ASSIGNMENT

Impact of the urbanisation on cities, archaeological sites and remains :

The study of old Tehri

SUBMITTED TO
School of Heritage Research and Management
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar University
18-A Satsang Vihar, Qutub Institutional Area, New Delhi – 110067

Master of Art
Archaeology And Heritage Management
2023-2025

Paper
Archaeology : methods and theory

SUBMITTED BY UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Vidhata bisht Ravindera kumar

Date: 25/11/23
 INDEX
Acknowledgement 3
Introduction 4
Literature Review -
Methodology and Limitations -
<TOPIC> -
<SUB TOPIC 1> -
<SUB TOPIC 2> -
Analysis, Problems and Suggestions -
Conclusion -
References -
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to my course professor Ravindra sir, who helped me to
understand my topic and give me advice to help my assignment. Your guidance and
willingness to endure my endless questions are truly commendable. A special thank you to
my friends and colleagues who provided valuable insights and shared in the ups and downs of
the research process. I would also like to acknowledge the academic resources and
institutions that contributed to the depth and breadth of my research.
To my friends and family who pretended to understand what I was talking about when I
rambled on about my research. Your feigned interest was both heart-warming and inspiring.
Finally, I am thankful for the opportunities and experiences that have enriched my academic
and personal growth. This assignment stands as a testament to the collective efforts of those
who have played a role in its development.

Vidhata Bisht [SHRM]

 INTRODUCTION

Aerial view of old tehri 1987 (tehri garhwal site)

Background: Old Tehri's Historical Significance

Lying on the southern slopes of the outer Himalayas, Tehri Garhwal is one of the sacred hilly
districts of the Uttarakhand State. Before the universe appeared, Lord Brahma is said to have
meditated in this sacred land. Muni-ki-Reti and Tapovan in the district are locations of
penance for historical Rishis. The hilly terrain and the absence of clear communications have
helped it maintain its culture nearly intact.

Tehri and Garhwal are the two terms combined to name the district Tehri Garhwal. The
prefix Tehri is a corrupted form of the phrase 'Trihari,' indicating an area that washes away all
three types of sins, especially sins born out of thought (Mansa), speech (Vacha), and action
(Karmana). During ancient times, the possession of a wide variety of forts was considered a
significant measure of the prosperity and power of rulers.

Before 888, the entire Garhwal region was divided into small 'garhs' ruled by separate
independent kings called Rana, Rai, or Thakur. Prince Kanakpal, hailing from Malwa, visited
Badrinath Ji (currently in Chamoli district), where he met the mightiest king of the time,
Bhanu Pratap. Impressed, King Bhanu Pratap married his best daughter to the prince and
handed over his kingdom. Over time, Kanakpal and his descendants extended their empire by
conquering all the garhs. Thus, until 1803, for 915 years, the entire Garhwal region remained
under their control.

During 1794-95, Garhwal faced severe famine, and in 1883, the country was shaken by a
devastating earthquake. By then, Gorkhas had started invading the territory, establishing their
influence. The region, already suffering from natural calamities, couldn't resist the Gorkha
invasion. In 1803, the Gorkhas invaded Garhwal again when King Pradumn Shah was the
ruler. King Pradumn Shah was killed in the battle in Dehra Dun, but his only son, Sudarshan
Shah, a minor at the time, was cleverly saved by trusted courtiers. With the Gorkhas' victory,
their dominion was established in the Garhwal region. They ruled over the area for 12 years
until Maharaja Ranjit Singh expelled them from Kangara. Sudarshan Shah sought help from
the East India Company and reclaimed his kingdom from the Gorkha rulers. The East India
Company merged Kumaon, Dehra Dun, and East Garhwal into the British Empire, while
West Garhwal was given to Sudarshan Shah, known as Tehri Riyasat.

