Class 11 CBSE

Physics Handbook

For CBSE, ISC, State Boards,

NEET, JEE, All Entrance Exams

Guru Academy and Labs

1
“I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have
been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and
then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the
great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.”
“If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.”
--Sir Isaac Newton
“Imagination is more important than knowledge.”
“If you can't explain it simply, you don't understand it well enough.”
“We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no
worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made.”
“You never fail until you stop trying.”
--Albert Einstein

“What one man calls God, another calls the laws of Physics.”
-- Nikola Tesla

“Nothing in life is to be feared; it is only to be understood. Now is the time to

understand more, so that we may fear less.”
“I was taught that the way of progress is neither swift nor easy.”
--Marie Curie

“Ask the right questions, and nature will open the doors to her secrets”
-- Sir C.V. Raman

“Dream is not that which you see while sleeping, it is something that does not
let you sleep”
-- APJ Abdul Kalam

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 Author’s Note

We have been helping students and teachers from CBSE and various other boards for
class 11 and 12 physics since 2014. During this time we have been preparing lot of notes,
concept maps, formula sheets, question banks that are found useful by the students and
teachers. It was decided to put them into a handbook format so that it will reach more
students and teachers for their benefit.
This handbook will be helpful for studying theory and also for working out numerical
problems. Some of the goals of this handbook have been to provide a easy to read, quick to
refer, handy to carry, organized formatted way of learning, comprehensive and compact,
bridge between board and entrance exam preparations.
While the syllabus is vast and deep, and can be really challenging, it is the foundation
for college level Physics and Engineering courses, and also for a long term scientific
profession. So learning them with great care is very important.
We fully realize that this maiden attempt is not fully comprehensive and bound to
have many shortcomings and errors. So we request students and teachers to communicate to
us about any errors they may find or any suggestions they may have for the improvement of
this handbook.
I would like to thank from the bottom of my heart, my wife Sowmiya Lakshmi G and
my parents for their continued support through out the years to complete this huge task. I
would also like to thank teachers Sunil Kumar and Ashwin Balaji who helped me with the
documentation work.

For the love of Physics,

N.Guruprasath,
n_guru_prasath@yahoo.com
Guru Academy and Labs,
Coimbatore.
10 / 05 / 2023

For more online resources and online tests for 11th and 12th Physics preparation.
Visit: https://guruacademyandlabs.com/

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 Contents

No. Chapter Page

0 Mathematics reference 5
1 Physical World -
2 Units and Measurements 10

3 Motion in a Straight Line 1D 17

4A Motion in a Plane 2D 25
4B Circular Motion 29
4C Projectile Motion 34

5 Laws of Motion 36
6 Work, Energy and Power 46
7 System of Particles and Rotational Motion 59
7B Rolling Motion 78
8 Gravitation 83

9 Mechanical Properties of Solids 93

10 Mechanical Properties of Fluids 98
10A Fluid Statics 98
10B Fluid Dynamics (Bernoulli’s Theorem) 101
10C Viscosity 105
10D Surface Tension 107

11 Thermal Properties of Matter 112

12 Thermodynamics 122
13 Kinetic Theory of Gases 130

14 Oscillations 138
15 Waves 154

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 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P00 Mathematics Formula Reference
For approximate calculations:
1 1 3
0.25 = 0.5 = 0.75 =
4 2 4
1 2 4
0.33 = 0.67 = 1.33 =
3 3 3
√2 = 1.414 √3 = 1.732 √5 = 2.236

22 11 1 1 1 1
𝜋 ≈ 3.141 ≈ 𝑒 ≈ 2.718 ≈ 2.72 ≈ 𝑙𝑛 2 = 1 − + − + ⋯
7 4 2 3 4 5

Logarithms:
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏 = 1 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 , 𝒆𝒙 graphs:

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 1 = 0

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑀 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁

𝑀
𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑀 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁
𝑁

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑀

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑀 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑀

ln 𝑥 is positive for x > 1, and negative for x < 1

𝑙𝑛 2 = 0.6931 𝑙𝑜𝑔 10 = 1

𝑙𝑛 10 = 2.302 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 = 0

𝑙𝑛 1 = 0 𝑒0 = 1

𝑙𝑛 𝑒 = 1

What is RMS (Root Mean Square)?

Just like mean and median, RMS is a centering technique in statistics.
Mean or Average RMS
1, 5, 3, 4, 2 1 , 5 , 32 , 42 , 22
2 2
15 1, 25, 9, 16, 4
𝑥̅ = =3 55
5 ̅̅̅
𝑥2 = = 11
5
𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √̅̅̅
𝑥 2 = √11 ≈ 3.31

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Trigonometric ratios:
𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝛉 0 1 1 √3 1 0 −1 0
2 √2 2
= 0.5 ≈ 0.7 ≈ 0.866
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛉 1 √3 1 1 0 −1 0 1
2 √2 2
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 0 1 1 √3 ∞ 0 −∞ 0
√3 ≈ 1.732
= 0.57

Trigonometric Formulas:
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 2 2
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐷 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2
= 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐷 = −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2

Understanding the effect of a, b, c, d in sine

curve:

𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 (𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑑
𝑎 increases the amplitude, 𝑏 increases the
frequency, 𝑐 shifts the curve in x axis, 𝑑 shifts the
curve in y axis.

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Geometry:
Distance between line and a point: Analytic vs. parametric equations:

𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 𝑥𝑡 2 + 𝑦𝑡
To tell the path of the particle this equation will not
help, instead x and y equation should be
computed/formed eliminating t to find the path of
the particle.

𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐
𝑑=
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Binomial Theorem: McLaurin Infinite series:

If n is -ve or fraction and |𝑥| < 1 then it is (1 + 𝑥)−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ ≈ 1 − 𝑥
converging series. (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ ≈ 1 + 𝑥
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑛𝐶0 + 𝑛𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝑛𝐶2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ (1 + 𝑥)−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + ⋯
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3 ≈ 1 − 2𝑥
= 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥
2! 3! (1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + ⋯
+⋯ ≈ 1 + 2𝑥
Usually for approximation, second order and higher
order terms can be ignored as they are negligible.

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 Vector Multiplication
Scalar or Dot Product Vector or Cross Product
𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ | = 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Result is a scalar so no direction. Direction of 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ is given by Right Hand Thumb
(RHT) rule.
𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴(𝐵 cos 𝜃) |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ | = 𝐴(𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
= 𝐴(𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗. 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 ⃗⃗ 𝑜𝑛 𝐴⃗)
This is the geometrical
meaning of Dot product.
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
This is the geometrical meaning of Cross product.
Example: Work done Example: Torque
𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑆⃗ 𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 |𝜏⃗| = |𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ | = 𝑟(𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
= (5)(2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30 = (5)(2) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30
√3 1
= (5)(2) = (5)(2)
2 2
= 5√3 𝐽 = 5 𝑁𝑚
Dot product zero means vectors are perpendicular. Cross product zero means vectors are parallel.
𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐵⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗ (Commutative)
𝐴⃗. (𝐵⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = 𝐴⃗. 𝐵⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗. 𝐶⃗ (Distributive)

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ ≠ 𝐵⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗(Not Commutative)
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = −(𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)(Magnitude is same but direction
is opposite)
Unit vectors: Unit vectors:
𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂. 𝑘̂ = 1 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0
𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂. 𝑖̂ = 0 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂, 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂ 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂
𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂
= −𝑘̂
Example: Example:
𝐹⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂, 𝑆⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ 𝐴⃗ = 5𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂, 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂
𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑆⃗ = 6 + 2 + 5 = 13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 Determinant Method:
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐴 × 𝐵 = |5 2 3 |
3 3 −2
= (−4 − 9)𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂(−10 − 9) + (15 − 6)𝑘̂
= −13𝑖̂ + 19𝑗̂ + 9𝑘̂

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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑑 𝑑2 | = 2 (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 × 𝑑
|𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 | = |(𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ) × (𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 ⃗⃗ )|
= |−(𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ) + (𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)|
= 2|(𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ )|

Introduction to Differentiation: Introduction to Integration:

∆𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
∆𝑥 = 𝑦. 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝐴𝑠 ∆𝑥 → 0
= ∫ 𝑦. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝑑𝑥
is the slope of the tangent.
𝑛
𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑑 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑥 = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑛+1
𝑑𝑥

Since slope is a function

of x, it means the slope
may not be a constant and
it can change at every
point as shown in the
graph.
5
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
2 5
𝑥 25 0
=[ ] = − = 12.5 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
2 0 2 2

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 =

5
∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
5
𝑥3
=[ ]
3 0
125 0
= −
3 2
= 41.6 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥]𝑥12 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = Δ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ≈ Δ𝑥 only when Δ𝑥 → 0 not in other cases

9
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P02 Units and Measurements
Base Quantities: Derived Quantities:
Length, Mass, Time, Temperature, Current, Velocity, Acceleration, Pressure
Luminuous intensity and amount of substance.
Angle measurements: 1° = 60′ (𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 180° 1′ = 60′′ (𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐)
180° 𝜋 1° = 3600′′(𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐)
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = , °
= 1°
𝜋 180
Sector formula: Sector formula in 3D:
Angle in radians

The angle Ω is not two dimensional but it is three

dimensional here and it is called steradians instead of
radians. It is the three dimensional angle subtended in
a cone.
Parallax: Astronomical distances:
1 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 × 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
× 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 × 3600 𝑠
1 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 9.46 × 1015 𝑚
(distance travelled by light in 1 year. Though it
sounds like a unit of time note that it is a unit of
distance.)

