GROWTH AND
Later the
DEVELOPMENT
 Growth- it is the
quantitative permanent
increase in body size. For
growth to take place the
following aspects occur;
 Cells of organisms
assimilate nutrient hence
increase in mass.
 Cell division (mitosis)
which leads to the increase
in the number of cells.
 Cell expansion- leads to
enlargement, increase in
volume and size of
organism.
 Development- it is the
qualitative aspect of growth
which involves
differentiation of cells in
order to perform specific
functions.
 During sexual reproduction
in mammals, an ovum fuses
with a sperm to form a
zygote. The zygote divides
rapidly without increasing
in size i.e. 2, 4, 8, 16 etc till
it forms a mass of called
morula. This first cell
division is called cleavage.
 The morula develops a
hollow part, resulting into a
structure called blastula
Page 1 of 20
(blastocyst).
blastocyst cells differentiate
into an inner layer
(endoderm) and outer layer
(ectoderm).
 The 2 layered embryo
implants into the uterine
wall and starts to grow and
develop. As the embryo
grows and develops,
changes occur in cell sizes
(growth) and cell types
(development). These
processes lead to
morphological and
physiological changes in
the developing young
organism resulting into an
adult that is more complex
and efficient.
 In animals, growth takes
place all over the body but
the rates differ in the
various parts of the body
and at different times.
 In plants, the growth mostly
takes place at the root tip
 just behind the root cap and
stem apex.
 This is referred to as apical
growth which leads to the
lengthening of the plant.
 Plants also grow sideways
and this leads to an increase
in width (girth) by the
activity of cambium cells.
This increase in girth is
termed as secondary
growth.
o Measurement of
growth
 The pattern of growth in
most living organisms is
similar. For most organisms
when measurements are
plotted they give an S-
shaped graph called a
sigmoid curve e.g.
 This pattern is due to the
fact that growth tends to be
slow at first and then
speeds up and finally slows
down as adult size is
reached.
Page 2 of 20
 A sigmoid curve may be
divided into 4 parts i.e.
 Lag phase (slow growth)
 -This is the initial phase
during which little growth
occurs. The growth rate is
slow due to;
-Number of cells dividing
is few.
-The cells have not yet
adjusted to the surrounding
environmental factors.
Exponential phase
 This is the 2nd phase during
which growth is rapid. The
high growth rate is due to;
-Number of cells dividing
is many.
-The cells have adjusted to
the surrounding
environmental factors.
-Food and other factors are
not limiting hence cells are
not competing for
resources.
-Rate of cell increase is
higher than the rate of cell
death.
Decelerating phase
 This is the 3rd phase during
which there is limited
growth. The growth rate is
slow due to;
-Few cells still dividing.
 -Most cells are fully
differentiated.
-Limiting environmental
factors (External and
(Internal) such as;
 Shortage of oxygen and
nutrients due to the high
demand by the increased
number of cells.
 Accumulation of metabolic
waste products inhibits
growth.
 Limited acquisition of CO2
as in the case of plants.
Plateau (Stationary)
phase
 This is the 4th phase which
marks the period when
there is no further change in
the size of the organism.
The organism has attained
maturity. This is due to;
 The rate of cell division
equals the rate of cell death.
 Nearly all cells and tissues
are fully differentiated
hence no further increase in
the number of cells.
 The nature of the curve
during this phase may vary
e.g.
 In some cases the curve
may continue to increase
slightly until the organism
dies. e.g. in
Page 3 of 20
monocotyledonous plants,
many invertebrates, fish
and certain reptiles. This
indicates positive growth.
 In other cases the growth
curve flattens out indicating
no change in growth.
 In other cases the growth
curve may tail off
indicating a period of
negative growth rate e.g.
many mammals. This is a
sign of physical senescence
associated with increasing
age.
NB the sigmoid curve does
not apply to all organisms
e.g. Arthropods.
 In insects, growth takes
place at intervals, resulting
into intermittent growth
curve. The intermittent
growth curve in insects is
due to the fact that, they
have an exo-skeleton which
must be shed for the insect
to grow. This shedding
process is known as ecdysis
or moulting e.g.
