⁄32".

How to Measure Using a Tape Measure

1. Measure a length. Put the end of the measure at one end of the item or space you want to
measure. When the length stops, take a reading on the tape measure.

2. Find the length. In order to determine the length, you must add the lengths between inches
together. For example, the image below has a measurement that goes beyond the space
between two inch marks (that is, one full inch). In order to find the length, add the length of
the inch (1) with the space between the second inch mark and the third. In this case, you’d
add 1 inch + 1/4 inch to get 1¼ inch, or “one and a quarter inches.

3. For a length less than 1 inch, simply read off the tape measure the length. If the
increments of an inch are not labeled, determine the marking’s increment and add together
the respective fractions.

4. As an example, a length that goes from the inch mark to an unlabeled marking. We know
it’s more than 3/4 of an inch and less than one full inch. The marking is half way between 3/4
(6/8) and 7/8. Therefore, the marking is half of 1/8, or 1/16. Taking this knowledge, you
simply add the known fractions to find the length. Convert 3/4 to 12/16 for common
denominators and add 12/16 + 1/16 to get 13/16 – that’s your length.

COMPASS

The magnetic compass came into wide use during the 13th century for determining the
direc-tion of lines and in calculating angles between lines. It was first introduced for use in
navigation. The compass consists of a magnetized steel needle mounted on a pivot at the
center of a graduated circle. The needle continues to point toward magnetic north and gives a
reading which is dependent upon the position of the graduated circle.
HISTORY:

The compass was invented more than 2000 years ago. The first compasses were made of
lodestone, a naturally magnetized ore of iron, in Han dynasty China between 300 and 200
BC. The compass was later used for navigation by the Song Dynasty. Later compasses were
made of iron needles, magnetized by striking them with a lodestone. Dry compasses begin
appearing around 1300 in Medieval Europe and the Islamic world. This was replaced in the
early 20th century by the liquid-filled magnetic compass.

USES:

A compass is an instrument used for navigation and orientation that shows direction
relative to the geographic cardinal directions (or points). Usually, a diagram called a compass
rose shows the directions north, south, east, and west on the compass face as abbreviated
initials. When the compass is used, the rose can be aligned with the corresponding
geographic directions; for example, the "N" mark on the rose really points northward.
Compasses often display markings for angles in degrees in addition to (or sometimes instead
of) the rose. North corresponds to 0°, and the angles increase clockwise, so east is 90°
degrees, south is 180°, and west is 270°. These numbers allow the compass to show
azimuths or bearings, which are commonly stated in this notation.

HOW TO USE:

The first thing you need to learn, are the directions. North, South, East and West. Look at the
figure and learn how they are. North is the most important.
There are several kinds of compasses, one kind to attach to the map, one kind to attach to
your thumb. The thumb-compass is used mostly by orienteers who just want to run fast, and
this is the kind of compass normally use.

You've got this turnable thing on your compass. We call it the Compass housing. On the edge
of the compass housing, you will probably have a scale. From 0 to 360 or from 0 to 400.
Those are the degrees or the azimuth (or you may also call it the bearing in some contexts).
And you should have the letters N, S, W and E for North, South, West and East. If you want
to go in a direction between two of these, you would combine them. If you would like to go in
a direction just between North and West.
ROMAN GROMA

Groma is the principal tool used by the Roman surveyors to trace on the ground
simple and orthogonal alignments, necessary to the construction of roads, city, temples and
agricultural lands subdivision.

HISTORY:

The Greeks also possibly originated the use of the groma, a device used to establish
right angles, but Roman surveyors made it a standard tool. For road building and laying out
settlements in the distinctive grid patters, the main tool of agrimensores was a device known
as the groma, believed to have had its origins in Egypt too. This instrument consisted of a
long wooden staff, pointed at the lower end and topped with a wooden arm, about 25cm/10"
long. This cross arm had a pivot to support the stellata, which was the main part of the
instrument and consisted of a wooden cross with plumb bobs at the end. To use the groma,
the surveyor set it up where two roads were to intersect at right angles, and used the plumb
bobs as guides for laying out a line of stakes or flags. Using the naked eye, these stakes
could be constantly realigned, to maintain a straight line as the course of the road was
plotted. The Romans knew enough geometry to create right angles using Pythagoras'
triangles, and it is likely that they plotted out the rough course for the road using the stars,
astrolabes, and armillary spheres, with the groma ensuring that the course of the road was
perfectly straight and true.
USES:

The Roman surveyors used the groma instrument for aligning• or sighting as an points. It
consisted basically of cross arms fixed at right angles and pivoted eccentrically upon a
vertical staff. Plumb lines were suspended from the ends of the arms. By employing the
groma two lines at right angles to each other could be established on the ground where it is
set up.

HOW TO USE:

Tracing of a simple alignment among the points A and B

Groma was fixed in station in A point, in the B point was planted the meta. Then they
rotated the stelletta so as to reach, through a couple of finishing lines, the destination in B.
They planted along the direction of this view different metae, getting the layout of the
alignment. This was the basic procedure for all the operations with the groma.

Tracing of a orthogonal alignment

Fixed the first alignment A-B, the groma was set in station in the intermediary C point,
intersection of the two directions that will be traced.

Then rotating the stelletta they established the direction on the metae in A and in B
through the first couple of finishing lines. After having fixed the stelletta, they contemplated,
through the second couples of finishing lines the other two points, D and E follow the basic
procedure. This was the most frequent case in the use of the groma; it concerns the tracing
of the ecumani of the cities or the camps and for the assignment of the lands to the
inhabitants of the cities and the colonies.