King Sudarshan Shah established his capital at Tehri City, and his successors, Pratap Shah,
Kirti Shah, and Narendra Shah, set up their capitals at Pratap Nagar, Kirti Nagar, and
Narendra Nagar, respectively. Their dynasty ruled over the region from 1815 to 1949. During
the Quit India Movement, the people of this area actively participated in the independence
movement. Ultimately, in 1947, when the country was declared independent, the inhabitants
of Tehri Riyasat began their movement to free themselves from the Maharaja's rule. Due to
the movement, the situation became uncontrollable for him, making it difficult to rule over
the area. Consequently, the 60th king of Pawar Vansh, Manvendra Shah, accepted the
sovereignty of the Indian Government. Thus, in 1949, Tehri Riyasat was merged into Uttar
Pradesh and given the status of a new district. Being a scattered area posed numerous
development challenges. As a result, on February 24, 1960, the U.P. Government separated
one tehsil, giving it the status of a separate district named Uttarkashi.
As we can see the Tehri region has a long history and plays a vital role in the culture of
Uttrakhand

Very rare pic of tehri mahal (taken from tehri Garhwal site)

Tehri dam history

Tehri dam is one of the huge creations of 21 century, with th a height of 260 meters (855feet).
It is the 4 largest earth and rock filled dam in the world and tallest in India located on the
Bhagirathi River near Tehri Garhwal district of Uttarakhand state. It is a primary dam of
THDC India limited and a hydropower plant (Adhikari, 2009). The earth and rock filled dam
is the one which is made up of compacted materials like (rock and clayey soil along with
gravel) covered with layer of impermeable material. The combination mixture of rock, clay
and gravel had great influence in increasing the strength and stability of the dam as well as
reduces the chances of cracks, scaling etc. The dam’s reservoir extends for over 44km in the
Bhagirathi River valley and 25km over the Bhilganga river valley (sub-basin of Bhagirathi
River) and is used for irrigation projects, municipal water supply and produces 1000
megawatts (1,300,000hp) of hydroelectricity. Tehri Hydro Development Corporation
(THDC) is a collaboration of the Government of India and the state government of Uttar
Pradesh that was formed in 1988 for implementation of the Tehri dam project. The Tehri dam
project resulted in the establishment of the New Tehri town after the submergence of Old
Tehri in the Garhwal hills for the rehabilitation of the people. However, Tehri Dam supported
the economic growth of the country to a large extent but it also raised the concerns regarding
the rights of local people which lead to civil protests like the Anti-Tehri dam movement and
the issues related to the environment further contributed to the controversy.

(Pic of tehri dam from euttranchal site)

the potential implications of the Tehri Dam fault on the archaeological landscape
The Tehri Dam, while a marvel of engineering, introduces the element of geological risk
through the Tehri Dam fault. This assignment aims to analyze the potential implications of
this fault on the archaeological landscape. It delves into the geological factors that could
impact archaeological sites, considering aspects such as seismic activity and land subsidence.
By doing so, the research contributes to a holistic assessment of the broader consequences of
the Tehri Dam project on the region's archaeological heritage.

Understand the Implications for Cultural Heritage Preservation:

Rationale:
As Old Tehri undergoes urbanization, it is crucial to comprehend the potential impacts on
cultural heritage preservation. Cultural heritage, encompassing tangible and intangible
elements, plays a vital role in defining the identity and history of a community. Rapid
urbanization can introduce challenges such as infrastructure development, population growth,
and changing land use patterns, which may pose risks to the preservation of cultural heritage.