 Cell division continues to
take place during inter-
moult phase but the
expansion of tissues is
limited by the unshed
skeleton.
 Growth can be measured by
investigating various
factors e.g.
Length
 Increase in length denotes
growth. The parts of a plant
which can be used to
measure growth are;
o -Leaves
o -Stems
o -Internodes on stems
o Advantages
 Change in length is easy to
work out.
 The same organism is used
through out the
investigation.
 Organisms are not harmed.
o Disadvantages
 The change in length is
interpreted as the only
growth occurring in the
organism.
Width
 The width of parts of a
plant can be measured over
a period of time.
o Advantages
 Width is easily measured.
 The same organism is used
to monitor growth.
o Disadvantages
 The increase in width is
interpreted as the only
growth occurring in the
organism.
Area
 Used as measurement of
growth of parts of plants
such as leaves. Increase in
the area of the leaf lamina
can be worked out by
tracing the leaf outline on a
graph paper. The area of
outline is then calculated.
Measurement can be made
at intervals over duration of
time.
o Advantages
 Area is easy to work out.
 Data on growth can be
collected from one
particular leaf.
o Disadvantages
 Area does not take into
consideration other
parameters of growth such
as increase in the thickness
of leaves.
Fresh mass
o Advantages
 Weighing is easy

Page 4 of 20
 Growth pattern of the same
plant is obtained
 Weight gain due to actual
growth is obtained
 Organisms are not harmed
o Disadvantages
 Fresh mass is influenced by
the amount of water in the
tissues.
 Weight gain due to actual
growth is lower than the
fresh mass.
Dry mass
 It’s used to measure growth
of small organisms such as
germinating wheat. A batch
of seedlings is weighed and
placed in oven at 110° to
desiccate the seedlings. The
seedlings are cooled in a
desiccator and weighed
again. The procedure is
repeated until a constant
weight is obtained.
o Advantages
 Collection of data is easy.
 The data colleted is an
accurate measure of
irreversible increase in
weight.
o Disadvantages
 The method involves
killing the organisms. And
thus has limited usage.
Page 5 of 20
 A large number of
organisms are used hence
the method is wasteful.
Growth and Development
in plants
o Structure of the seed
 It consists of a seed coat
enclosing an embryo.
o Seed coat
 It is the outer covering
which is made up of two
layers;
o -Outer testa- it’s thick
o -Tegmen- it’s the
inner layer and it’s a
transparent
membraneous tissue
 The two layers protect the
seed from bacteria, fungi
and other organisms which
may damage it.
 Hilum- it’s a scar on one
part of the seed. This is the
point where the seed had
been attached to the seed
stalk or funicle.
 Micropyle- it’s a tiny pore
that allows water and air
into the embryo.
o The embryo
 Its made up of;
-One or two seed leaves
(cotyledons)
 -Plumule (Embryonic
shoot)
-Radicle (Embryonic root)
 The tip of the radicle is
opposite the Micropyle.
 In some seeds the
cotyledons are swollen as
they contain stored food for
the growing plumule and
radicle. Such seeds are
called non- endospermic
seeds.
 In other cases, the seeds
have their food stored in the
endosperm and are called
endospermic seeds.
 Seeds with one cotyledon
are referred to as
monocotyledonous while
those with two are referred
to as dicotyledonous.
Page 6 of 20
Dormancy in Seeds
 Dormancy is a state of
relative inactivity during
which growth slows down
or stops completely. A seed
undergoing dormancy will
not germinate even if it is
provided with the necessary
conditions.
Importance of dormancy
 Provide the seeds with
enough time for dispersal
so that they can germinate
in a suitable environment.
 Enables seeds to survive
during adverse
environmental conditions
without depleting their food
reserves.
 The embryo has time to
develop until favourable
 conditions are available e.g.
availability of water.
Factors that cause
dormancy
Immature embryo
 It may have components
which are not well
developed e.g. radicle,
Plumule and endosperm.
Presence of germination
inhibitors
 These are substances which
prevent germination e.g.
abscisic acid.
Low concentrations of
hormones
 E.g. Gibberellins and
enzymes which reduce the
ability of seeds to
germinate.
Tough seed coat
 Prevents the entrance of
water and oxygen into the
seed e.g. wattle seeds.