1 Astronomical Unit = 1 𝐴𝑈 = 1.496 × 1011 𝑚

(average radius between sun and earth)
Distance between two observation points is called the
base.
Triangulation method:
ℎ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑥

1 Parsec = 3.08 × 1016 𝑚 (parallax sec)

Determining Astronomical Distances:

Parallax method: RADAR method:
Radio Detection and
Ranging.
Electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of light.
2𝑑
𝑣=
𝑡
𝑥. (𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) = 𝑏

10
Error: Uncertainty of measurement, Example: 2.1, 2.3, 2.5, 2.2, 2.4 , five repeat measurements
Mean or Avg. Absolute error Mean Absolute Relative error Percentage error
value error
𝑎𝑚 |∆𝑎𝑖 | = |𝑎𝑖 − 𝑎𝑚 | ∆𝑎𝑚 ∆𝑎𝑚 % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ |∆𝑎1 | + |∆𝑎2 | + ⋯ 𝑅𝑒𝑙. 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑎𝑚 ∆𝑎𝑚
= = = ∗ 100
𝑛 𝑛 𝑎𝑚
11.5 Average is taken as 0.6 0.12 % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑎𝑚 = true value in most ∆𝑎𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒𝑙. 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 0.12
5 5 2.3
= 2.3 𝑚𝑚 practical situations. = 0.12 𝑚𝑚 = × 100
2.3
|∆𝑎1 | = |2.1 − 2.3|
Importance of Relative error: Scale L.C =
= 0.2
1 mm,
|∆𝑎2 | = |2.3 − 2.3|
Pen cap diameter measurement 10 mm
=0
will have 1/10 = 10% relative error.
|∆𝑎3 | = |2.5 − 2.3| 𝑎𝑚 ± ∆𝑎𝑚
Table length measurement 1000 mm will
= 0.2 =2.3 ± 0.12
have 1/1000 = 0.1% relative error.
|∆𝑎4 | = |2.2 − 2.3|
So scale is suitable for measuring a table
= 0.1 length but not for pen cap diameter.
|∆𝑎5 | = |2.4 − 2.3|
= 0.1
Accuracy Precision
How close is the value from the true value? How consistent the values are? How repeatable the
Difference between the average value and the true values are. Difference between the highest and lowest
value is the measure of accuracy. Lower the of repeated values. Lower this difference the readings
difference more accurate the value is. are more precise.
e.g. 70, 71, 70 kg (measurement repeated three times) e.g. 72.2, 72.3, 72.1 kg
Let us say the true value is 70 kg Let us say the true value is 70 kg
Average value = 70.3 kg Average value = 72.2 kg
Error = 0.3 kg Error = 2.2 kg
Range = 71 – 70 = 1 kg Range = 72.3 – 72.1 = 0.2 kg
Accurate but not precise. Precise but not accurate.
Not Accurate not Accurate but not Precise but not Accurate and Precise:
Precise: Precise: Accurate:

11
Propagation / Combination of errors: Example: 𝐴 = 2.5 ± 0.1 𝑚𝑚, 𝐵 = 1.1 ± 0.2 𝑚𝑚
Addition Subtraction
𝑍 =𝐴+𝐵 𝑍 =𝐴−𝐵

∆𝑍 = ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵 ∆𝑍 = ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 + 𝐵) ± ∆𝐴 ± ∆𝐵 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ± ∆𝐴 ∓ ∆𝐵
= (𝐴 + 𝐵) ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵)
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 3.6 ± 0.3 𝑚𝑚 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 1.4 ± 0.3 𝑚𝑚

Multiplication Division
𝑍 = 𝐴. 𝐵 𝐴
𝑍=
𝐵
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
= + = +
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴). (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵) ∆𝐴
(𝐴 ± ∆𝐴) 𝐴 (1± 𝐴 )
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝐴𝐵 ± 𝐴. ∆𝐵 ± ∆𝐴. 𝐵 ± ∆𝐴. ∆𝐵 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = =
𝑍 ∆𝑍 𝐴𝐵 𝐴∆𝐵 ∆𝐴𝐵 (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵) ∆𝐵
± = ± ± 𝐵 (1± 𝐵 )
𝑍 𝑍 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 −1
= + 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝑍 ( 1 ± ) ( 1 ± )
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
(1 ± )=1±( + )
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
𝑍 = 𝐴. 𝐵 = 2.5 × 1.1 = 2.75 𝑍 = 𝐴/𝐵 = 2.5 / 1.1 = 2.27
∆𝑍 0.1 0.2 ∆𝑍 0.1 0.2
= + = +
𝑍 2.5 1.1 𝑍 2.5 1.1
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 2.8 ± 0.6 𝑚𝑚 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 2.3 ± 0.6 𝑚𝑚
This is valid only when ∆𝐴. ∆𝐵 is negligible. Otherwise that term should also be taken into calculation.

Powers:
𝐴3 𝐵 2 ∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝐶
𝑍= ⟹ =3 +2 4
𝐶4 𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Dimensions for unit conversion Checking Dimentional Deriving Relationships using
homogeneity Dimensions
𝑛𝑆𝐼 𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇1 −2 = 𝑛𝑐𝑔𝑠 𝑀2 𝐿2 𝑇2 −2 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 Time period of a pendulum,
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑇 ∝ 𝑚𝑎 𝑙 𝑏 𝑔𝑐
1 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑚 (1 𝑠)−2 ⇒ = + 2∗𝑠
𝑛𝑆𝐼 = 𝑛𝑐𝑔𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝑘. 𝑀𝑎 𝐿𝑏 (𝐿𝑇 −2 )𝑐
0 0 1
1 𝑔 1 𝑐𝑚 (1 𝑠)−2
1000 𝑔 100 𝑐𝑚 (1 𝑠)−2 𝑎=0
(1) 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 𝑏+𝑐 =0
1𝑔 1 𝑐𝑚 (1 𝑠)−2 𝑚 2 𝑚 2 𝑚 −1 1
= 𝑛𝑐𝑔𝑠 ⇒ ( ) =( ) + 2∗𝑚 𝑐= 𝑏=
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 2 2
5
10 = 𝑛𝑐𝑔𝑠 1 1
1 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑐𝑔𝑠 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑇 = 𝑘. 𝑚0 𝑙 2 𝑔−2
1 𝑁 = 105 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑙
𝑇 = 𝑘. √
𝑔
𝑚 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣 + 𝐴). (𝑥 + 𝐵) Similarly for Centripetal force,
1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔 2
= 1000 𝑔. 100 2
𝑠 𝑠 We can guess that A must be 𝐹 ∝ 𝑘. 𝑚𝑎 𝑟 𝑏 𝑣 𝑐
1 𝑁 = 105 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 having the units of velocity and B …………….
1 𝐽 = 1 𝑁𝑚 = 105 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠. 100𝑐𝑚 must be having the units of 𝑚𝑣 2
1 𝐽 = 107 𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑠 displacement. Apples can be added 𝐹=
𝑟
or subtracted only with apples. k constant can be found only from
Oranges can be added or experiments, not by dimensional
subtracted only with Oranges. analysis.