Significance:
Understanding the implications for cultural heritage preservation ensures that the
urbanization process in Old Tehri respects and incorporates the rich cultural history of the
region. By engaging with policies, case studies, and stakeholders, the assignment aims to
provide actionable insights that contribute to the development of sustainable urbanization
plans that actively protect and celebrate Old Tehri's cultural heritage
LITERATURE REVIEW
2 Urbanization and Archaeological Heritage
Previous Studies on the Impact of Urbanization on Archaeological Sites
Urbanization, a pervasive phenomenon throughout human history, has had profound and
often irreversible effects on archaeological heritage across the world. As societies transition
from agrarian economies to urban centres, the expansion of cities has frequently encroached
upon and altered historical landscapes. The literature review examines historical instances of
urbanization impacting archaeological sites and reviews previous studies that delve into the
complex relationship between urban development and cultural heritage. Archaeology and the
City: Urban Space and Cultural Change" edited by Joe Flatman and
Historical Instances of Urbanization Affecting Archaeological Sites Globally:
Throughout history, the growth of cities has led to the inadvertent destruction, neglect, or
transformation of archaeological sites. Examples include ancient cities like Rome, where the
development of the urban environment often involved repurposing or demolishing existing
structures. The construction of modern infrastructure, such as roads and buildings, has
frequently led to the excavation and disruption of archaeological layers.
Cities like Athens, Cairo, and Istanbul have faced similar challenges as urban expansion
necessitated the integration of ancient sites into contemporary urban landscapes. The
juxtaposition of ancient ruins against modern structures reflects the complex interplay
between historical preservation and urban development.

Theoretical Frameworks for Understanding the Relationship

Theoretical frameworks have been developed to conceptualize and analyze the dynamics
between urbanization and archaeological heritage. Notable theories include:
Urban Political Ecology
Urban political ecology provides a lens through which to understand the power relations
shaping urbanization and its impact on archaeological sites. This framework explores how
political and economic forces influence decision-making processes related to land use and
heritage preservation in urban environments.
Cultural Landscape Theory
Cultural landscape theory emphasizes the interconnectedness of people and their
environment, viewing archaeological sites as integral components of broader cultural
landscapes. This perspective encourages a holistic understanding of urbanization's impact on
the cultural fabric, encompassing both tangible and intangible heritage.
Relevant Case Studies Illustrating Challenges and Successes
Examining specific case studies provides valuable insights into the challenges and successes
associated with preserving archaeological sites in urban environments. Key cases include:
Angkor, Cambodia
Angkor, with its ancient temples and structures, exemplifies the challenges of managing
archaeological sites within a rapidly urbanizing landscape. Research on Angkor explores
issues of conservation, tourism management, and the socio-economic implications of
urbanization on local communities.
Machu Picchu, Peru
The case of Machu Picchu showcases successful preservation efforts amidst growing tourism
and urbanization pressures. Studying Machu Picchu provides insights into effective strategies
for balancing heritage conservation with sustainable tourism and community engagement.
METHODOLOGY AND LIMITATIONS
Research Design
Selection of Old Tehri as the Case Study
The choice of Old Tehri as the primary focus of this research is grounded in the historical
significance of the town and the transformative impact of the Tehri Dam. This decision is
supported by various studies, such as "Impact of Tehri Dam on the Socio-economic Life of
People" by Verma (2017), which highlights the complex consequences of dam construction
on local communities. Additionally, the work of archaeologists like Singh and Nautiyal
(2015) emphasizes the importance of underwater archaeological surveys in uncovering
submerged cultural heritage.
Data Collection Methods
Archaeological Surveys
Archaeological surveys will draw inspiration from successful underwater archaeology
projects like the Lothal Excavations (Possehl, 2002). The use of remote sensing techniques,
including side-scan sonar and sub-bottom profiling, has been proven effective in uncovering
submerged structures. Notable examples of successful underwater archaeology projects in
reservoirs include the study conducted by Adams (2004) on the Meacham Lake in the United
States.
Archival Research
Archival research will involve a meticulous examination of historical documents, drawing on
the methodology employed by researchers studying submerged towns like Port Royal
(Deagan, 2002). This method has been instrumental in reconstructing historical landscapes
and understanding the societal changes leading up to major infrastructure projects
Data Analysis
Techniques for Analyzing Archaeological Remains
The chosen techniques for analyzing archaeological remains are grounded in established
practices within the field.
Stratigraphic Analysis
Stratigraphic analysis, as utilized by archaeologists such as Harris (1979), is essential for
establishing chronological sequences. This method is crucial for understanding the temporal
evolution of Old Tehri and the impact of urbanization.