Low temperatures
 Freezing of seeds during
water lowers the enzymatic
activities rendering them
dormant.
 In some seeds, the absence
of certain wavelengths of
light make them remain
dormant e.g. in some
lettuce plants.
Page 7 of 20
Ways of breaking
dormancy
 When the seed embryos are
mature, the seed embryo
can break dormancy and
germinate.
 Increase in the
concentration of hormones
e.g. cytokinins,
gibberellins, stimulate
germination.
 Favourable environmental
factors such as water,
oxygen and suitable
temperature.
 Some wavelengths of light
trigger the production of
hormones e.g. gibberellins
leading to breaking of
dormancy.
 Scarification- i.e.
weakening of the testa
which is achieved naturally
by saprophytic bacteria and
fungi.
 In agriculture the seeds of
some plants are weakened
by boiling, roasting and
cracking e.g. wattle.
o Seed Germination
 It is the process by which
the seed develops into a
seedling. At the beginning
of germination, water is
absorbed into the seed
 through the micropyle in a
process called imbibition
and causes the seed to
swell.
 The cells of the cotyledons
become turgid and active.
They begin to make use of
the water to dissolve and
break down the food
substances stored in the
cotyledons. The soluble
food is transported to the
growing plumule and
radicle.
 The plumule grows into a
shoot while the radicle
grows into a root. The
radicle emerges from the
seed through the micropyle
bursting the seed coat as it
does so.
Conditions necessary for
germination
 The conditions can be
either internal or external.
o External conditions
 Water
 It activates the enzymes
and provides the medium
for enzymes to act and
break down the stored food
into soluble form.
 Water hydrolyses and
dissolves the food
materials.
Page 8 of 20
 It’s a medium of transport
of dissolved food
substances through the
various cells to the growing
regions.
 It softens the seed coat
which later burst to
facilitate the emergence of
the radicle.
 Oxygen
 It’s required for the
production of energy during
aerobic respiration. The
energy is used during
synthesis of new cellular
materials.
 Temperature
 At higher temperature
(above 47º C) the
protoplasm is killed and
enzymes in the seed are
denatured.
 At very low temperatures
the enzymes become
inactive. Therefore the
protoplasm and enzymes
work best within the
optimam temperature range
[ 30º C)
o Internal Conditions
 Enzymes
 The insoluble food stored
in the seeds is converted
into a soluble form by the
enzymes i.e.
 Carbohydrates are broken  Water
down into glucose by the  Pyrogallic acid mixed with
diastase enzyme. NaOH
 Fats are broken down into  Ignition tube
fatty acids and glycerol by  Procedure
lipase enzyme.  Put some dry cotton wool at
 Proteins are broken down the bottom of 4 conical
into amino acids by flasks.
protease enzyme.  In each flask place 5
 (ii) Hormones healthy bean seeds on top
 They act as growth of the cotton wool.
stimulators e.g.  Label flasks A, B, C and D.
gibberellins, cytokinins  Flask A
 Hormones also counteract  Moisten the cotton wool by
the effect of germination adding water.
inhibitors.  Place Pyrogallic acid mixed
 (iii) Viability with NaOH in an ignition
 Only seeds whose embryo tube in the conical flask.
is alive and healthy will be  Cork the conical flask to
able to germinate and grow. make sure its airtight e.g.
 Seeds stored for long
periods lose their viability
due to depletion of their
food reserves and
destruction of their
embryos by pests and Flask B- Put flask B in a
diseases. corner of the classroom e.g.
 Activity; investigating
conditions necessary
for germination
 Materials
 Dry cotton wool
 4 conical flasks
 Bean seeds
 Labels (4)
Page 9 of 20
 Flasks C- moisten the D
cotton wool and keep the o Observation
flask in a refrigerator.  Flask A- No germination
due to absence of Oxygen
i.e.
 Pyrogallic acid mixed with
NaOH absorbs Oxygen
present in the flask.
 Flask is airtight so no
Oxygen enters into the
flask
 Flask B- No germination
due to absence of water.
 Flask D- moisten the  Flask C- No germination/
cotton wool and keep the seeds took long time to
flask in a warm place. germinate due to low
temperature.