Finding the distance of an inaccesible point on the ground from station point

They positioned at first the groma in the A station point and they centered the
inaccessible point B with the first couple of finishing lines. Then they established an
orthogonal alignment to the line AB, through the other couple of finishing lines, determining
the point C to a certain distance from A. With groma in C they established C-D, an orthogonal
alignment to A-C. They divided the length A-C in two equal parts and they settled the groma
in the middle point E. Prolonging the alignment B-E up to the meeting with C-D line, the
intersection gives F. The found distance (C-F) is equal to the looked for one (A-B).

This procedure was applied for calculating the width of the rivers, the extension of the
marshes and the swamps, the distance of the ships in approach to the harbors.

Besides with the groma they noticed the data for draw the ground form, a
topographical draft, directed with the help of the portable gnomone (reduction of the great
solar clocks).

PLANE TABLE

One of the oldest types of surveying instruments used in field mapping. It consists of a
board attached to a tripod in such a way that it can be leveled or rotated to any desired direction.
HISTORY:

The earliest mention of a plane table dates to 1551 in Abel Foullon's "Usage et
description de l'holomètre", published in Paris. However, since Foullon's description was of a
complete, fully developed instrument, it must have been invented earlier.
A brief description was also added to the 1591 edition of Digge's Pantometria. The first
mention of the device in English was by Cyprian Lucar in 1590.
Some have credited Johann Richter, also known as Johannes Praetorius,
a Nuremberg mathematician, in 1610 with the first plane table, but this appears to be
incorrect.
The plane table became a popular instrument for surveying. Its use was widely taught.
Interestingly, there were those who considered it a substandard instrument compared to such
devices as the theodolite, since it was relatively easy to use. By allowing the use of graphical
methods rather than mathematical calculations, it could be used by those with less education
than other instruments. The addition of a camera to the plane table, as was done from 1890
by Sebastian Finsterwalder in conjunction with a phototheodolite, established
photogrammetry in spatial and temporal surveying.

USES:

In use, a plane table is set over a point and brought to precise horizontal level. A drawing
sheet is attached to the surface and an alidade is used to sight objects of interest. The alidade,
in modern examples of the instrument a rule with a telescopic sight, can then be used to
construct a line on the drawing that is in the direction of the object of interest.

By using the alidade as a surveying level, information on the topography of the site can
be directly recorded on the drawing as elevations. Distances to the objects can be measured
directly or by the use of stadia marks in the telescope of the alidade.

HOW TO USE:

Plane table survey equipment is arranged in 4 steps as follows

1. Fixing of Plane Table

Fix the plane table to the tripod stand. Arrange the drawing sheet on the plane table
using paper clips or thumb screws. The sheet should be in one position from first to last.

2. Leveling of Plane Table

Plane table should be leveled using spirit level. For small works, eye estimation can be
ok.
 3. Centering of Plane Table
The table should be centered by using plumbing fork. By which we can arrange the
plotted point exactly over the ground point.

4. Orientation of Plane Table

Whenever we are using more than one instrument station, orientation is essential. It
can be done by using compass or back sighting. In this case, the plane table is rotated such
that plotted lines in the drawing sheet are parallel to corresponding lines on the ground.

TELESCOPE

Telescope, device used to form magnified images of distant objects. The telescope is
undoubtedly the most important investigative tool in astronomy. It provides a means of
collecting and analyzing radiation from celestial objects, even those in the far reaches of the
universe.

HISTORY:

The earliest known telescope appeared in 1608 in the Netherlands when an eyeglass
maker named Hans Lippershey tried to obtain a patent on one. Although Lippershey did not
receive his patent, news of the new invention soon spread across Europe. The design of these
early refracting telescopes consisted of a convex objective lens and a concave eyepiece.
Galileo improved on this design the following year and applied it to astronomy. In 1611,
Johannes Kepler described how a far more useful telescope could be made with a convex
objective lens and a convex eyepiece lens and by 1655 astronomers such as Christiaan
Huygens were building powerful but unwieldy Keplerian telescopes with compound eyepieces.

Isaac Newton is credited with building the first reflector in 1668 with a design that
incorporated a small flat diagonal mirror to reflect the light to an eyepiece mounted on the side
of the telescope. Laurent Cassegrain in 1672 described the design of a reflector with a small
convex secondary mirror to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror.

The achromatic lens, which greatly reduced color aberrations in objective lenses and
allowed for shorter and more functional telescopes, first appeared in a 1733 telescope made
by Chester Moore Hall, who did not publicize it. John Dollond learned of Hall's invention and
began producing telescopes using it in commercial quantities, starting in 1758.

Important developments in reflecting telescopes were John Hadley's production of larger

paraboloidal mirrors in 1721; the process of silvering glass mirrors introduced by Léon Foucault
in 1857; and the adoption of long-lasting aluminized coatings on reflector mirrors in 1932. The
Ritchey-Chretien variant of Cassegrain reflector was invented around 1910, but not widely
adopted until after 1950; many modern telescopes including the Hubble Space Telescope use
this design, which gives a wider field of view than a classic Cassegrain.

During the period 1850–1900, reflectors suffered from problems with speculum metal
mirrors, and a considerable number of "Great Refractors" were built from 60 cm to 1 meter
aperture, culminating in the Yerkes Observatory refractor in 1897; however, starting from the
early 1900s a series of ever-larger reflectors with glass mirrors were built, including the Mount
Wilson 60-inch, the 100-inch (2.5 metre) Hooker Telescope (1917) and the 200-inch (5 meter)
Hale telescope (1948); essentially all major research telescopes since 1900 have been
reflectors. A number of 4-metre class (160 inch) telescopes were built on superior higher
altitude sites including Hawaii and the Chilean desert in the 1975–1985 era. The development
of the computer-controlled alt-azimuth mount in the 1970s and active optics in the 1980s
enabled a new generation of even larger telescopes, starting with the 10-metre (400 inch) Keck
telescopes in 1993/1996, and a number of 8-metre telescopes including the ESO Very Large
Telescope, Gemini Observatory and Subaru Telescope.

