Module 2.1,2.2

FLIGHT DYNAMICS AND CONTROL
222TEE005 & 222EEE073

MODULE 2 - AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
Dr. Sreeja S.
Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering Trivandrum, Kerala
August 12, 2023
1/22
Sreeja S Program Elective 3 August 12, 2023 1 / 22
Outline
1 Time to Climb
2 Range and Endurance
3 Range and Endurance of Jet Plane
4 Takeoff Performance
5 Landing Performance
2/22
Time to Climb
A fighter airplane must be able to climb from sea level to the altitude
of advancing enemy aircraft in as short a time as possible.
3/22
Time to Climb
A commercial aircraft must be able to rapidly climb to high altitudes to
minimize the discomfort and risks of inclement weather and to minimize
air traffic problems.
3/22
Time to Climb
A commercial aircraft must be able to rapidly climb to high altitudes to
minimize the discomfort and risks of inclement weather and to minimize
air traffic problems.
dh
R/C = (1)
dt
Z h2
dh
t= (2)
0 R/C
3/22
Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven
The maximum distance an airplane can fly on the fuel supply carried
by the airplane.
4/22
by the airplane.
Range is the total distance (measured with respect to the ground)

traversed by an airplane on a tank of fuel.
4/22
by the airplane.

Endurance is the total time that an airplane stays in the air on a tank
of fuel.
4/22
by the airplane.

Endurance is the total time that an airplane stays in the air on a tank
of fuel.
The parameters that maximize range are different from those that max-
imize endurance; they also differ for propeller- and jet-powered aircraft.
4/22
The critical factor influencing range and endurance is the specific fuel
consumption, a characteristic of the engine.
5/22
For a reciprocating engine, specific fuel consumption (commonly abbre-
viated SFC) is defined as the weight of fuel consumed per unit power
per unit time.
5/22
For a reciprocating engine, specific fuel consumption (commonly abbre-
viated SFC) is defined as the weight of fuel consumed per unit power
per unit time.
lb of fuel
SFC = (3)
(bhp)(h)
Endurance
Minimum number of pounds of fuel per hour
lb of fuel
∝ (SFC )(hpR ) (4)
h
5/22
Range and Endurance
Minimum pounds of fuel per hour are obtained with minimum hpR .
6/22
Range and Endurance
Minimum pounds of fuel per hour give maximum endurance.
6/22
Range and Endurance
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when the
airplane is flying at minimum power required.
6/22
Range and Endurance
Minimum power required corresponds to a maximum value of
3/2
CL /CD
6/22
Range and Endurance
Minimum power required corresponds to a maximum value of
3/2
CL /CD
Endurance
3/2
airplane is flying at a velocity such that CL /CD is at its maximum.
6/22
Range
To cover the longest distance (say in miles), it must use the minimum
number of pounds of fuel per mile.
7/22
Range
Range
lb of fuel (SFC )(hpR )
∝ (5)
mi V∞
7/22
Range
Range
∝ (5)
mi V∞
Minimum pounds of fuel per mile are obtained with a minimum

hpR /V∞
7/22
Range
Range
∝ (5)
mi V∞

hpR /V∞
Minimum hpR /V∞ corresponds to maximum L/D.
7/22
Range
Range
∝ (5)
mi V∞

hpR /V∞
Minimum hpR /V∞ corresponds to maximum L/D.
Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when the
airplane is flying at a velocity such that CL / CD is at its maximum.
7/22
Breguet Range Formula(Propeller Driven)
Range(Propeller Driven)
η CL W 0
R= ln (6)
c CD W 1
To maximize range for a reciprocating-engine, propeller-driven airplane,
8/22
η CL W 0
R= ln (6)
c CD W 1
The largest possible propeller efficiency η.
8/22
η CL W 0
R= ln (6)
c CD W 1

The lowest possible specific fuel consumption c .
8/22
η CL W 0
R= ln (6)
c CD W 1

W0
The highest ratio of W1 , which is obtained with the largest fuel
weight Wf
8/22
η CL W 0
R= ln (6)
c CD W 1

W0
weight Wf
Flight at maximum L / D: for maximum range, we must fl y at
maximum L / D
8/22
η CL W 0
R= ln (6)
c CD W 1