12
 What are Significant Figures?
Significant figures = no. of certain digits + one uncertain digit.
If we measure 67 mm with scale, it means we are certain about the digit 6. But we are not certain about the
digit 7. It could be 6 or it could be 8 as the least count L.C of scale is 1 mm. So the significant figures for 67
mm is 2.
If we measure the same object as 66.5 mm with vernier, it means 2 digits 66 we are certain, but we are not
certain about 0.5 because it could be 0.4 or it could be 0.6 as the L.C of vernier is 0.1 mm. So the significant
figures for 66.5 mm is 3.
Rules for determining Significant Figures Example sf
1) All non-zero digits are significant. 5314 4 sf
2) All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. 5004 4 sf
1.000 060 32 9 sf
3) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit and left of a 50400. 5 sf
decimal point are significant.
4) a)The number without a decimal point, the trailing zeros 50400 3 sf
are not significant. 50400 5 sf
b) All zeros are significant if they come from a measurement.
5) If the number is less than 1, the zeros right of the decimal 0.000 540 4 4 sf
point but left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
6) All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right of 50.00 4 sf
non-zero digit are significant. 0.000 540 400 6 sf
7) The number of significant figures does not depend on the 14.5 mm, 1.45 cm, 3 sf
system of units used. 0.0145 m, 0.000 0145 km
8) The power of 10 is irrelevant to the determination of 2.65 x 1024, 26.5 x 1023, 265 x 1022, 3 sf
significant figures. 2650 x 1021, 26500 x 1020
9) Values which are neither measured nor rounded but Circumference = 2𝜋𝑟 Infinite
multiplication or division factors have infinite significant Here 2 is an exact number. It can
figures. be taken as 2 or 2.0 or 2.00 as
required.
Rules for Rounding off: Examples
If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left as such. 5.32 is rounded off to 5.3
If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is 5.37 is rounded off to 5.4
increased by 1.
If the digit to be dropped is 5, followed by non-zero numbers, it means it is 5.352 is rounded off to 5.4
definitely greater than 5. So the preceding digit is increased by 1.
If the digit to be dropped is 5, followed by zero, it means it is in the border 5.350 is rounded off to 5.4
line, should the preceding digit be added with one or not depends on whether 5.250 is rounded off to 5.2
it is odd or even respectively. 7.35 is rounded off to 7.4
7.25 is rounded off to 7.2
Rules for rounding off during mathematical operations:
Add and Subtract Multiply and Divide
While adding and subtracting, the final result should While multiplying and dividing, the final result
retain the same no. of decimal places as there are in should retain the same no. of significant figures as
the number with the smallest number of decimal there are in the number with the smallest number of
places. significant figures.
For example,
0.5 + 1.1 = 1.6 (1 dp)
if we were to round it off to one significant figure
then the result will be 2 (1 sf) which does not agree
well.
3.1+1.780 = 4.880 rounded off to 4.9 (1 dp) 1.21 x 36.72 = 44.4312 rounded off to 44.4 (3 sf)
3.1-1.780 = 1.320 rounded off to 1.3 (1 dp) 36.72 / 1.2 = 30.6 rounded off to 31 (2 sf)

13
 Example to determine uncertainties in arithmetic operation (using propagation of errors formula and
rounding off rules):
𝑙 = 16.2 ± 0.1 𝑐𝑚 ∆𝑍 ∆𝑙 ∆𝑏 ∆𝑍 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 164 ± 3
= + ⇒
𝑏 = 10.1 ± 0.1 𝑐𝑚 𝑍 𝑙 𝑏 163.62 (3 sf) (1 sf)
𝑍 = 𝑙. 𝑏 0.1 0.1
= +
= 16.2 ∗ 10.1 16.2 10.1
= 163.62
Rounded off to 164 (3 sf) ∆𝑍 = 1.0 + 1.62
∆𝑍 = 1 + 2 (each rounded off to
1 sf)
∆𝑍 = 3 (0 dp)
Order of Magnitude: First step is to write the number in standard notation.
4.7 x 1010 5 x 1010 5.1 x 1010
4.7 ≤ 5 so approximated to 1 5 ≤ 5 so approximated to 1 5.1 > 5 so approximated to 10
10 10
1 x 10 1 x 10 10 x 1010 = 1 x 1011
Order of Magnitude is 10 Order of Magnitude is 10 Order of Magnitude is 11

Error: Difference between measured value and true value.

Systematic Error: Random Error:
Have a proper reason, why this error happens. Tends Occurs irregularly and does not happen in one single
to be in one direction +ve or –ve. direction. May be +ve or –ve.
e.g.
Instrumental error To overcome this error we generally take many no. of
Imperfect experimental technique trials and take the average of them.
Personal errors e.g.
when same person repeats the measurement, values
are different.
Unpredictable fluctuations in conditions like
temperature, voltage, vibrations etc.
Instrumental error: Imperfect experimental technique: Personal L.C error:
e.g. e.g. error: Least Count of an
calibration error, body temperature measured in armpit e.g. equipment is the least
zero mark do not is lower than the actual body viewing in value the equipment can
coincide in vernier, temperature. wrong angle measure.
zero mark worn out in External conditions such as causing e.g. 1 mm for scale, 0.1
scale, temperature, wind, humidity affecting parallax mm for vernier, 0.01 mm
measurements such as NOx in engine error. for screw gauge.
emissions.
Zero Error + ve  Zero Correction will be –ve, Zero Error - ve  Zero Correction will be + ve

Eye level same as the edge. Eye level not same as the edge. Eye level not same as the edge.
Measurement done correctly Measurement done wrongly with Measurement done wrongly with
without parallax error. parallax error. parallax error.

14
Vernier: Example for vernier measurement and reading
Concepts in Main Scale Division MSD, Vernier calculation:
Scale Division VSD, Least Count LC:

𝑛 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = (𝑛 − 1) 𝑀𝑆𝐷 𝑀𝑆𝑅 = 23 𝑚𝑚

(𝑛 − 1)
1 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝑛 𝑉𝑆𝑅 = 𝐿𝐶 × 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝐿𝐶 = 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷 − 1 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = 0.02 𝑚𝑚 × 7𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 0.14 𝑚𝑚
(𝑛 − 1)
𝐿𝐶 = 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷 − 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝑛 Total Reading:
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑀𝑆𝑅 + 𝑉𝑆𝑅 = 23 + 0.14 = 23.14 𝑚𝑚
1 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝐿𝐶 = 𝑀𝑆𝐷 =
𝑛 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Same method applicable for Screw Gauge. Pitch
For Vernier shown above, 50 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = 49 𝑀𝑆𝐷 Scale is similar to Main Scale and Drum Scale is
1 1 𝑚𝑚 similar to Vernier Scale.
𝐿𝐶 = 𝑀𝑆𝐷 = = 0.02 𝑚𝑚
𝑛 50 𝑑𝑖𝑣

For Vernier with 10 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = 9 𝑀𝑆𝐷

1 1 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝐶 = 𝑀𝑆𝐷 = = 0.1 𝑚𝑚
𝑛 10 𝑑𝑖𝑣

Screw gauge and Spherometer: Example for screw gauge measurement and
reading calculation:

1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝐿𝐶 =
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑀𝑆𝑅 = 2.5 𝑚𝑚

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑆𝑅 = 𝐿𝐶 × 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤) = 0.01 𝑚𝑚 × 24𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 0.24 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝐶 =
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
For Screw Gauge, Total Reading:
1 0.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑀𝑆𝑅 + 𝑉𝑆𝑅 = 2.5 + 0.24 = 2.74 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝐶 = 𝑀𝑆𝐷 = = 0.01 𝑚𝑚
𝑛 50 𝑑𝑖𝑣

15
Zero above the line, so negative zero error. Zero below the line, so positive zero error.

Can the L.C of a vernier be negative? Estimating the size of a molecule:

Mathematically speaking if
10 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = 11 𝑀𝑆𝐷
1 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = 1.1 𝑀𝑆𝐷

𝐿𝐶 = 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷 − 1 𝑉𝑆𝐷
= 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷 − 1.1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
= − 0.1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
= − 0.1 (1 𝑚𝑚)
= − 0.1 𝑚𝑚
By creating a mono molecular layer, we can estimate
the size of a molecule.
𝑉𝑜𝑙. = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
1
𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 ×
20 × 20
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
1 ml of Oleic acid in 20 ml alcohol. 1 ml of this
solution in 20 ml alcohol.

𝑝 = 𝑝𝑜 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 In trigonometric ratios 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 the term 𝜃

The exponent term −𝛼𝑡 is dimensionless. So if t is is in radians. Radians is dimensionless.
having a unit of sec then 𝛼 will have a unit of sec-1.
𝑝 and 𝑝𝑜 will be of same units.
𝐵
𝐼 = 𝐴 𝑇 2 𝑒 −𝑘𝜏
𝐵
will be a dimensionless term.
𝑘𝜏
𝐼 and 𝐴 𝑇 2 will be of same units.

10−15 fermi 103 kilo 101 deca Approx. sizes:

10−12 pico 106 Mega 102 hecto 10−6 𝑚 Molecule
10−9 nano 109 Giga 10−1 deci 10−10 𝑚 Atom
−14
10−6 𝜇 micro 1012 Tera 10−2 centi 10 𝑚 Nucleus
10−3 milli 1015 Peta 10−15 𝑚 Proton
1 Quintal = 100 kg 1 Tonne = 1000 kg

16
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P03 Motion in One Dimension
Distance vs. Displacement:

Distance covered = 8 m,
Displacement = Final position – Initial position
= -2 – 0 = -2.