The era of radio telescopes (along with radio astronomy) was born with Karl
GutheJansky's serendipitous discovery of an astronomical radio source in 1931. Many types
of telescopes were developed in the 20th century for a wide range of wavelengths from radio
to gamma-rays. The development of space observatories after 1960 allowed access to several
bands impossible to observe from the ground, including X-rays and longer wavelength infrared
bands.

USES:
 The main function of telescopes is collecting light. They can view fine details and record
sights using cameras. Bigger telescopes can gather more light and can therefore see objects
that are farther away. They can identify things at a greater distance and widen the expanse of
the observable universe.

Optical telescopes are composed of lenses and mirrors that enlarge faraway things or
improve the brightness of indistinct objects. Radio telescopes identify noise based on radio
wavelengths in space. They can form an image of the object they listen to based on the sound
they gather from that object.

Researchers use X-ray telescopes to acquire information on the sun, stars and
supernovas. Gamma ray telescopes are used to verify various phenomena, such as black holes
and pulsars. Reflecting telescopes provide incredibly detailed images of distant objects in the
universe, including faraway galaxies, nebulae and dying stars.

Telescopes have a limited resolution due to disturbances and irregularities in the air.
Their resolution cannot increase beyond the limit even if the size of the light-collecting aperture
is made bigger. Many astronomers use telescopes atop mountains, because the telescopes
can generate a better resolution due to the thinner atmosphere.

HOW TO USE:

Setting Up a Telescope Will Take Some Getting Used to

1. Align a finder scope

2. Set up an equatorial stand

3. Collimate a primary mirror

4. Set up a Dobsonian telescope

5. Polar alignment

6. Sky Align a Celestron

TRANSIT
 The invention of the transit is credited to Young and Draper who worked independently
from each other sometime in 1830. Both men were able to put together in one instrument the
essential parts of what has long been known as the universal surveying instrument.

HISTORY:

Of the varying types of surveying instruments available to collectors today, American

transit instruments seem to be the most abundant.

The predecessor of the American transit was the prominent English theodolite, an
instrument first appearing in the early 16th century, and the circumferentor compass, a variation
of the American vernier compss. The notable Philadelphia manufacturer, William J. Young,
was the self-proclaimed, and generally accepted, inventor of the first American transit in the
year 1831. Young's new transit enabled the perpetuation of a straight line by means of turning,
or "transiting" the telescope on its horizontal axis. The theodolite was incapable of this simple
motion, the telescope having to be reversed in its wye yokes, or a 180-degree horizontal angle
turned to continue a line forward. Young also eliminated the cumbersome rack-and-pinion
motions associated with the early theodolites and opted for a clamp and slow motion tangent
screw arrangement.

So successful were the sales of Young's transits in 1835 that in order to keep up with
the demand he had to have several instruments made to his specifications by an English
manufacturer. Of the three dozen built, only a few proved to be usable. The others were
dismantled due to various problems, including iron fragments in the brass.
 The evolution of the transit instrument brought about a few recognizable design changes
that can assist the collector in dating instruments. Early forms, from 1830 to the mid-nineteenth
century, can be identified by several features. Telescopes were fit with crosshair-adjusting
capstan screws located toward the center of the telescope. The telescope could only transit in
one direction due to the longer length of the tube on one side of the axis. Horizontal plates and
housings were flat, and the vernier and graduated circles were often viewed through a cut-out
within the compass housing. Both upper and lower motions were fit with clamps and directly
connected slow-motion tangent screws.

Young's early transits were fit with bull's-eye type level bubbles and out keepers, the
latter used to tally the number of chains measured, and his verniers were graduated to three
minutes. Most mid-nineteenth century instruments began incorporating horizontal circles and
verniers viewable outside the housing. Full vertical circles fit with clamps and slow-motion
tangent screws and level tubes slung parallel to the telescope became numerous.

These few developmental features of instruments made from 1831 through 1875 were
not confined to any specific time period. Early features can be found on instruments dating
from later periods. Therefore, dating instruments by only observing one feature may give
inaccurate results.

The last quarter of the nineteenth century saw a standardization in transit

design. Spring-opposed screws were invented in the year 1871 by Heller & Brightly and were
incorporated by most manufacturers after 1885. Crosshair capstan screws and primary optics
tube adjustments were located closer to the eyepiece. In most late-19th century examples, the
heavy upper plate of the leveling base was eliminated and replaced with a cast lattice frame to
support the screws. These later recognizable features continued into the first half of the 20th
century.

The transit, throughout its years of development, lent itself well to adaptations for
specialty use. In 1867 William Schmoltz adapted William Burt's solar attachment to the
transit. This allowed for location of the true meridian by solar observations, therefore bypassing
the often inaccurate magnetic readings. In 1869 Benjamin S. Lyman devised a solar apparatus
that fir below the horizontal plate of the transit. An inclined standard transit instrument with a
solar attachment over a compass (somewhat like Burt's original solar compass design) was
invented by R. R. Siebert of the U. S. Coastal Survey.