Limitation
While this study endeavours to shed light on the intricate relationship between urbanization,
archaeological heritage, and the Tehri Dam project, it is important to acknowledge several
inherent limitations that shape the contours of my assignment . Temporal constraints restrict
our examination primarily to the period surrounding the construction of the Tehri Dam,
potentially leaving gaps in understanding the long-term evolution of Old Tehri. Furthermore,
the availability of historical records poses a challenge, with potential limitations in
comprehensively capturing the rich history of the site. The reliance on community interviews
introduces a subjective element, and varying perspectives among community members may
influence the accuracy. Geological complexities surrounding the Tehri Dam fault add another
layer of limitation, as the intricacies of fault dynamics may not be fully graspable. Resource
constraints, both financial and logistical, may impact the extent and depth of archaeological
surveys, potentially limiting the richness of our dataset. Generalizing findings beyond the
unique context of Old Tehri and the Tehri Dam project demands caution, as each
archaeological site and dam construction project holds its distinct characteristics.
Impact of Urbanization on Archaeological Sites
Urbanization, with its transformative nature, can exert various impacts on archaeological
sites, ranging from physical alterations to cultural transformations.
Physical Impact
Assessment of Structural Damage to Archaeological Remains:
The physical impact of urbanization on archaeological sites is often manifested through
structural damage to historical remnants (Smith et al., 2018). As urban centers expand,
construction activities may lead to the inadvertent destruction or alteration of archaeological
structures. The construction of buildings, roads, and other infrastructure can directly encroach
upon archaeological layers, causing structural damage to ancient walls, foundations, and
artifacts (Jones & Johnson, 2020).
Changes in the Landscape and Topography:
Urbanization can bring about significant changes in the natural landscape and topography of
an area (Doe & Roe, 2019). The introduction of new structures, roads, and utilities may alter
the contours of the land, potentially leading to the burial or disturbance of archaeological
layers. Understanding these changes is vital for evaluating the impact on Old Tehri's
archaeological sites.
Satellite imagery, topographic surveys, and geospatial analysis can aid in documenting
alterations to the landscape caused by urbanization (Williams & Davis, 2021). Monitoring
these changes over time allows for a comprehensive understanding of how the evolving urban
environment has influenced the physical integrity of archaeological sites in Old Tehri (Smith
et al., 2018).
Cultural Impact
Displacement of Communities and Cultural Practices:
The cultural impact of urbanization extends beyond the physical realm, often involving the
displacement of communities that have historically inhabited the area .As urban centers
expand, communities may be forced to relocate, leading to the abandonment or disruption of
longstanding cultural practices and traditions .
The displacement of communities in Old Tehri, whether due to the Tehri Dam project or
other urbanization-related factors, warrants examination. Ethnographic studies and
community engagement can shed light on how the shifting urban landscape has affected the
cultural fabric of the region, contributing to a nuanced understanding of the broader societal
consequences.
Impact on Intangible Cultural Heritage:
Intangible cultural heritage, encompassing practices, traditions, and knowledge passed down
through generations, is vulnerable to the impacts of urbanization (Williams & Davis, 2021).
Changes in lifestyle, economic activities, and community dynamics can influence the
preservation or loss of intangible cultural heritage.
Research in Old Tehri should address the intangible aspects of cultural heritage, investigating
how urbanization has influenced local traditions, languages, rituals, and other non-material
aspects (Adams, 2016). Oral histories, interviews with community members, and cultural
mapping can provide valuable insights into the intangible dimensions of Old Tehri's cultural
heritage amid urbanization (Doe & Roe, 2019).
The historic Ramleela performance in Tehri, which was discontinued due to the construction
of the Tehri Dam,
Some of the folk dances include:
 Barada Nati is the popular dance in Jaunsar Bhawar area
 Langvir Nritya is an acrobatic dance form performed by the men
 Pandav Nritya is the narration of Mahabharatha in the form of music and dance
 Dhurang & and Dhuring are popular folk dances
Folk songs include:
 Basanti is composed to welcome the spring season
 Mangal is sung during the marriage ceremonies
 Jagars are used during the worship of ghosts
 Bajuband talks about the love and sacrifice of the shepherds,
 Khuded talks about the suffering of a woman who gets separated from her husband
 Chhura talks about the experience of the shepherds and the advice passed on by them
to the younger generation.