 Flask D- Germination
occurred due to presence of
Oxygen, water and
favourable temperature.
 Types of germination
o Epigeal germination
 It’s the type of germination
in which the cotyledons are
 . brought above the soil
level.
 Record your observations  During germination the
after a few days in the table radicle grows out through
below the micropyle then grows
 Setting downwards into the soil as
Observation a primary root.
A  The part of the embryo
B between the cotyledon and
C
Page 10 of 20
 the radicle is called the
hypocotyl.
 This curves and pushes
upwards through the soil
protecting the delicate
shoot tip. The hypocotyl
then straightens and
elongates carrying with it
the two cotyledons which
turn green and leafy. They
start manufacturing food
for the growing seedling.
 The plumule which lies
between the two cotyledons
begins to grow into 1st
foliage leaves which start
manufacturing food.
 This type of germination
occurs in dicotyledonous
plants but some
monocotyledonous plants
such as onion have Epigeal
germination e.g.

o Hypogeal
germination
 It’s the type of germination
in which the cotyledons
Page 11 of 20
remain underground.
Occurs in
monocotyledonous plants.
 In maize, the endosperm
provides food to the
embryo which begins to
grow. The radicle along
with a protective covering
called coleorhiza grows out
of the seed.
 The epicotyl is part of the
embryo between the
cotyledon and the plumule.
It elongates and the
plumule grows out of the
coleoptile and forms the 1st
foliage leaves.
 The seedling now begins to
produce its own food and
the endosperm soon
shrivels. e.g.

 Primary and Secondary
growth
 The region of growth in
plants is found in localized
 areas called meristems. A  It’s an area of actively
meristem is a group of dividing meristematic cells.
undifferentiated cells in These cells have;
plants which are capable of  -Thin cells
continuous mitotic cell  -Dense cytoplasm
division.  -No vacuoles
 The main meristems in o Region of cell
flowering plants are found elongation
at;  Cells become enlarged to
 -The tips of roots and their maximum size by the
shoots. stretching of their walls.
 -In young leaves  Vacuoles start forming and
 -At bases of the internodes enlarging.
o -In vascular cambium o Region of cell
and cork cambium Differentiation
 The meristems at the tips of  Cells attain their permanent
shoots and the roots are size.
known as apical meristems  Have large vacuoles.
and are responsible for  Thickened cell walls
primary growth.  Cells differentiate into
 Cambium meristems are tissues specialized for
responsible for secondary specific functions.
growth.  NB primary growth results
 Primary growth in an increase in the length
 It occurs at the tips of roots of shoots and roots.
and shoots due to the 
activity of apical meristems
which originate from the
embryonic tissues.
 In this growth there are 3
distinctive regions i.e.
o Region of cell
Division

Page 12 of 20
 Activity; T investigate
region of growth in a
shoot
 Take the germinating pea
seed which has produced a
shoot.
 Place the pea on the ruler
and make markings on the
shoot using ink. The
markings should be 2mm
apart and should start from
the tip of the shoot.
 Draw the seedling showing
the 2mm markings
 Place the seedling in a
beaker with moist cotton
wool making sure that the
roots are well surrounded
by the cotton wool.
 more than 2mm. this is the
 Measure the distance of
each of the sections after 24
hours and record your
readings. Draw the shoot
with the markings as it
appears after 24 hours next
to the diagram you made in
iii above. Join the
corresponding markings of
Page 13 of 20
the two diagrams using
straight lines.
 Observation

 The readings show that the
sections just next to the tip
of the root and at the tip of
the shoot (c) show no
increase in length. They
remain 2mm apart. This is
the Region of cell Division.
 The sections at the middle
part of the root and shoot
(b) increase their lengths to
Region of cell elongation.
 The section far from the tip
(a) shows no increase in
length. This is the Region
of cell maturation.
 Growth =Increase in
length × 100
Original
length
 Secondary growth
 Results in an increase in
width /girth due to the
activity of cambium. In
Secondary growth new
tissues are formed by
vascular cambium and cork
cambium.
 In monocotyledonous
plants there are no
cambium cells in the
vascular bundles. The
growth in diameter is due to
enlargement of the primary
cells.