Other solar attachments were devised by various American inventors and

manufacturers, including Buff and Berger (Pearson's, 1882), Brandis (1881), J. W. Holmes
(1887), Gardam's (1881), Walter Scott's (1890), and Davis' solar transit (1894). Two of the
more popularly designed solar attachments, aside from the Schmoltz-type, are Smith's (1880)
and Saegmuller's (1881) attachments. Both were telescopic attachments, as opposed to peep-
sights. The Smith solar attachment fits onto the side of one standard, and the Saegmuller fits
atop the existing telescope. Both continued to be used by government agencies throughout
the middle of the 20th century.

Another series of rare adaptations of the transit evolved for use in mines, since mine
surveying presented special problems. The conventional transit was unable to give readings
of extreme vertical angles up and down steep shafts and slopes, because the line-of-sight
would be obscured by the horizontal plate. This problem led to some pretty radical changes,
all of them designed so that the line-of-sight would bypass the horizontal plate and allow for
vertical sightings. Some of the more scarce designs include the inclined standard transit,
Blattner's hinge-standard model, and Buff and Berger's duplex telescope-bearing transit
designed in 1889. Both instruments were fit with telescopic standards that extended beyond
the vertical plane of the horizontal circle. One form of mining instrument that gained popularity,
probably due to its ease of ability to convert, was the auxiliary, or double-telescope mining
transit. This was basically a standard form of transit with a detachable second telescope and
counter weight. The points of attachment were at the ends of the telescope axis, outside the
standards. Other designs included attachment of the auxiliary telescope to the existing
telescope as well as to the outside of the standards.

Other forms of mid-to-late 19th century transit variations include precise instruments
used for geodetic, tunnel and astronomical applications. These are usually very large
instruments and, due to the fact that they were never made in large quantities, are very rare
today.

Finally, materials used in the construction of instruments are of importance for

identification purposes. Although most transits primarily were made from brass, many
manufacturers offered instruments made from aluminum, adding that they would cost 50%
more than the standard transit, and that aluminum had several drawbacks, for example, poor
bearing durability, difference in the coefficients of expansion, and cost. It appears that few
aluminum instruments were made prior to the use of aluminum alloys which began around
1900. Examples were claimed to have been manufactured by the firm of W. & L. E. Gurley of
Troy, New York, as early as 1875. Very few examples exist today.

Many mid-to-late 19th century American transits are still available to the collector today,
and while all the aforementioned specialized instruments are very rare, recognizing these forms
may be advantageous for future highlighting of quality collections.

USES:

A transit level is an optical instrument, or a telescope, complete with a built-in spirit level
that is mounted on a tripod. Transit levels are used mainly for surveying and building, but they
can be used to determine the relative position of lines and objects as well. Transit levels are
very precise. They are used to establish a reference line, but they are also used to provide
readings of angles in precise measurements.

HOW TO USED:

How to Read a Transit Level

1. Locate the eyepiece. This can be turned to bring the crosshairs into focus.

2.Up the scope of the level is the leveling vial.

3. The knob at the end of the scope is the focusing knob.

 4.The horizontal graduated circle is the circular guide marked with degrees, used for
reading horizontal angles.

5. The horizontal tangent knob is just above the horizontal graduated circle, used to
adjust left and right.

6. The vertical tangent knob is located on the near side of the scope on the right, used
to adjust up and down.

7. The vertical lock knob is just past, and locks the vertical direction in place.

8. The leveling screws are just below the horizontal graduated circle. These can be
adjusted to keep the device level.

9.Some levels have a detachable sunshade to block sunlight from the lens.

How To Set Up a Transit Level

1.Remove the level from the carrying case.

2. Place the level directly on the tripod head.

3. Thread or bolt the transit level onto the tripod base.

4. Remove the protective lens covers and place them in the carrying case.

6. Place the sunshade on the telescope.

7. Your transit level is mounted.

How To Use a Transit Level

1. Make sure that the tripod is stable and securely planted before starting the leveling
process. It is important to do this step to make sure the instrument will not tip over while doing
the leveling process.

2. Make sure that the attachment between the transit level and the tripod is secure.

3. Make sure the four leveling screws are not too tight against the leveling base plate.

4. First position: line up the telescope until it is located directly over a pair of leveling
screws. Using the leveling screws, center the bubble in the spirit vial.

5. Placing both of the leveling screws between your thumb and forefinger; turn both
screws at the same time in opposite directions and watch for movement in the graduated spirit
vial.

6. Move thumbs together in or out. The bubble will follow the left thumb.

7. Second position: when the bubble is centered, rotate the telescope 90°.
 8. Repeat the thumbs in, thumbs out action until the bubble is centered in the second
position.

9. Turn the telescope back to the first position and make the proper adjustments to
ensure that the instrument is still level.

10. Move the instrument through various stages of the 360° and check if the instrument
is level at all points.

If the instrument is not level at all points, the final check must be done again until the bubble is
centered at each point. If the bubble is still not being centered, there may be damages to the
leveling instrument.

How to Focus a Transit Level

After making sure your instrument is level at all leveling points, the next step is focusing the
transit level.

1. The first step in this process is to aim your telescope at an object. It should look blurry,
but turning the eyepiece either left or right should make the object appear clearer.

2. After focusing the eyepiece, point the telescope directly at the specific target. While
keeping the crosshairs in focus, use the focusing knob to make the specified object appear
sharp. A level grade line, or reference line, is a sight line that is established through the
telescope. It is created at the horizontal crosshair, and requires two workers to establish.

ASTROLABE

Astrolabe, any of a type of early scientific instrument used for reckoning time and for
observational purposes. One widely employed variety, the planispheric astrolabe, enabled
astronomers to calculate the position of the Sun and prominent stars with respect to both the
horizon and the meridian. It provided them with a plane image of the celestial sphere and the
principal circles—namely, those representing the ecliptic, celestial equator, and tropics of
Cancer and Capricorn. Because of such features, the planispheric astrolabe can be regarded
as a kind of rudimentary analogue computer.