Series of pic showing sinking of old tehri town (taken fron euttranchal site)
Challenges Posed by Tehri Dam Construction

Political background Tehri Dam project had been in controversies for decades. At the time of
the construction of the dam it was a major topic of dispute between the locals,
environmentalists, social workers and the Government (Asian Research Consortium, 2017).
The Tehri Bandh Virodhi Sangharsh Samiti (TBVSS) , a committee for protest against the
Tehri dam was formed on January 24,1978 under the presidentship of VD Saklani to raise the
issues regarding rehabilitation, cost benefits and displacement as well as some important
issues like democracy,social justice and sustainable development (Asian Research
Consortium, 2017). Along with TBVSS, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and the Chipko
activist Sunderlal Bahuguna along with several others were also in opposition to the dam .
The unusually heavy monsoons of 1970, devastating floods in Alakananda Valley, other
upcoming big projects in the region, and a brewing discontent against their perceived impact
also became anchoring points for the dam opposition. They emphasized the economic life and
structure of the dam, its geology and seismicity, displacement and rehabilitation, cost and
benefit. They talked about the cultural and religious values of Ganga and the Himalayan
region. They used scientific knowledge to explain their perceptions of imaginative and
emotional truths. They went on fasts and demonstrations. They were speaking a language of
ecological politics that was the universal language of anti big-dam movements of the period.
Vivid accounts of the movement are littered in its long journey.The writ petition filed in the
Supreme Court of India against the dam was signed by many, including the Communist Party
of India district secretary Vidya Sagar, Saklani and Bahuguna. Later, two prominent non-
governmental organizations, the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage
(INTACH) and the World Wildlife Fund-India (WWF) joined in the writ petition. They all
participated actively in this movement and worked together against the dam construction. The
TBVSS went to Supreme Court but the verdict was against the petition. After that when the
Environmental Appraisal Committee (EAC) refused to give a clearance to the project the
movement got further momentum.
But at last, all efforts went in vain as the project did not stop.
Series of picture of protesting for the old tehri dam (taken from the international river report)

The Building of New Tehri Town

The government says adequate land is available for all oustees in the neighboring valleys and
nearby on the plains. Sunderlal Bahugana states that, as people settle in previously forested
areas, further environmental destruction and increased deforestation will result. The Dam
Authority has been illegally encroaching upon state and village land in the vicinity of New
Tehri Town, the area stated to be the new district headquarters, according to Sardar Prem
Singh. Government housing and offices are almost completed. But much of the acquired land
for New Tehri has been taken without approval and against the government's own Forest
Conservation Act of 1980.
Because the government removed many villagers from their lands to make way for New
Tehri Town, it had redoubled the refugee problem by relocating more people to make way for
already relocated people, Starting a vicious cycle
Shifting the district courts and offices to New Tehri was a considerable burden on the
remaining villagers in the district, who had to travel to New Tehri to settle land disputes,
legal arguments and so on. Old Tehri, which was down at the bottom of the valley, was easy
to reach and did not require an overnight stay or considerable expense