W0
weight Wf
Flight at maximum L / D: for maximum range, we must fl y at
maximum L / D
Range is directly proportional to L / D. This clearly explains why high
values of L / D (high aerodynamic efficiency)
8/22
Breguet Endurance Formula(Propeller Driven)
3/2
η CL ρ∞ S 1/2 −1/2 W0
E = −2 ( ) [W ]W1 (7)
c CD 2
9/22
Breguet Endurance Formula(Propeller Driven)
3/2
η CL ρ∞ S 1/2 −1/2 W0
E = −2 ( ) [W ]W1 (7)
c CD 2
3/2
η CL −1/2 1/2
E= (2ρ∞ S)1/2 [W1 − W0 ] (8)
c CD
9/22
Breguet Endurance Formula
To maximize endurance for a reciprocating engine, propeller-driven

airplane
The highest propeller efficiency η
10/22

airplane
The lowest specific fuel consumption c .
10/22

airplane
The highest fuel weight Wf
10/22

airplane
3/2
Flight at maximum CL /CD i.e., that for maximum endurance, we
3/2
must fly at maximum CL /CD
10/22

airplane
3/2
3/2
1/2
Flight at sea level, because E ∝ ρ∞ , and ρ∞ is largest at sea level
10/22

airplane
3/2
3/2
1/2
Flight at sea level, because E ∝ ρ∞ , and ρ∞ is largest at sea level
Endurance depends on altitude, whereas range is independent of altitude.
10/22
Range and Endurance of Jet Plane
For a jet airplane, the specific fuel consumption is defined as the weight of
fuel consumed per unit thrust per unit time.
The fuel consumption of a jet engine physically depends on the thrust

produced by the engine, whereas the fuel consumption of a
reciprocating engine physically depends on the brake power produced.
Thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC) for jet engines:
lb of fuel
TSFC = (9)
(lb of thrust)(h)
11/22
The maximum endurance of a jet airplane occurs for minimum pounds of

fuel per hour, the same as for propeller-driven aircraft.
for a jet
lb of fuel
= (TSFC )(TA ) (10)
h
12/22

for a jet
lb of fuel
= (TSFC )(TA ) (10)
h
In steady, level, unaccelerated flight, the pilot has adjusted the

throttle so that thrust available TA just equals the thrust required TR
: TA = TR
12/22

for a jet
lb of fuel
= (TSFC )(TA ) (10)
h
In steady, level, unaccelerated flight, the pilot has adjusted the

throttle so that thrust available TA just equals the thrust required TR
: TA = TR
Minimum pounds of fuel per hour correspond to minimum thrust
required.
12/22
Endurance of Jet Plane
Endurance
Maximum endurance for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at
the minimum thrust required.
Minimum thrust required was shown to correspond to maximum L/D
13/22
Endurance of Jet Plane
Endurance
the minimum thrust required.
Minimum thrust required was shown to correspond to maximum L/D
Endurance
a velocity such that CL/CD is at its maximum.
13/22
Range of Jet Plane
Maximum range occurs for a minimum number of pounds of fuel per mile.
lb of fuel (TSFC )(TA )

= (11)
mi V∞
14/22
Range of Jet Plane

= (11)
mi V∞
For steady, level flight TA = TR , minimum pounds of fuel per mile

correspond to a minimum TR / V∞ .
14/22
Range of Jet Plane

= (11)
mi V∞

For steady, level flight TR = D .
14/22
Range of Jet Plane

= (11)
mi V∞

TR D
= (12)
V∞ V∞
14/22
Range of Jet Plane

= (11)
mi V∞

TR D
= (12)
V∞ V∞
s
TR 1 2W 1
= ρ∞ S CD ∝ 1/2 (13)
V∞ 2 ρ∞ SCL CL /CD
14/22
Range of Jet Plane
TR 1/2
Minimum V∞ corresponds to maximum CL /CD
Maximum range for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at a
1/2
velocity such that CL /CD is at its maximum.
15/22
Endurance of Jet Airplane
Endurance
1 CL W 0
E= ln (14)
ct CD W1
For maximum endurance for a jet airplane:
16/22
Endurance
1 CL W 0
E= ln (14)
ct CD W1

Minimum thrust-specific fuel consumption ct
16/22
Endurance
1 CL W 0
E= ln (14)
ct CD W1

Maximum fuel weight Wf
16/22
Endurance
1 CL W 0
E= ln (14)
ct CD W1

Flight at maximum L/D. i.e., for maximum endurance for a jet, we
must fly so that L/D is at its maximum.
16/22
Endurance
1 CL W 0
E= ln (14)
ct CD W1

Flight at maximum L/D. i.e., for maximum endurance for a jet, we
must fly so that L/D is at its maximum.
Endurance for a jet airplane does not depend on ρ∞ ; that is, E is

independent of altitude.
16/22
Range of Jet Airplane
Range
s
1/2 W0
2 CL 1
Z
dW
R= (15)
ρ∞ S CD ct W1 W 1/2
Range
s
1/2
2 CL 1 1/2 1/2
R=2 (W0 − W1 ) (16)
ρ∞ S CD ct
17/22
To obtain maximum range for a jet airplane:

18/22

18/22

1/2
Flight at maximum CL /CD , i.e., for maximum range, a jet must fly
1/2
at a velocity such that CL /CD is at its maximum.
18/22