 Secondary growth in
dicotyledonous plants
begins with the division of
the vascular cambium to
produce new cambium cells
between the vascular
bundles. This forms a
continuous cambium ring.
 The new cells produced to
the outer side of cambium
differentiate to become the
secondary xylem. e.g.
 called suberin.
Page 14 of 20
 As a result of the increase
in volume of the secondary
tissues, pressure is exerted
on the outer cells of the
stems. This results in
stretching and rupturing of
the epidermal cells. In order
to replace the protective
outer layer of the stem, a
new band of cambium cells
are formed in the cortex.
These cells are called cork
cambium or phellogen, and
originate from the cortical
cells. The cork cambium
divides to produce new
cells on either side. The
cells on the inner side of
the cork cambium
differentiate into secondary
cortex and those produced
on the outer side become
cork cells.
 Cork cells are dead with
thickened walls. Their
walls become coated with a
water proof substance
 The cork cells increase in
number and become the
bark of the stem. This
prevents loss of water,
infection, from fungi and
damage from insects. The
corky bark is also resistant
 to fire and thus acts as an  Climatic changes of the
insulatory layer. past years can be inferred
 Periodically the cork cells from the size of the
instead of being tightly ring .e.g.
packed, they form a loose 
mass. This mass is known
as lenticels. The lenticels
make it possible for
gaseous exchange to take
place freely between the
inside and the outside of the
stem.
 The rate of secondary  Role of growth hormones
growth in a stem varies in plants
with seasonal changes.  Plant hormones are
During the rainy season, chemicals produced in
xylem vessels and tracheids small very amounts within
are formed in large the plant body and play an
numbers. These cells are important part in regulating
large, have thin walls and plant growth and
wood has a light texture. development.
 In dry season, xylem  Most growth hormones are
vessels and tracheids are produced at the tip of a
formed in small numbers. shoot and transported
These cells are small, have downwards to the root.
thick walls and wood has a Plant hormones are
dark texture. This leads to commonly referred to as
the development of two auxins.
distinctive layers within the  Plant hormones
secondary xylem formed in o Indole Acetic Acid
a year called annual rings. (IAA)
 NB it’s possible to  Functions
determine the age of a tree  Promotes cell division and
by counting the number of elongation.
annual rings.
Page 15 of 20
 Influences the tropic
responses of parts of plants
to various stimuli such as
gravity. The responses are
manifested in the form of
growth curvatures where
plants grow towards or
away from the stimuli.
 Stimulates fruit formation
after fertilization.
 Causes fruit formation by
parthenocarpy.
Parthenocarpy.is the
formation of fruits without
fertilization.
 Causes leaf fall
 IAA produced at the apex
causes apical dominance by
inhibiting growth and
development of lateral
buds.
o Gibberellins
 Also known as gibberellic
acid.
 Functions
 Promotes cell division and
elongation in dwarf plants.
 Promote parthenocarpy. By
initiating the formation of
IAA.
 Induce the ovary wall to
form a fruit after
fertilization.
 The hormone breaks
dormancy in buds and this
Page 16 of 20
leads to the formation of
lateral branches.
 Inhibit the growth of
adventitious roots.
 It breaks seed dormancy
 Affect leaf expansion.
o Cytokinins /Kinetin
 Functions
 It breaks seed dormancy
and Promotes cell division
in presence of IAA.
 Cause root formation on
shoots
 Influences flower formation
and development of lateral
buds.
o Abscisic acid (ABA)
 Induces dormancy by
inhibiting the growth of
stems, sprouting of buds
and seed germination.
 Causes the abscission of
leaves and fruits.
 High concentrations of
ABA cause the stomata to
close.
 ABA also promotes
flowering in pineapples.
o Ethylene / Ethene
 Functions
 Causes flower development
 Causes the abscission of
leaves and fruits and
uniform ripening of fruits.
 Stimulates the thickening of growth increase occurs.
stem while inhibiting stem This is called discontinuous
elongation. growth.