Scalar (Only Magnitude) Vector (Magnitude and Direction)

Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Only + ve values +ve and –ve values possible

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥⃗2 − 𝑥⃗1 𝑥(𝑡2 ) − 𝑥(𝑡1 ) 𝑣⃗2 − 𝑣⃗1 𝑣(𝑡2 ) − 𝑣(𝑡1 )
= = = = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
100 + 100
= = 66.6 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
1+2
Average velocity, like Average acceleration depends only
displacement depends only upon upon initial and final positions and
initial and final positions and not not on the path taken. The straight
on the path taken. The straight line line here is referred as secant line.
here is referred as secant line.
Instantaneous speed and instantaneous velocity: Instantaneous acceleration:
As ∆𝑡 → 0, the secant line becomes
tangent line.

In a position time graph, Slope of the

tangent at a given time instant gives
the instantaneous velocity.

Instantaneous speed and instantaneous

velocity will be equal. In a velocity time graph, Slope
gives instantaneous acceleration.

17
Introduction to Differentiation: Introduction to Integration:
∆𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
∆𝑥 = 𝑦. 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝐴𝑠 ∆𝑥 → 0
= ∫ 𝑦. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝑑𝑥
is the slope of the tangent.
𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑑 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑥 = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑛+1
𝑑𝑥

Since slope is a function

of x, it means the slope
may not be a constant and
it can change at every
point as shown in the
graph.
5
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
5
𝑥2 25 0
=[ ] = − = 12.5 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
2 0 2 2

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 =

5
∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
5
𝑥3
=[ ]
3 0
125 0
= −
3 2
= 41.6 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Differentiation or Derivatives Integration

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
=𝑣 𝑠𝑓 𝑡𝑓
𝑑𝑡
Differentiating displ. gives velocity. (slope of ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑖 𝑡𝑖
position vs. time graph) 𝑡𝑓
𝑠𝑓 − 𝑠𝑖 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖
Integrating velocity w.r.t. time gives displ. (Area
under the curve in velocity vs. time graph)
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
=𝑎 𝑣𝑓 𝑡𝑓
𝑑𝑡
Differentiating velocity gives acceleration. (slope of ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑖 𝑡𝑖
velocity vs. time graph) 𝑡𝑓
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖
Integrating acceleration w.r.t. time gives change in
velocity (Area under the curve in acceleration vs.
time graph)

18
Equations of Motion: only when acceleration is const.
𝑣−𝑢 Displacement done in time t: Replace t,
𝑎= 𝑣−𝑢
𝑡 𝑡=
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑎
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + (𝑣 − 𝑢)𝑡
2
𝑣+𝑢 𝑣−𝑢 1 𝑣−𝑢 2
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑠 = 𝑢( )+ 𝑎( )
2 𝑎 2 𝑎
This is only for const. acceleration. 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

1 Or use area under the trapezium,

𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + (𝑣 − 𝑢)𝑡 𝑢+𝑣
2 𝑠= .𝑡
1 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑢+𝑣 𝑣−𝑢
2 𝑠= .
At time 𝑡 = 0, if displacement is 2 𝑎
not zero and has a initial 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑠=
displacement then, 2𝑎
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

1
𝑠 = 𝑠𝑜 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠
𝑎= 𝑣= 𝑎= = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑜 0 ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑡 0 𝑢
𝑢 0
[𝑠]𝑠𝑠𝑜 = ∫ (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑣
[𝑣]𝑣𝑢 = 𝑎[𝑡]𝑡0 1 𝑣2
𝑠 − 𝑠𝑜 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑎[𝑠]0𝑠
=[ ]
2 2 𝑢
𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑡 1 2 2
𝑠 = 𝑠𝑜 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
2

v vs. t graphs and distance travelled: Typed Problem: A ball thrown upwards.

This is a typical velocity vs. time graph for a ball

thrown vertically upwards.
The straight line shows the slope acceleration is
constant and negative.
The area in the upper triangle and lower triangle of
the graph will be equal as the distance covered will
be equal.

19
Position, Distance vs. Time Speed or Velocity vs. Time

20
Displacement in the nth sec: Galileo’s law of odd numbers: When a ball is
Distance travelled in 10th second alone can be found dropped, the distance covered in equal intervals of
by subtracting the distance covered in 9 seconds from time is a ratio of odd numbers.
distance covered in 10 seconds. 𝑠 𝑔/2 Dist. covered Dist. covered
1 2 × __ in equal in equal
Similarly distance covered in nth second, = 𝑔𝑡 intervals of 1 intervals of 2
2
𝑠𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐. = 𝑠𝑛 − 𝑠𝑛−1 sec. sec.
1 2 1 𝑔/2 × __ 𝑔/2 × __
= 𝑢𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 − [𝑢(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑎(𝑛 − 1)2 ]
2 2 𝑠0 0
𝑎
𝑠𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐. = 𝑢 + (2𝑛 − 1) 𝑠1 1 1
2 𝑠2 4 3 4....1x4
𝑠3 9 5
𝑠4 16 7 12….3x4
𝑠5 25 9
𝑠6 36 11 20….5x4

Time taken for the ball to reach the ground: Usual Negative Displacement method:
method.
When a ball is thrown vertically upwards from a 1 2
building of 25 m height, what is the time taken for it 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
to reach the ground? 1
−25 = +20 𝑡 − 10 𝑡 2
Splitting the problem into two regions. 2
Time taken to reach the maximum height, 𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 − 5 = 0
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = −1 𝑠𝑒𝑐, 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
0 = 20 − 10 𝑡1 𝑡 = 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡1 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Displacement to reach the maximum height, Ignoring the negative value, we
2 2 take total time taken as 5 sec.
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠
0 = 20 × 20 − 2 × 10 𝑠
𝑠 = 20 𝑚
Time taken to fall the Total displacement is 20 m +
25 m = 45 m is,
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
45 = 0 + (10)𝑡22
2
𝑡2 = 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Total time taken,
𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Stopping / Braking Distance: Response or Reaction time:
When brakes are applied to stop a car, it is negative When a ruler is dropped vertically, the distance after
acceleration. which a person is able catch the ruler will give the
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 reaction time t.
0 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑎𝑠 1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑢2 2
𝑠= 1 2
2𝑎 𝑠 = 𝑔𝑡
If the initial speed is 20 m/s and deceleration 2 m/s2 2
For example, if a person
then the stopping distance is 100 m, however if the catches the ruler after 40 cm,
initial speed is 40 m/s then the stopping distance is 1
not 200 m instead it will be 400 m. −0.4 = (−10)𝑡 2
2
𝑠 ∝ 𝑢2
𝑡 = √0.08
This tells us the danger of speeding as the stopping
distance will quadraple as the speed doubles. 𝑡 = 0.28 𝑠𝑒𝑐.

21
+ Relative velocity: Uniform velocity .

Relative velocity of A w.r.t. B is Relative velocity of A w.r.t. B is

𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 60 − 40 = 20 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 60 − (−40) = 100 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
A is ahead of B by 20 km every hour. A is ahead of B by 100 km every hour.

Relative velocity of B w.r.t. A is Relative velocity of B w.r.t. A is

𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 = 40 − 60 = −20 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 = −40 − 60 = −100 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
B is behind A by 20 km every hour. B is behind A by 100 km every hour.
Typed Problems: Relative Velocity:

When do they meet?

Slope is same, so velocity is same. 1
𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 20 − 20 = 0 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 𝑠𝐴𝐵 = (𝑠𝑜𝐴 − 𝑠𝑜𝐵 ) + (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 )𝑡 + (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡 2
2
𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 = 20 − 20 = 0 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 0 = (10 − 40) + (20 − 10)𝑡 + 0
𝑡 = 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Relative displacement of A w.r.t. B, Where do they meet?
1 1
𝑠𝐴𝐵 = (𝑠𝑜𝐴 − 𝑠𝑜𝐵 ) + (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 )𝑡 + (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡 2 𝑠𝐴 = 𝑠𝑜𝐴 + 𝑢𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐴 𝑡 2
2 2
𝑠𝐴𝐵 = (10 − 20) + 0 + 0 = −10 𝑚 = 10 + 20 × 3 + 0 = 70 𝑚
𝑠𝐴𝐵 = −10 𝑚 1
This means A is 10 m behind B. 𝑠𝐵 = 𝑠𝑜𝐵 + 𝑢𝐵 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐵 𝑡 2
2
= 40 + 10 × 3 + 0 = 70 𝑚
+ Relative Velocity: Non-Uniform velocity,
Accelerating
𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑢𝐴𝐵 + 𝑎𝐴𝐵 𝑡
𝑣𝐴𝐵 = (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 ) + (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡

Relative Displacement:
1
𝑠𝐴𝐵 = 𝑠𝑜 𝐴𝐵 + 𝑢𝐴𝐵 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐴𝐵 𝑡 2
2
1
𝑠𝐴𝐵 = (𝑠𝑜𝐴 − 𝑠𝑜𝐵 ) + (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 )𝑡 + (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡 2
When do they meet? 2
1
𝑠𝐴𝐵 = (𝑠𝑜𝐴 − 𝑠𝑜𝐵 ) + (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 )𝑡 + (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡 2
2
0 = (10 − 40) + (20 − (−10))𝑡 + 0
𝑡 = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Where do they meet?
1
𝑠𝐴 = 𝑠𝑜𝐴 + 𝑢𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐴 𝑡 2
2
= 10 + 20 × 1 + 0 = 30 𝑚
1
𝑠𝐵 = 𝑠𝑜𝐵 + 𝑢𝐵 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐵 𝑡 2
2
= 40 − 10 × 1 + 0 = 30 𝑚

22
Relative velocity of a man climbing on an Relative velocity of a monkey running on the roof
escalator (moving steps): of a train:

𝑣𝑀𝑇 = 𝑣𝑀𝐺 − 𝑣𝑇𝐺

𝑣𝑀𝑆 = 𝑣𝑀𝐺 − 𝑣𝑆𝐺 𝑣𝑀𝑇 = 𝑣𝑀 − 𝑣𝑇
𝑣𝑀𝐺 = 𝑣𝑀𝑆 + 𝑣𝑆𝐺
𝑣𝑀 = 𝑣𝑀𝑆 + 𝑣𝑆 𝑣𝑀𝑇 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑦 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑣𝑀𝐺 , 𝑣𝑀 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑦 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑣𝑀𝑆 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 𝑣𝑇𝐺 , 𝑣𝑇 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑣𝑀𝐺 , 𝑣𝑀 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑣𝑆𝐺 , 𝑣𝑆 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

Same can be applied in the conveyor belt problems.

+ Acceleration not constant: + Acceleration vs. time graph: Acceleration not
Only when the acceleration is constant equations of constant:
motion can be used, as the ‘a’ in the equations
represent a constant acceleration value. However if
the acceleration is changing w.r.t. time then equations
of motion should not be used.

Example:
𝑎 = −𝑘√𝑣
𝑑𝑣
= −𝑘√𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑓 𝑡=𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∫ = −𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 Area under the acceleration vs. time graph represents
𝑣𝑖 √𝑣 𝑡=0
the increase in velocity, which is the 2nd term 𝑎𝑡 in
𝑣 the equation.
𝑣 1/2 𝑓 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
[ ] = −𝑘[𝑡]𝑡0
1/2 𝑣
𝑖
2 (√𝑣𝑓 − √𝑣𝑖 ) = −𝑘 𝑡 To find the final velocity the initial velocity should
be added to the area of the graph.

Area under the curve on the positive side of x-axis

represents the increase in speed in positive direction.
Area under the curve on the negative side of x-axis
represents the increase in speed in negative direction.

23
Typed problem: Typed problem: Bird flying between approaching
trains:

A bird is flying between two trains approaching each

other. After reaching the other train, the bird is flying
back to the first train at a constant speed. What is the
In an equilateral triangle if A is always moving time taken for the trains to meet? What is the distance
towards B, B is always moving towards C, C is covered by the bird?
always moving towards A, then what is the time
taken for them to meet at centroid G? When the trains meet, the relative displacement
2 2 √3 between them is zero. 𝑠𝐴𝐵 = 0
ℎ
𝑡=
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡.
= 3 = 3𝑑 2 = 2𝑑 1
𝑣𝑒𝑙. 𝑣 cos 30𝑜 √3 3𝑣 𝑠𝐴𝐵 = 𝑠𝑜 𝐴𝐵 + 𝑢𝐴𝐵 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐴𝐵 𝑡 2 = 0
𝑣 2 2
1
(𝑠𝑜𝐴 − 𝑠𝑜𝐵 ) + (𝑢𝐴 − 𝑢𝐵 )𝑡 + (𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 )𝑡 2 = 0
2
Solving for 𝑡 gives the time taken for the trains to
meet.Using this time taken and speed of the bird, the
distance travelled by the bird can be calculated.

24
 Guru Academy and Labs: 11P04 Motion in a Plane 2D
Triangular law of vector addition: Polygon law of vector addition:

The closing side of the triangle will be the resultant

of the the vectors 𝐴⃗ , 𝐵
⃗⃗.
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗ + 𝐷 ⃗⃗ + 𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝐹⃗
The closing side of the polygon will be the resultant
of the the vectors 𝐴⃗ , 𝐵
⃗⃗ , 𝐶⃗, 𝐷
⃗⃗, 𝐸⃗⃗ , 𝐹⃗.
Parallelogram Law of Vector addition: Vector Subtraction:
(Relative velocity of A w.r.t. B)

Tails of vectors should be touching

𝑅 = √(𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)2 + (𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ)2 𝑅 = √(𝐴 − 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)2 + (𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ)2
𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 − 2𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 =
𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ 𝐴 − 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ

Special cases: Special cases:

Parallel, θ = 0, 𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵, 𝜙 = 0 Parallel, θ = 0, 𝑅 = 𝐴 − 𝐵, 𝜙 = 0
Anti-parallel, 𝜃 = 180°, 𝑅 = 𝐴 − 𝐵, 𝜙 = 0 Anti-parallel, θ = 180°, 𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵, 𝜙 = 0
𝐵 𝐵
Right angle, 𝜃 = 90°, 𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 = 𝐴 Right angle, 𝜃 = 90°, 𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 = 𝐴

Type 1: Problems Type 2: Problems

When two forces are acting on the same body then to

When two forces are acting on two different bodies,
find the net effect, the resultant vector has to be
then to find the relative velocity of rain w.r.t the
found using vector addition.
cyclist, vector subtraction has to be done.

Sine law: Cosine law:

𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶

25
Resolution of Vectors: Depending upon the angle the components will
Resolving or splitting into two components x and y: change.
𝑎𝑑𝑗. 𝐹𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝. 𝐹
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝑜𝑝𝑝. 𝐹𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝. 𝐹
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

𝐹⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑥 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑦
𝐹⃗ = 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑖̂ + 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑗̂
Unit vector:
𝑖̂ , 𝑗̂ , 𝑘̂ are the unit vectors in
𝑎⃗ the X, Y and Z directions of
𝑎̂ = the coordinate system.
|𝑎⃗|

𝑎̂ ( “a” cap) is the unit vector in the direction of 𝑎⃗

(“a” vector). The magnitude of the unit vector is
always 1.
Position vector: Displacement vector:

𝑃⃗⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂

𝑄⃗⃗ = 4𝑖̂ + 1𝑗̂ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑄 ⃗⃗ − 𝑃⃗⃗
⃗⃗ are called
𝑃⃗⃗ and 𝑄 = 2𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂
position vectors as they
give the position of the
points P and Q with
respect to the origin.

Magnitude and direction: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑄 represents a particle getting displaced from P to
Q. So it is called the displacement vector. In this
example the particle gets displaced by +2 units in X
|𝑃⃗⃗| = √22 + 32 = √13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
direction and -2 units in the Y direction.
𝑜𝑝𝑝. 3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = =
𝑎𝑑𝑗. 2

Vector addition: Analytical i, j, k method: Vector multiplication with a scalar:

⃗⃗
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑃⃗⃗ + 𝑄 𝑎⃗ = 5𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂
𝑅⃗⃗ = 6𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ 3𝑎⃗ = 15𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂

Vectors in space: 3D For Right hand coordinate system, use Right Hand
Thumb RHT rule to determine the Z direction.
𝑎⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂

26
Motion in a straight line 1D: Average vs. instantaneous acceleration:
Average vs. instantaneous velocity:
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑣̅ = lim = 𝑎̅ = lim = = ( )= 2
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Average velocity 𝑣̅ becomes instantaneous velocity Average acceleration 𝑎̅ becomes instantaneous
as ∆𝑡 → 0 time approaches zero. acceleration as ∆𝑡 → 0 time approaches zero.
Motion in a plane 2D:
𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗2 are called position vectors at different
instants. ∆𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1 is called as displacement
vector.

𝑟⃗1 = 𝑥1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦1 𝑗⃗
𝑟⃗2 = 𝑥2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦2 𝑗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1
∆𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗⃗
∆𝑟 ∆𝑟 = √∆𝑥 2 + ∆𝑦 2
∆𝑦
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∆𝑥 𝑖⃗ + ∆𝑦 𝑗⃗
∆𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 =
∆𝑥

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑟
∆𝑟
𝑣⃗ = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
𝑣⃗ = lim 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ 𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑣𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 =
𝑣⃗ = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ 𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗⃗

∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎⃗ = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑣𝑦 𝑎 = √𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2
𝑎⃗ = lim 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ 𝑎𝑦
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾 =
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑥
𝑎⃗ = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗⃗
Motion in a plane 2D can be treated as two separate
simultaneous 1D motions with constant
acceleration along two perpendicular directions.
This can be extended to 3D space.