HISTORY:

Ancient world
An early astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world by Apollonius of Perga, around
220 BC or in 150 BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A marriage of
the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog calculator capable of
working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. Theon of Alexandria (c.
335 – c. 405) wrote a detailed treatise on the astrolabe, and Lewis argues that Ptolemy used
an astrolabe to make the astronomical observations recorded in the Tetrabiblos. Some
historians attribute the astrolabe's invention to Hypatia, the daughter of Theon of
Alexandria, noting that Synesius, a student of Hypatia, credits her for the invention in his letters.
Astrolabes continued in use in the Greek-speaking world throughout
the Byzantine period. About 550 AD the Christian philosopher John Philoponus wrote a
treatise on the astrolabe in Greek, which is the earliest extant Greek treatise on the
instrument. In addition, Severus Sebokht, a bishop who lived in Mesopotamia, also wrote a
treatise on the astrolabe in Syriacin the mid-7th century. Severus Sebokht refers in the
introduction of his treatise to the astrolabe as being made of brass, indicating that metal
astrolabes were known in the Christian East well before they were developed in the Islamic
world or the Latin West.
Medieval era

Astrolabes were further developed in the medieval Islamic world, where Muslim
astronomers introduced angular scales to the astrolabe, adding circles indicating azimuths on
the horizon. It was widely used throughout the Muslim world, chiefly as an aid to navigation and
as a way of finding the Qibla, the direction of Mecca. The first person credited with building the
astrolabe in the Islamic world is reportedly the 8th-century mathematician Muhammad al-
Fazari.

The mathematical background was established by the Muslim astronomer Albatenius in

his treatise Kitabaz-Zij (c. 920 AD), which was translated into Latin by Plato Tiburtinus (De
Motu Stellarum). The earliest surviving dated astrolabe is dated AH 315 (927–8 AD). In the
Islamic world, astrolabes were used to find the times of sunrise and the rising of fixed stars, to
help schedule morning prayers (salat). In the 10th century, al-Sufi first described over 1,000
different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse
as astronomy, astrology, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, prayer, Salat, Qibla, etc.
The spherical astrolabe, a variation of both the astrolabe and the armillary sphere, was
invented during the Middle Ages by astronomers and inventors in the Islamic world. The
earliest description of the spherical astrolabe dates back to Al-Nayrizi (fl.892–902). In the 12th
century, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī invented the linear astrolabe, sometimes called the "staff of al-
Tusi", which was "a simple wooden rod with graduated markings but without sights. It was
furnished with a plumb line and a double chord for making angular measurements and bore a
perforated pointer". The first geared mechanical astrolabe was later invented by Abi Bakr
of Isfahan in 1235.
Peter of Maricourt, in the last half of the 13th century, also wrote a treatise on the
construction and use of a universal astrolabe (Nova compositioastrolabiiparticularis). Universal
astrolabes can be found at the History of Science Museum in Oxford.
The English author Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400) compiled a treatise on the
astrolabe for his son, mainly based on Messahalla. The same source was translated by the
French astronomer and astrologer Pélerin de Prusse and others. The first printed book on the
astrolabe was Composition and Use of Astrolabe by Christian of Prachatice, also using
Messahalla, but relatively original.
In 1370, the first Indian treatise on the astrolabe was written by the Jain astronomer Mahendra
Suri.
The first known metal astrolabe in Western Europe is the Destombes astrolabe made
from brass in tenth-century Spain. Metal astrolabes avoided the warping that large wooden
astrolabes were prone to, allowing the construction of larger and therefore more accurate
instruments. Metal astrolabes were also heavier than wooden instruments of the same size,
making it difficult to use them as navigational instruments.
The astrolabe was almost certainly first brought north of the Pyrenees by Gerbert of
Aurillac (future Pope Sylvester II), where it was integrated into the quadrivium at the school in
Reims, France, sometime before the turn of the 11th century. In the 15th century, the French
instrument-maker Jean Fusoris (fr) (c. 1365–1436) also started remaking and selling
astrolabes in his shop in Paris, along with portable sundials and other popular scientific devices
of the day. Thirteen of his astrolabes survive to this day. One more special example of
craftsmanship in the early 15th-century Europe is the astrolabe dated 1420, designed by
Antonius de Pacento and made by Dominicus de Lanzano.
In the 16th century, Johannes Stöffler published Elucidatiofabricaeususqueastrolabii, a
manual of the construction and use of the astrolabe. Four identical 16th-century astrolabes
made by Georg Hartmann provide some of the earliest evidence for batch
production by division of labor.
Astrolabes and clocks
At first mechanical astronomical clocks were influenced by the astrolabe; in many ways
they could be seen as clockwork astrolabes designed to produce a continual display of the
current position of the sun, stars, and planets. For example, Richard of Wallingford's clock (c.
1330) consisted essentially of a star map rotating behind a fixed rate, similar to that of an
astrolabe.
Many astronomical clocks, such as the famous clock at Prague, use an astrolabe-style
display, adopting a stereographic projection (see below) of the ecliptic plane.
In recent times, astrolabe watches have become a feature of haute horologie. For
example, in 1985 Swiss watchmaker Dr. Ludwig Oechslin designed and built an astrolabe
wristwatch in conjunction with UlysseNardin. Dutch watchmaker Christaan van der
Klauuw also manufactures astrolabe watches today.
USES:
 In the 10th century, Abd al-Rahmân b. Umar al-Sufī (d. A.H. 376/A.D. 986-7) wrote a
detailed treatise on the astrolabe consisting of 386 chapters in which he described 1000 uses
for the astrolabe. al-Sufī perhaps overstated the flexibility of the astrolabe, but astrolabes can
be used to solve many astronomical problems that would otherwise require rather sophisticated
mathematics. All of the everyday uses of the astrolabe are not known, but they were certainly
used to tell time during the day or night, to find the time of sunrise and sunset and, thus, the
length of the day, to locate celestial objects in the sky, as a handy reference of celestial
positions and, as astrology was a deeply embedded element of the cultures that used
astrolabes, to determine aspects of horoscopes. Islamic prayer times are astronomically
determined, and the astrolabe could be used to determine the required times. Modern
astrolabes, such as The Personal Astrolabe, can be used to solve astronomy problems
involving sidereal time and can be used with modern civil time. Following are two examples of
astrolabe uses: Finding the time of day, finding the time of a celestial event.