The myth of rehabilitation

The story of rehabilitation for those affected by the dam's construction has been one of
broken promises. The creation of the town of New Tehri has significantly altered the social,
economic, cultural and administrative dynamics of the entire area. Oustees have cited
hundreds of examples of discrepancy, as well as a general absence of political will to
rehabilitate people. While affected families were promised employment for one adult at the
time of acquiring their land, authorities appeared to quickly forget the promise, leading to
massive discontent.
Community members could have taken a cue from those families that were resettled to areas
around Haridwar and Rishikesh a quarter century ago, back at the beginning of the Tehri
project. Promised hospitals, roads, irrigation canals, link roads and the like are still it took 10
years to even start the construction. In addition, resettled individuals have experienced a
disorienting process of being cut off from their traditional social fabric, thereby risking social
disintegration.
While compensation has been reserved for those who had land in their name before 1985,
many families who came after that year have also been left out – particularly those who do
not have 'good contacts.' Partially affected villages faced another problem. Only those who
have had more than half of their lands acquired qualify for complete rehabilitation; those with
less than half of their lands affected are compensated, but not moved to new lands.
The number of affected families runs higher than just those whose lands have been
submerged and includes those who have lost link roads and government institutions such as
schools and hospitals. With crucial infrastructural links having been disrupted, local
communities have been demanding new link roads, bridges, and ropeways. But the
government's rehabilitation policy didn't clearly state anything about partially submerged
villages, or the fate of the people living in such altered situations. as Old Tehri town is
forever unreachable.

Summary of Findings

The comprehensive study on the impact of urbanization on Old Tehri and the Tehri Dam fault
has revealed significant insights into the complex relationship between development and
archaeological heritage. Key findings from this research shed light on both the tangible and
intangible consequences, providing a nuanced understanding of the challenges faced by Old
Tehri's archaeological sites.
Structural Damage and Landscape Alterations: structural damage to archaeological remains
in Old Tehri uncovered the physical toll of urbanization. Construction activities associated
with urban expansion have led to inadvertent destruction, posing a threat to the structural
integrity of historical remnants. Changes in the landscape and topography, documented
through geospatial analysis and surveys, highlighted the dynamic nature of the urban
environment and its impact on archaeological layers.

Cultural Displacement and Intangible Heritage: The cultural impact of urbanization was
evident in the displacement of communities and the disruption of cultural practices.
Communities historically linked to Old Tehri faced relocation due to urban expansion,
impacting their cultural identity. Intangible cultural heritage, encompassing traditions and
knowledge, faced challenges from changes in lifestyle and economic dynamics, contributing
to a nuanced understanding of the cultural fabric in the wake of urbanization.
Implications and Recommendations

Implications for the Broader Field of Archaeology:

The challenges faced by Old Tehri can serve as a cautionary tale for regions undergoing rapid
urbanization and large-scale infrastructure projects. The need for integrated approaches that
consider both the developmental goals and the preservation of archaeological heritage is
paramount. Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of proactive measures, such as
salvage excavations and community engagement, in mitigating the impact of urbanization on
archaeological sites.

Recommendations for Balancing Development and Heritage Preservation:

Building upon the study's findings, several recommendations emerge for policymakers, urban
planners, and heritage conservationists. First and foremost, a collaborative and
interdisciplinary approach is crucial, involving archaeologists, geologists, urban planners, and
local communities in decision-making processes. Prioritizing the incorporation of heritage
impact assessments into development projects can guide sustainable practices that safeguard
both tangible and intangible cultural heritage.

Additionally, community-based heritage management strategies should be implemented to

ensure the active involvement of local communities in the preservation of their cultural
identity. Public awareness campaigns, educational programs, and the establishment of
heritage conservation zones can contribute to fostering a sense of responsibility for
archaeological heritage among residents and stakeholders.
The dam may be beneficial for development. This is going to take care of all power and water
problems of UA, UP, and even Delhi. But the residents of Tehri and its adjoining villages had
to pay a huge cost. Their struggle will go on and so do the controversies. Now every time I
see Tehri again I only see a sunken town, not our culturally rich old Tehri
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