27
Equation of motion in straight line (1D): Equation of motion in a plane (2D):
𝑣⃗ − 𝑢 ⃗⃗
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑎⃗ =
𝑡
𝑣⃗ = 𝑢⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗𝑡
1 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 where x and y are components.
1 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗0 + 𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡
𝑠 = 𝑠0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 𝑢
⃗⃗ + 𝑣⃗
where 𝑠0 is initial displacement at time 𝑡 = 0. 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗0 + 𝑡
2
𝑢
⃗⃗ + 𝑢 ⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗𝑡
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗0 + ( )𝑡
2
1
Average velocity when acceleration is constant, 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗0 + 𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑡 + 𝑎⃗𝑡 2
𝑢+𝑣 2
𝑣̅ = 1 1
2 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2 2
All the above equations of motion is applicable where 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 is the initial displacement in
only when the acceleration is constant. If corresponding directions at time 𝑡 = 0 .
acceleration is changing then these equations [𝑣⃗]2 = [𝑢 ⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗𝑡]2
cannot be used. = (𝑢 ⃗⃗)2 + 2 𝑢 ⃗⃗. 𝑎⃗ 𝑡 + (𝑎⃗𝑡)2
1
= (𝑢 ⃗⃗)2 + 2𝑎⃗ (𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑡 + 𝑎⃗𝑡 2 )
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎⃗. 𝑠⃗
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Motion in a plane 2D can be treated as two separate
simultaneous 1D motions with constant
acceleration along two perpendicular directions.
Relative displacement in 1D: constant velocity Relative displacement in 2D: constant velocity
1
𝑠 = 𝑠0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 𝑟⃗𝐵𝐴 = [𝑟⃗𝐵 (0) − 𝑟⃗𝐴 (0)] + (𝑢 ⃗⃗𝐴 ) 𝑡
⃗⃗𝐵 − 𝑢
Bodies A and B are moving at constant velocity
𝑎 = 0, 𝑟⃗𝐵𝐴 = 𝑟⃗0𝐴𝐵 + 𝑢
⃗⃗𝐵𝐴 𝑡
𝑥𝐴 = 𝑥𝐴 (0) + 𝑢𝐴 𝑡
𝑥𝐵 = 𝑥𝐵 (0) + 𝑢𝐵 𝑡
Relative displacement of B w.r.t A
𝑥𝐵𝐴 (𝑡) = 𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴
𝑥𝐵𝐴 (𝑡) = [𝑥𝐵 (0) − 𝑥𝐴 (0)] + (𝑢𝐵 − 𝑢𝐴 )𝑡
Relative velocity in 1D: constant velocity Relative velocity in 2D: constant velocity
Differentiatiing on both sides, This can be easily extended for motion in a plane
𝑑 2D
𝑥 (𝑡) = (𝑢𝐵 − 𝑢𝐴 )
𝑑𝑡 𝐵𝐴 For constant velocities,
Both bodies are moving with constant velocity, so 𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣⃗𝐵 − 𝑣⃗𝐴
𝑢𝐴 = 𝑣𝐴 , 𝑢𝐵 = 𝑣𝐵 𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣⃗𝐴 − 𝑣⃗𝐵
Relative velocity of B w.r.t. A, 𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 = −𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴
Relative velocity of A w.r.t. B, 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 |𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 | = |𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴 |
Relative velocity and Relative displacement in Relative velocity and Relative displacement in
1D: constant acceleration: 2D: constant acceleration:
𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑢𝐴𝐵 + 𝑎𝐴𝐵 𝑡 𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 = 𝑢⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 + 𝑎⃗𝐴𝐵 𝑡
1 1
𝑆𝐴𝐵 = 𝑆0𝐴𝐵 + 𝑢𝐴𝐵 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐴𝐵 𝑡 2 𝑆⃗𝐴𝐵 = 𝑆⃗0𝐴𝐵 + 𝑢 ⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 𝑡 + 𝑎⃗𝐴𝐵 𝑡 2
2 2

28
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P04B Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion: Non-uniform circular motion:

Speed of the object 𝑣
remains the same however
the direction is changing
every instant so the
velocity is not constant,
even though the magnitude
of velocity is same.
There is a force acting towards the center called
centripetal force which is responsible for the circular motion, there is a tangential force acting that is
motion. Without this centripetal force circular
motion is not possible.
Speed of the object 𝑣 is
not same. Either it is
increasing or decreasing.
Also the direction of the
velocity is also changing
at every instant.
In addition to the
centripetal force that is responsible for circular
responsible for the increasing or decreasing the
speed of the object.

If the 𝐹𝑡 is along the direction of 𝑣 then the speed

increases. If the 𝐹𝑡 is opposite to the direction of 𝑣
then the speed decreases.
Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force: + Centripetal acceleration and tangential
acceleration:
𝑠 =𝑟⋅𝜃 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = √𝑎𝑐2 + 𝑎𝑡2
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃 𝑎𝑡
=𝑟⋅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑐
𝑣 =𝑟⋅𝜔
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑎𝑐 centripetal acceleration acting
towards the center is the cause of circular motion. 𝑎𝑡
tangential acceleration acting tangential to the circle
is the cause of change in speed.
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔
=𝑟⋅
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑟 𝛼

𝛥𝑣 = 𝑣. 𝛥𝜃 𝜔 - angular velocity (rad /s)

𝛥𝑣 𝛥𝜃 𝛼 - angular acceleration (rad /𝑠 2 )
=𝑣
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
Centripetal acceleration, 𝑣 =𝑟⋅𝜔
𝑣⃗ = 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑣 𝜔
2
𝑣
𝑎𝑐 = = 𝑟𝜔2 = 𝜔𝑣
𝑟
𝑎⃗𝑐 = 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑣⃗
𝑎𝑡 = 𝛼 𝑟
Centripetal force, 𝑎⃗𝑡 = 𝛼⃗ × 𝑟⃗
𝐶. 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑐
𝑚𝑣 2 Use Right Hand Thumb rule in each case for the
𝐶. 𝐹 = = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2 cross product.
𝑟

29
Centripetal force demanded: Ball tied to a string: Centripetal force provided by
𝑚𝑣 2 tension in the string.
𝐶. 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑟 𝑇=
Some physical force such as friction, gravitation, 𝑟
normal reaction, tension, electric force must provide 𝑇max is the maximum capacity of the spring,
this required or demanded centripetal force, 𝑚𝑣 2
otherwise the circular motion is not possible. 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≥
𝑟
This is the condition for string not to break.
Electron going around the nucleus: Centripetal Moon going around earth: Centripetal force
force provided by Coulomb’s provided by gravitational force of attraction.
electric force of attraction. One 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
proton and one electron in the =
𝑟2 𝑟
case of hydrogen.
1 𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀
= 𝑣0 = √
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑟
𝑣0 is the orbital velocity.
Air plane taking a turn: L is the lift force. Cyclist taking a turn: R is the normal reaction
Centripetal force provided by 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 component. force from the ground. Centripetal force provided by
.𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 component.
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2
𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑣2 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑣2
𝑟𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔
Moving charged particle in a magnetic field: Conical Pendulum: T is the tension in the string.
Centripetal force is provided Centripetal force provided by 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 component.
by the Lorentz force or the 𝑚𝑣 2
⃗⃗ ) 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
magnetic force = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 𝑟
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣2
𝑞𝑣𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑟 𝑟𝑔

Car taking a turn in circular road: Car taking a turn in banked road:
Centripetal force provided by Principle is the normal reaction force from the road
friction between the tires and the surface when tilted towards the center of circular
road. While taking a turn in car, we road, contributes for centripetal force in addition to
take a wider turn and reduce the friction, so higher speeds during turning possible.
speed so that the CF demanded is
reduced and the friction force is 𝑚𝑔 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
more than the demand, so that it is 𝑚𝑣 2
safe to turn. 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑁 sin 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 cos 𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = Solve for N and 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 we
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2 get
𝜇𝑁 = 𝑔𝑟(sin 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑠 sin 𝜃)
𝜇𝑚𝑔 = 2
𝑟 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
µ𝑠 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑟𝑔, 𝑣 2 ≤ 𝜇𝑟𝑔 for safe turning. 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔𝑟 [ ]
1 − 𝜇𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃

Special cases:
2
when 𝜃 = 0 it is flat road, no banking, 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑟𝑔
2
when µ𝑠 = 0 then 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃

30
As a car takes a sharp right turn, the passengers Rotor ride:
get pushed towards the left. Why? As the rotational speed
While the car is making the turn, the loose objects 𝜔 increases, we feel we
such as passengers due to inertia tend to go straight are being pushed
while the car is turning right, this makes it feel against the wall and
passengers are pushed towards left. This is called slightly raised up. But
centrifugal force acting away from the center which actually we are feeling
is pseudo force, meaning it is not a real force as no the wall pushing on us
force is pushing the passengers towards left. It is which is normal
equal to the centripetal force acting towards the reaction contact force
center. N. In other cases the centripetal force provided
causes the circular motion. Here the circular motion
of the cylinder provides the N on the human body to
make it rotate.
Note the cylinder is the rotating object and the
human body is a loose object. Due to inertia it will
try to go straight, but cylinder is rotating so we feel
It is the similar effect in water in like we are getting pushed against the wall
a bucket undergoing circular (centrifugal force which is a pseudo force). This is
motion in vertical motion or similar to the case where we feel we are getting
horizontal spinning motion. pushed to our left, when the car is making a sharp
While the bucket is undergoing circular motion, the right turn.
loose object water is experiencing centrifugal force 𝑚𝑣 2
making it to stick to the bucket. 𝑁= = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
𝑟
As rotational speed 𝜔 increases, normal
Understanding Centrifugal force:
reaction N increases so the frictional force of the
Pseudo force or virtual
human body against the wall increases, opposite to
force – Not really
the weight of the human body. So the person feels as
existing.
though he is lifted up because there is no reaction
In a car sudden
force from the ground.
brake makes the upper
In equilibrium,
body to go forward,
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐. = 𝑚𝑔
but there is no force
acted on the upper part 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
of the body, but still At this instant the floor can be removed from the
the body moved due to ride and the person will still be sticking to the wall
inertia. This is called without falling down.
Pseudo force. This is When rotational speed 𝜔 increases further,
for linear motion. 𝜇𝑁 > 𝑚𝑔
From the rotating disk, the loose object will 𝜇𝑚𝑟𝜔2 > 𝑚𝑔
fly out straight in AB direction. This is the reality 𝜇𝑟𝜔2 > 𝑔
for a person observing from outside reference. For a then person gets lifted up from the ground level. As
person sitting at the center of the disk, the object the rotational speed decreases and the ride comes to
will appear to be flying out radially outwards as a stop the person slides down slowly safely to the
illustrated. This is why Centrifugal force seems to be ground.
acting radially outwards. Centrifugal force is a
pseudo force of centripetal force. Death well or Well of death rides are based on the
same principle.
Even though the force is pseudo, the effects are real.

31
Vertical circular motion: is an example of non-
uniform circular motion. In uniform circular motion
the angular speed 𝜔 and the linear tangential speed
of the body is constant. In vertical non-uniform
circular motion even if the angular speed 𝜔 is
constant, the linear tangential speed is not a contant
and varies at every point on the circle as it is
spinning against the gravity on one half and towards
the gravity on another half. Speed is maximum in
the lowest point and minimum in the highest point.
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 in circular
motion, towards the
center it is taken as
positive, so for a
general point,
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 =
𝑟
Tension 𝑇 will also change at every point.
At highest point H:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇 + 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟
in the limiting case, when
𝑇𝐻 = 0, the ball does not loop
the loop.
𝑚𝑣𝐻2
0 + 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟 𝑣𝐿2 = 4𝑔𝑟 + 𝑔𝑟
𝑣𝐻 = √𝑔𝑟
𝑣𝐻 ≥ √𝑔𝑟 for the ball to loop
the loop.
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇𝐻 + 𝑚𝑔 = ⇒ 𝑇𝐻 ≥ 0
𝑟
32
Elastic String:
If an elastic string is used then the radius, the length
of the string will also change at each point.
𝐹=𝑘𝑥
Tension in the string,
𝑇 = 𝑘 (𝐿 − 𝐿𝑜 )
𝐿𝑜 is the original length, 𝐿 is the length at every
instant, k is the force constant.
In the uppermost point when 𝑇 = 0 extension is
zero. In lowermost point 𝑇 will determine the
extension.
From the ball’s perspective 𝑇 is acting upwards.
From string’s perspective 𝑇 acts downwards. So this
𝑇 is the force on string. Use 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 to find the
extension 𝑥 on the string.
At lowest point L:
Total Energy at L = Total Energy at H
(PE + KE) at L = (PE + KE) at H
1 1
0 + 𝑚𝑣𝐿2 = 𝑚𝑔(2𝑟) + 𝑚𝑣𝐻2
2 2
𝑣𝐿 = √5𝑔𝑟
𝑣𝐿 ≥ √5𝑔𝑟
At lowest point the minimum speed must be this
value for the ball to reach the top.
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇𝐿 − 𝑚𝑔 = ⇒ 𝑇𝐿 ≥ 6𝑚𝑔
𝑟
Death Well or Globe of Death: At the top,
In this case instead of tension T, it will be normal 𝑚𝑣 2
reaction force N. 𝑁 + 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟
At the bottom,
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟
When 𝑁 = 0 then, only 𝑚𝑔 is providing the
centripetal force. So,
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟

𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √𝑔𝑟
This is the minimum velocity required for the bike
to reach the top and loop the loop. As 𝑣 increases
the 𝑁 will also increase.

Bangle and a bead: Ball slipping in a spherical surface:

𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜔2

𝑔
𝜔=√
𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

As ω increases, θ also
increases meaning the bead rises to higher height.
Cycle in slopes: When will the ball fall off from the surface.Slipping
ball is in circular motion.
Towards the center is taken as positive and away 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑁 =
from the center is negative. 𝑅
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 When the ball falls off the surface, it means it loses
For cicular motion, contact with the surface, it means normal reaction is
𝑚𝑣 2 zero. N = 0.
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑟 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑅
2𝑔ℎ
𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑅
2ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑅
Also we see,
𝑅−ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑅
ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 1 −
𝑅
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 1 −
2
𝜃 = 420
2ℎ ℎ
= 1−
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅
ℎ=
3

33
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P04C Projectile Motion
Type 1 Projectile Motion: can be Y- axis: X - axis:
considered as two simultaneous 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃
perpendicular motions in X and Y 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔 𝑎𝑥 = 0
axes. 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥
At highest point 𝑣𝑦 = 0 , Range,
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 1
1 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 . 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎 𝑡2
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 𝑢𝑦 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 𝑥
2 𝑡1/2 = − = 𝑢𝑦 𝑢2 sin 2𝜃
𝑎𝑦 𝑔 𝑅 = −𝑢𝑥 2 =
Time of flight, 𝑎𝑦 𝑔
substitute t in terms of x, we get
1 𝑔 𝑡𝑓 = 2 𝑡1/2 Max. range happens when
𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑥 − 𝑥2 𝜃 = 45𝑜 ,
2 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
2
1 𝑢2
2 𝑆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
The negative 𝑥 term represents the 2 𝑔
2 Galileo’s Law: Two
trajectory is an inverted parabola. 𝑢𝑦 1 𝑢𝑦
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 (− ) + 𝑎𝑦 (− ) projectiles of angles more
𝑎𝑦 2 𝑎𝑦
2 2 2 and less from 45o will have
𝑢
1 𝑦 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 same range. e.g. 30o and 60o
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − =
2 𝑎𝑦 2𝑔 have same range, 20o and 70o
have same range.
Resultant velocity of the body at a Resultant velocity of the body at the instant of hitting the ground,
given time instant t, because of the symmetry of the problem, at the time of hitting the
ground will be same as the initial velocity when it was thrown from
𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 the ground,
2 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= √(𝑢𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡)2 + (𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡) 𝑢 sin 𝜃
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑔 2 = −𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2 𝑔
= √𝑢𝑥2 + (𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡)
𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2
= √(𝑢 cos 𝜃)2 + (𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)2
𝑣=𝑢
𝑣𝑦 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = = 𝑣𝑦
𝑣𝑥 𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑣𝑥
Resultant displacement,
This means the magnitude and angle with which the body hits the
𝑆⃗ = 𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦 𝑗⃗ ground will be same as the magnitude and angle with which it is
1
= 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 𝑖⃗ + (𝑢𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 ) 𝑗⃗ projected.
2
Type 2 Projectile Motion: Y- axis: X - axis:
𝑢𝑦 = 0 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔 𝑎𝑥 = 0
Time of flight, 𝑡𝑓 Range,
1 1
𝑆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 . 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2 2 𝑥
1 2
−ℎ = − 𝑔𝑡 2ℎ
2 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑥 √
𝑔
Velocity with which it will hit the 2ℎ
ground, 𝑡𝑓 = √
𝑔
𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 𝑣𝑦 just before hitting the ground, 𝑣𝑥 just before hitting the
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 ground,
𝑣 = √𝑢𝑥2 + 2𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
𝑣𝑦 2ℎ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑣𝑦 = −𝑔√ = −√2𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥
𝑢𝑥 𝑔