The rule on many astrolabes was divided by declination. The declination of a celestial object
could be found by placing the rule over the object and reading the declination directly. This
function is particularly useful for the Sun. Right ascensions are found by rotating the rete until
the celestial object is on the meridian and reading the sidereal time from the position of the
First Point of Aries on the rete. A special plate for the latitude where the horizon is the ecliptic
(90° - obliquity of the ecliptic) was sometimes provided for finding celestial latitudes and
longitudes.

Sidereal time is easily found on an astrolabe. Local sidereal time is the hour angle of the
vernal equinox at Aries 0° (the so-called, "First Point of Aries"). To find the current local sidereal
time, the rete is rotated to the current position of the ecliptic and the sidereal time is read directly
from the position of the vernal equinox. Similarly, the right ascension of any celestial object is
the sidereal time when the object is on the meridian. To read the right ascension of a star, set
the rete so the star is on the meridian and read the right ascension from the position of the
vernal equinox.

Islamic instruments often had special scales for finding the direction to Mecca (qibla) and
for determining prayer times. For example, the time of the asr prayer is defined as the time
when the shadow of vertical gnomen is equal to the length of the shadow at noon plus the
length of the gnomen. A scale of cotangents was sometimes provided to determine when this
would occur.

Astrolabes can be used to solve problems for the moon and planets such as rising and
setting times, meridian passage and finding sky positions in conjunction with an almanac. The
moon or planet's declination and right ascension are found in the almanac and a mark is made
at its location and the problem is solved using the normal procedures.

The Personal Astrolabe is in regular use by hikers to find the amount of daylight remaining,
sailors to find navigational stars, architects to determine shadow positions and astronomers to
plan observations. It is also in use at several innovative colleges and universities as an aid in
teaching basic positional astronomy.

HOW TO USE:

Finding the time of day

The time of day is found in the following steps:

a. The altitude of the Sun or a bright star is determined using the back of the
instrument. The astrolabe is held above eye level from the suspension. The
astrolabe is oriented so the Sun or star is lined up with the back of the astrolabe.
The alidade is rotated until the Sun's shadow or the star itself is visible through
the sights on the alidade. The altitude is noted from the altitude scale on the back
of the instrument.
b. The Sun's position on the ecliptic is found by setting the alidade on the date and
reading the Sun's longitude on the zodiac scale.
c. On the front of the astrolabe, the rule is rotated until it crosses the ecliptic at the
Sun's current longitude. The point where the rule crosses the ecliptic is the Sun's
current position.
d. The rete and rule are rotated together until the Sun or star pointer is at the
measured altitude.
e. The rule points to the apparent solar time on the limb. Apparent solar time is the
time as shown on a sundial and is different for each longitude. In modern use,
apparent solar time must be corrected to zone time by compensating for the
equation of time and the difference in longitude from the center of the time zone.
The appropriate scales for this correction are on the back of the Modern Edition
of the Personal Astrolabe.

It should also be noted that in the middle ages the time of day was usually expressed as
the part of the day or night that had passed. That is, sunrise was the beginning of the 1st hour
of the day, noon was the end of the 6th hour and sunset was the end of the 12th hour of the
day and the beginning of the 1st hour of the night. The length of the hour changed during the
year with the amount of change depending on the latitude. An "hour" was longer in the summer
than in the winter. These hours are called, "Unequal Hours" and many astrolabes had curves
on the plate for determining the unequal hour of the day or night. The use of unequal hours for
civil time keeping gradually declined as reliable clocks and watches became available in the
17th and 18th centuries although their use continued in parts of the world well into the 19th
century. The use of unequal hours is not as awkward as it might sound. The unequal hour of
the day is the percent of the day that has passed. The convention is quite easy to get used to
and is quite valuable for some environments.

Finding the time of a celestial even

 The time of a celestial event such as sunrise, sunset or the culmination of a star is found by
setting the astrolabe to the circumstances of the event and reading the time:

I. Determine the Sun's position on the ecliptic (longitude).

II. Set the rule to that position on the ecliptic on the front of the astrolabe.
III. Rotate the rete and rule together until the desired event is in position. For example,
to find the time of sunrise, rotate the rete and rule until their intersection is right on
the eastern horizon.
IV. Read the time from the rule's position on the limb.

The length of the day can be found by finding the time of sunrise and sunset and calculating
the difference. Similarly, the time until sunrise and sunset can be found as the difference with
the current time.

VERNIER

The vernier is a short auxiliary scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an
instru-ment, by means of which fractional parts of the smallest or least division of the main
scale can be determined precise-ly without having to interpolate. It was invented in 1631 by a
Frenchman name Pierre Vernier. Surveying instruments employ either a direct or retrograde
vernier.