 Apical Dominance  Insects inhibit 2 types of
 It’s the inhibition of the reproductive processes i.e.
growth of lateral buds in a  -Sexual reproduction –
plant by the presence of a This is where the ova in the
growing apical bud. female are fertilized by the
 Auxins produced by the spermatozoa from the
apical bud retard male.e.g. Moth and
development of lateral butterfly.
buds. o -Asexual
 This shows that high reproduction- The
concentrations of auxins eggs are usually
have an inhibitory effect on produced without
the sprouting of lateral buds being fertilized and
and therefore hinders are able to hatch into
growth of many branches. adult insects. This
This forms the basis of type of asexual
pruning in agriculture reproduction is
where more branches are referred to as
required for increased parthenogenesis e.g.
harvest especially in crops black and green
like coffee and tea. aphids.
 Growth and Development  Growth and Development
in animals in insects
 In most animals growth o Larva
occurs through out their life  Depending on the insect
till they die. This type of species a larva is referred to
growth is called continuous as;
growth.  -Grub
 Arthropods e.g. insects  -Maggot- Housefly
show rapid growth  -Caterpillar- Butterfly
immediately after moulting  Generally, the larva;
with long periods when no  -Eats a lot
Page 17 of 20
 -Grows rapidly
o -Sheds its cuticle
several times until it
reaches full size to
become a pupa.
o Pupa
 Its inactive
 Non- feeding stage
 At this stage extensive
breakdown and re-
organization of body tissues
occur, giving rise to an
imago /adult form.
 Such changes are called
metamorphosis. There are 2
types of metamorphosis i.e.
 Complete metamorphosis.
o Egg → Larva → Pupa
→ Adult /Imago
 Examples –Housefly,
Butterfly, Moth, Mosquito.
 Development in a housefly
o Egg
 When the egg of a housefly
is laid, it measures about
1mm in length.
 Eggs are laid in batches of
between 100-150. They
hatch into larvae.
o Larva
 They have a worm-like
appearance. They may have
chewing or sucking mouth
Page 18 of 20
parts which they use for
feeding.
 In housefly it is referred to
as maggot.
 It’s very active, moves and
feeds a lot and
continuously. It also grows
rapidly.
 To grow during this period,
it must undergo a number
of moults by shedding the
exoskeleton. Each stage in
between the moult is called
an instar.
 After moulting (ecdysis)
several times a larva
reaches about 1cm in
length. This takes about 5
days.
 Pupa
 It’s enclosed in a pupal case
called puparium.
 It’s a resting stage i.e. does
not feed, its relatively
inactive.
 Adult /Imago
 After emerging from the
pupal case the adult takes
about 2 weeks of feeding
and growing to attain
sexual maturity i.e. males
can mate and females are
able to lay eggs.
 Incomplete
metamorphosis.
 Egg→ Nymph → Adult
 Examples- cockroaches,
Locusts, Grasshopper,
Dragonfly
 It involves the egg hatching
into a nymph which closely
resembles the adult in every
form except for size and
lack of sexual maturity.
 Development in a
cockroach
 Cockroaches produce eggs
enclosed in a case in groups
of between 10-15. The case
known as ootheca is made
up of chitin. The ootheca is
usually deposited in moist
and dark places e.g. cracks
of furniture or crevices in
walls.
 The eggs hatch after about
4-6 weeks. When the eggs
hatch the nymph is said to
be in the 1st instar.
 Nymph
 It’s similar to the adult in
shape; however, it is white,
smaller and has no wings.
 The nymph feed and moults
about 10 times with the
total nymphal period lasting
16 days.
o Role of hormones in
insect
metamorphosis.
Page 19 of 20
 In insects metamorphosis
is controlled by hormones
which are produced in 3
glands i.e.
 Neuro-secretory cells in the
brain ganglia.
 A pair of corpora allata
(Corpus allatum) located in
the mandibular segment.
 Prothoracic glands in the
thorax.
 During the larval stages of
the insect, the corpora allata
(Corpus allatum) produces
the juvenile hormone. This
leads to the formation of
larval cuticle therefore
moulting does not go
beyond the larval stage.
When the larva matures the
Corpus allatum
disintegrates.
 At this time the Neuro-
secretory cells stimulate the
Prothoracic glands to
produce moulting hormone
(Ecdysone). Ecdysone is
responsible for moulting in
insects leading to the laying
of the adult cuticle.


Page 20 of 20