1/2
1/2
Flight at high altitudes—that is, at low ρ∞ R becomes infinite as ρ∞
decreases to zero (that is, as we approach outer space).
18/22

1/2
1/2
Flight at high altitudes—that is, at low ρ∞ R becomes infinite as ρ∞
decreases to zero (that is, as we approach outer space).
Range for a jet is poorest at sea level and increases with altitude up to a
point.
Typical cruising altitudes for subsonic commercial jet transports are from
30,000 to 40,000 ft; for supersonic transports they are from 50,000 to
60,000 ft.
18/22
Takeoff Performance
Dynamic Performance
What is the running length along the ground required by an airplane,
starting from zero velocity, to gain flight speed and lift from the
ground?
This length is defined as the ground roll, or liftoff distance, sLO
The distance required for a body of mass m to accelerate to velocity V

under the action of a constant force F
mV 2
s= (17)
2F
19/22
Takeoff Performance
Resistance force R due to rolling friction between the tires and the ground.
Figure 1: Forces acting on an airplane during takeoff and landing.
R = µr (W − L) (18)
(W-L) - Net Normal force exerted between tyres and ground
20/22
Takeoff Performance
To accurately calculate the variation of velocity with time during the

ground roll, and the distance required for liftoff
dV
F = T − D − µr (W − L) = m (19)
dt
1.44W 2
sLO = (20)
g ρ∞ SCLmax T
21/22
Landing Performance
22/22

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FLIGHT DYNAMICS AND CONTROL

222TEE005 & 222EEE073

August 12, 2023

2 Range and Endurance

3 Range and Endurance of Jet Plane

Range is the total distance (measured with respect to the ground)

Range is the total distance (measured with respect to the ground)

Range is the total distance (measured with respect to the ground)

Minimum pounds of fuel per mile are obtained with a minimum

Minimum pounds of fuel per mile are obtained with a minimum

Minimum pounds of fuel per mile are obtained with a minimum

To maximize range for a reciprocating-engine, propeller-driven airplane,

To maximize range for a reciprocating-engine, propeller-driven airplane,

The largest possible propeller efficiency η.

To maximize range for a reciprocating-engine, propeller-driven airplane,

The largest possible propeller efficiency η.

To maximize range for a reciprocating-engine, propeller-driven airplane,

The largest possible propeller efficiency η.

To maximize range for a reciprocating-engine, propeller-driven airplane,

The largest possible propeller efficiency η.

To maximize range for a reciprocating-engine, propeller-driven airplane,

The largest possible propeller efficiency η.

To maximize endurance for a reciprocating engine, propeller-driven

To maximize endurance for a reciprocating engine, propeller-driven

To maximize endurance for a reciprocating engine, propeller-driven

To maximize endurance for a reciprocating engine, propeller-driven

To maximize endurance for a reciprocating engine, propeller-driven

To maximize endurance for a reciprocating engine, propeller-driven

Endurance depends on altitude, whereas range is independent of altitude.

The fuel consumption of a jet engine physically depends on the thrust

Thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC) for jet engines:

The maximum endurance of a jet airplane occurs for minimum pounds of

The maximum endurance of a jet airplane occurs for minimum pounds of

In steady, level, unaccelerated flight, the pilot has adjusted the

The maximum endurance of a jet airplane occurs for minimum pounds of

In steady, level, unaccelerated flight, the pilot has adjusted the

Minimum thrust required was shown to correspond to maximum L/D

Minimum thrust required was shown to correspond to maximum L/D

lb of fuel (TSFC )(TA )

lb of fuel (TSFC )(TA )

For steady, level flight TA = TR , minimum pounds of fuel per mile

lb of fuel (TSFC )(TA )

For steady, level flight TA = TR , minimum pounds of fuel per mile

lb of fuel (TSFC )(TA )

For steady, level flight TA = TR , minimum pounds of fuel per mile

lb of fuel (TSFC )(TA )

For steady, level flight TA = TR , minimum pounds of fuel per mile

For maximum endurance for a jet airplane:

For maximum endurance for a jet airplane:

For maximum endurance for a jet airplane:

For maximum endurance for a jet airplane:

For maximum endurance for a jet airplane:

Endurance for a jet airplane does not depend on ρ∞ ; that is, E is

To obtain maximum range for a jet airplane:

To obtain maximum range for a jet airplane:

To obtain maximum range for a jet airplane:

To obtain maximum range for a jet airplane:

To obtain maximum range for a jet airplane:

This length is defined as the ground roll, or liftoff distance, sLO

The distance required for a body of mass m to accelerate to velocity V

Figure 1: Forces acting on an airplane during takeoff and landing.

To accurately calculate the variation of velocity with time during the

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