HISTORY:

Calipers without a vernier scale originated in ancient China as early as the Qin dynasty
(AD 9). The secondary scale, which contributed extra precision, was invented in 1631 by
French mathematician Pierre Vernier (1580–1637). Its use was described in detail in English
in Navigatio Britannica (1750) by mathematician and historian John Barrow. While calipers
are the most typical use of Vernier scales today, they were originally developed for angle-
measuring instruments such as astronomical quadrants.

In some languages, the Vernier scale is called a nonius. It was also commonly called a
nonius in English until the end of the 18th century. Petrus Nonius is the Latinised name of the
Portuguese mathematician, cosmographer Pedro Nunes (1502-1578). The name "vernier"
was popularised by the French astronomer Jérôme Lalande (1732–1807) through his Traité
d'astronomie (2 vols) (1764).

USES:

The main use of the vernier caliper is to measure the internal and the external
diameters of an object. To measure using a vernier scale, the user first reads the finely
marked "fixed" scale (in the diagram). This measure is typically between two of the scale's
smallest graduations. The user then reads the finer vernier scale (see diagram), which
measures between the smallest graduations on the fixed scale—providing much greater
precision

HOW TO USE:

A dial caliper is a handy and versatile measuring tool. It can measure I.D, O.D, Step
and depth. Clean the measuring faces before and after measurement. Close the jaws and
check that the indicator points to "0" on the dial face. If caliper doesn't zero, loosen the bezel
clamp screw and rotate the bezel to the "0" position. Tighten the bezel clamp screw to fix the
"0" position. Thus a measurement of .617 inches would be obtained by reading .600 on the
main scale, and then adding 0.017 as determined by the dial. Metric Dial calipers are read in
a similar fashion. The main scale on the caliper has graduations every 1mm (millimeter) and
represents one half of a revolution of the dial. Every 10th mark is numbered in cm
(centimeters). Each full revolution is 2mm. (It takes 5 revolutions to make 1cm or 10mm).
Each graduation on the dial represents .02mm. The main scale on the caliper with the inch
system is marked every .100” and represents one revolution. Each graduation on the dial
represents .001". Thus a measurement of 12.02 mm would be obtained by reading 1 (1cm =
10mm) on the main scale. Add to that two graduations past the 1 and then adding 0.02 as
determined by the dial (as shown in the image). 10 + 2 + .02 = 12.02
Note: When using either a metric or inch dial caliper, smaller readings than those graduated
may of course be obtained by visual interpolation between graduations.

THEODOLITE

HISTORY:

The term diopter was sometimes used in old texts as a synonym for theodolite. This
derives from an older astronomical instrument called a dioptra.

Prior to the theodolite, instruments such as the geometric square and various
graduated circles (see circumferentor) and semicircles (see graphometer) were used to
obtain either vertical or horizontal angle measurements. It was only a matter of time before
someone put two measuring devices into a single instrument that could measure both angles
simultaneously. Gregorius Reisch showed such an instrument in the appendix of his book
Margarita Philosophica, which he published in Strasburg in 1512. It was described in the
appendix by Martin Waldseemüller, a German topographer and cartographer, who made the
device in the same year. Waldseemüller called his instrument the polimetrum.

Exploration theodolite
 The first occurrence of the word "theodolite" is found in the surveying textbook A
geometric practice named Pantometria (1571) by Leonard Digges, which was published
posthumously by his son, Thomas Digges. The etymology of the word is unknown. The first
part of the New Latin theo-delitus might stem from the Greek θεᾶσθαι, "to behold or look
attentively upon" or θεῖν "to run", but the second part is more puzzling and is often attributed
to an unscholarly variation of one of the following Greek words: δῆλος, meaning "evident" or
"clear", or δολιχός "long", or δοῦλος "slave", or an unattested Neolatin compound combining
ὁδός "way" and λιτός "plain". It has been also suggested that -delitus is a variation of the
Latin supine deletus, in the sense of "crossed out".

There is some confusion about the instrument to which the name was originally
applied. Some identify the early theodolite as an azimuth instrument only, while others
specify it as an altazimuth instrument. In Digges's book, the name "theodolite" described an
instrument for measuring horizontal angles only. He also described an instrument that
measured both altitude and azimuth, which he called a topographicall instrument [sic]. Thus
the name originally applied only to the azimuth instrument and only later became associated
with the altazimuth instrument. The 1728 Cyclopaedia compares "graphometer" to "half-
theodolite". Even as late as the 19th century, the instrument for measuring horizontal angles
only was called a simple theodolite and the altazimuth instrument, the plain theodolite.

The first instrument more like a true theodolite was likely the one built by Joshua
Habermel (de:Erasmus Habermehl) in Germany in 1576, complete with compass and tripod.

The earliest altazimuth instruments consisted of a base graduated with a full circle at
the limb and a vertical angle measuring device, most often a semicircle. An alidade on the
base was used to sight an object for horizontal angle measurement, and a second alidade
was mounted on the vertical semicircle. Later instruments had a single alidade on the vertical
semicircle and the entire semicircle was mounted so as to be used to indicate horizontal
angles directly. Eventually, the simple, open-sight alidade was replaced with a sighting
telescope. This was first done by Jonathan Sisson in 1725

The theodolite became a modern, accurate instrument in 1787, with the introduction of
Jesse Ramsden's famous great theodolite, which he created using a very accurate dividing
engine of his own design. The demand could not be met by foreign theodolites owing to their
inadequate precision, hence all instruments meeting high precision requirements were made
in England. Despite the many German instrument builders at the turn of the century, there
were no usable German theodolites available. A transition was brought about by Breithaupt
and the symbiosis of Utzschneider, Reichenbach and Fraunhofer. As technology progressed,
in the 1840s, the vertical partial circle was replaced with a full circle, and both vertical and
horizontal circles were finely graduated. This was the transit theodolite. Theodolites were
later adapted to a wider variety of mountings and uses. In the 1870s, an interesting
waterborne version of the theodolite (using a pendulum device to counteract wave
movement) was invented by Edward Samuel Ritchie. It was used by the U.S. Navy to take
the first precision surveys of American harbors on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts.

In the early part of the 20th century, Heinrich Wild produced theodolites that became
popular with surveyors. His Wild T2, T3, and A1 instruments were made for many years, and
he would go on to develop the DK1, DKM1, DM2, DKM2, and DKM3 for Kern Aarau
company. With continuing refinements instruments steadily evolved into the modern
theodolite used by surveyors today.

USE:

It is a commonly used instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It is

used for prolonging a line, levelling and even for measuring the distances indirectly
(techeometry). Using verniers angles can be read accurately up to 20″. Precise theodolites
are available which can read angles up to even 1″ accuracy. They use optical principle for
more accurate instruments. Now a day's electronic theodolites are also available which
display the angles.

HOW TO USE:

1. Mark the point at which the theodolite will be set up with a surveyor’s nail or a stake. This
point is the basis for measuring angles and distances.

2. Set up the tripod. Make sure the height of the tripod allows the instrument (the theodolite)
to be eye-level. The centered hole of the mounting plate should be over the nail or stake.
3. Drive the tripod legs into the ground using the brackets on the sides of each leg.

4. Mount the theodolite by placing it atop the tripod, and screw it in place with the mounting
knob.

5. Measure the height between the ground and the instrument. This will be used a reference
to other stations.

6. Level the theodolite by adjusting the tripod legs and using the bulls-eye level. You can
make slight tunings with the leveling knobs to get it just right.

7. Adjust the small sight (the vertical plummet) found on the bottom of the theodolite. The
vertical plummet allows you to do ensure the instrument remains over the nail or stake.
Adjust the plummet using the knobs on the bottom.

8. Aim the crosshairs in the main scope at the point to be measured. Use the locking knobs
on the side of the theodolite to keep it aimed on the point. Record the horizontal and vertical
angles using the viewing scope found on the theodolite’s side.

DIOPTRA

The dioptra, which was perfect-ed by Heron of Alexandria, was used in leveling and for
measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It consists es-sentially of a copper tube supported
on a standard and could be rotated in either a horizontal or vertical plane. For measuring
horizontal angles, a flat circular disc with graduations in degrees is used. An arm containing
sighting apertures at either end could be rotated to any desired position on the disc.

HISTORY:

The Dioptra was another surveying instrument that was utilized by Roman Surveyors.
It was used to measure horizontal and vertical angles and could also be used as a leveling
instrument and for astronomical observations as well. As with most instruments used by the
surveyors of the Roman Empire, the Dioptra was not an original invention of the Romans, but
was developed by the Greeks and implemented by the Romans. There are very few remains
of the Dioptra and the estimation of the replication of this instrument vary from reference to
reference. The best recollection of the description of what the Dioptra may have looked like
and its uses comes from the records of Hero of Alexandria. Hero, a Greek, described the use
of the Dioptra, however many of the important details regarding the construction of the
instrument were either lost or destroyed. Since there has not been any concrete evidence to
the contrary, it is believed that the Romans used the Dioptra in much the same way as the
Greeks did and the design of the Roman Dioptra was parallel to that of the Greek origin.

USES:

Greek astronomers used the dioptra to measure the positions of stars; both Euclid and
Geminus refer to the dioptra in their astronomical works. By the time of Ptolemy (2nd century
CE), it was obsolete as an astronomical instrument, having been replaced by the armillary
sphere.

It continued in use as an effective surveying tool. Adapted to surveying, the dioptra is

similar to the theodolite, or surveyor's transit, which dates to the sixteenth century. It is a
more accurate version of the groma.

The dioptra may have been sophisticated enough, for example, to construct a tunnel
through two opposite points in a mountain. There is some speculation that it may have been
used to build the Eupalinian aqueduct. Called "one of the greatest engineering achievements
of ancient times," it is a tunnel 1,036 meters (4,000 ft) long, "excavated through Mount Kastro
on the Greek island of Samos, in the 6th century BCE" during the reign of Polycrates.
Scholars disagree whether the dioptra was available that early.
 An entire book about the construction and surveying usage of the dioptra is credited to
Hero of Alexandria (also known as Heron; a brief description of the book is available online;
see Lahanas link, below). Hero was "one of history’s most ingenious engineers and applied
mathematicians."

The dioptra was used extensively on aqueduct building projects. Screw turns on
several different parts of the instrument made it easy to calibrate for very precise
measurements

The dioptra was replaced as a surveying instrument by the theodolite.

HOW TO USE:

The staff of the Dioptra may have been a three-legged instrument, similar to today's
tripod or possibly a monopole with three points at the base to assist in keeping it vertical.
Either of these types of staffs were approximately the equivalent of 7-7 U.S. Survey Feet in
height. At the top of the staff, was a circular plate with a cylinder attached to it. This plate and
cylinder allowed for rotation. At the top of the cylinder was another circular plate,
approximately 30 inches in diameter. This plate was made of wood and was divided and
marked into 360 degrees. Although the Dioptra was divided into degrees, it is believed that
these measurements were mainly used for astronomical observations. However, the Greeks
and Romans did have the knowledge and ability to use trigonometry, so it is possible that
they used the Dioptra for horizontal angle measurement as well.