34
Velocity vector and Displacement vector: 𝑣⃗ = 𝑢 ⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗ 𝑡
𝑣𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗⃗ = (𝑢𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑢𝑦 𝑗⃗) + (𝑎𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗⃗)𝑡
1
𝑆⃗ = 𝑢⃗⃗𝑡 + 𝑎⃗𝑡 2
2
1
𝑆𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑆𝑦 𝑗⃗ = (𝑢𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑢𝑦 𝑗⃗)𝑡 + (𝑎𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗⃗)𝑡 2
2

+ Along Inclined Plane Up:

Y- axis: X - axis:
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔 cos 𝛼 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑔 sin 𝛼
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡1/2 Range,
Note that x and y co-ordinates are inclined and 1
𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 . 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎 𝑡2
𝑣𝑦 = 0 for the highest point in this new inclined 2 𝑥𝑓
co-ordinate system.
𝑢𝑦 𝑢 sin 𝜃 2𝑢2 sin 𝜃 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼)
𝑡1/2 = − = 𝑅=
𝑎𝑦 𝑔 cos 𝛼 𝑔 cos2 𝛼

2
1 2
𝑆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡1/2 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡1/2
2
1 𝑢𝑦2 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − =
2 𝑎𝑦 2𝑔 cos 𝛼
+ Along Inclined Plane Down:

𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) 𝑢𝑥 = −𝑢 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼)
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔 cos 𝛼 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑔 sin 𝛼
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡1/2 Range,
Note that x and y co-ordinates are inclined and 1
𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 . 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎 𝑡2
𝑣𝑦 = 0 for the highest point in this new inclined 2 𝑥𝑓
co-ordinate system.
𝑢𝑦 𝑢 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) 2𝑢2 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) cos 𝜃
𝑡1/2 = − = 𝑅=
𝑎𝑦 𝑔 cos 𝛼 𝑔 cos2 𝛼

2
1 2
𝑆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡1/2 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡1/2
2
1 𝑢𝑦2 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃 + 𝛼)
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − =
2 𝑎𝑦 2𝑔 cos 𝛼

35
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P05 Laws of Motion
Greek philosopher Aristotle:
 Force required to move a body or to keep it
moving.
 Heavier bodies fall down faster than lighter
bodies.
Newton’s first law:
Unless acted upon by an external force, a body
remains in the state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line.
e.g. In deep space where there is no gravitational
force, if a body moves with a particular velocity, it
will continue to go in the same velocity in the same
straight line until it encounters any other force.
Italian Scientist Galileo Galilei:
 Force is not required to move a body or to
keep it moving, it is required only to
accelerate the body.
 Heavier bodies and lighter bodies fall down
at the same rate in vacuum.
Inertia:
Inertia is the inability of a body to change its position
or uniform motion. Mass is the measure of inertia.
When a car is suddenly started, the passenger gets
thrown backwards, inertia of rest.
When a car is suddenly stopped, the passenger gets
thrown forward, inertia of motion.
When a car is suddenly turned to left, the passenger
gets thrown towards right, inertia of direction.

Newton’s second law: Calculus method:

Force = rate of change of momentum 𝑑𝑝⃗
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 𝐹⃗ =
𝐹∝ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑑
𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢) 𝐹⃗ = (𝑚𝑣⃗)
𝐹=𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑑𝑣⃗
𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑚𝑎 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
In SI units 𝑘 = 1. ⃗
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎⃗
Proving second law from first law: Calculus method:
When no external force is applied, When no external force is applied,
𝐹=0 𝑑𝑝⃗
𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢) 𝐹= =0
=0 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑑𝑣⃗
𝑣=𝑢 𝑚 =0
𝑑𝑡
This means the body is in uniform motion (no 𝑑𝑣⃗
change in velocity) or at rest. First law proved. =0
𝑑𝑡
This means the body is in uniform motion (no
change in velocity) or at rest. First law proved.
Impulse: Calculus method:
𝐹. ∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 For variable force,
𝑡𝑓
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖

If F is const.,
𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = 𝐹. ∆𝑡
Area under the curve is impulse.
Cushioning Effect: As t increases, F decreases.
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝐹=
𝑡
 Catching the ball with longer time so the pain in the hand is reduced.
 Swinging the cricket bat or tennis racket along with the ball, so that the final velocity is higher.
 Jumping on to the cushioned floor as compared to the concrete floor.
 Bending the knees as you land on the ground.
 Hitting the air bag of a car during an accident.

36
Newton’s third law:
Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Both forces do not act on the same object instead on
two different objects, so they do not cancel each
other.
Conservation of Momentum:
e.g. recoiling of gun: gun pushes the bullet forward,
bullet pushes the gun backwards,
walking we push the ground backwards, ground
pushes us forward,
in swimming we push water backwards, water
pushes us forward.
rocket pushes exhaust gas backwards and exhaust
gas pushes rocket forward.
However note that the forces are equal and opposite
but the acceleration is not equal as the masses vary.
Calculus method:

𝐹21 = −𝐹12
𝑑𝑝2 𝑑𝑝1
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝1 𝑑𝑝2
+ =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
(𝑝 + 𝑝2 ) = 0
𝑑𝑡 1
Using Newton’s third law:
𝐹21 = −𝐹12 This means no change in total momentum, so the
𝑚2 𝑣2 − 𝑚2 𝑢2 (𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 ) momentum is conserved.
=−
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum
after collision.
Subtraction of Vectors: Change in Momentum:
∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖
is not correct as it a vector
quantity. So vector
subtraction has to be done
not scalar subtraction.
Applicable to all vectors.
similar to cosine law,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑝⃗𝑓 − 𝑝⃗𝑖
∆𝑝
|𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ | =
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝐵 sin(180 − 𝜃) 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 |𝑝⃗𝑓 − 𝑝⃗𝑖 | = √𝑝𝑓2 + 𝑝𝑖2 − 2𝑝𝑓 𝑝𝑖 cos 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = =
𝐴 − 𝐵 cos(180 − 𝜃) 𝐴 − 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑝𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 =
𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Static Equilibrium: Body at rest, velocity is zero. Dynamic Equilibrium: Body at uniform motion,
Const. velocity.
𝑎 = 0, 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0
𝑎 = 0, 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0
𝑁−𝑊 =0
𝐹𝑓𝑤𝑑 − 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 − 𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡. = 0

Upward Thrust Force F: Ladder Problems:

𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 In
𝐹 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 equilibrium,
𝛴𝐹 = 0
𝛴𝑀 = 0
M here is the
turning
moments.

37
Common misconception: “Motion (velocity) and force are in the same direction”. This is not true always.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, so force and acceleration are in same direction, but velocity need not be.
When force is opposite to When force is in same When force is
the velocity direction, the direction as the velocity perpendicular to the
speed decreases. direction, the speed velocity direction,
increases. (velocity the speed remains
e.g. ball thrown upwards, direction remains the constant.
moving upwards, gravity same.) e.g. uniform circular motion,
force acting downwards, centripetal force acting towards
so speed decreases. e.g. ball falling downwards, the center, perpendicular to the
applying brakes in a car, force gravity force acting downwards, velocity direction, so the speed
acting backwards, so velocity so speed increases. neither increases nor decreases, it
decreases. A car accelerating in the forward remains constant. However note
direction, so velocity increases. that the velocity direction is
changing at every instant.
Note: In projectile motion force is
not perpendicular to the velocity
direction so the speed changes.
Sky jumping:
Weight remains same throughout. Initially air
resistance is low, so speed increases. But as the
speed increases the air resistance increases
eventually equalizing with the weight reaching
the terminal velocity 1.
The parachutist then opens the parachute which
increases the air resistance tremendously,
slowing down the speed of fall. As speed
decreases the air resistance decreases eventually
equalizing with the weight reaching the terminal
velocity 2, which is safe for landing.
Time in which the speed increases from 0 to 63% of the terminal velocity 𝑣𝑡 is called the time constant 𝜏.
Resolution of force vectors in 𝒊⃗, 𝒋⃗, ⃗𝒌⃗ form: Equilibrant:

𝐹⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑥 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑦
⃗
𝐹 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝑖⃗ + 𝐹 sin 𝜃 𝑗⃗
𝐹𝑦 Equilibrant is that one force that will cancel out the
tan 𝜃 = resultant of all the other forces keeping them in
𝐹𝑥
equilibrium.
𝐹𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 = −𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Normal Reaction Force:

Change in momentum in X-direction: −𝑚𝑣 cos 𝜃 − (𝑚𝑣 cos 𝜃) =
−2𝑚𝑣 cos 𝜃
Change in momentum in Y-direction: −𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜃 − (−𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜃) = 0

Change in momentum is only in X-direction but not in Y-direction, so

we can say the normal reaction force is only in the –ve X-direction.

38
Static friction vs. Kinetic friction: Inclined plane:

Limiting static friction

𝑓𝑠 ∝ 𝑁
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐. = 𝑚𝑎
𝑓𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚𝑎
Coefficient of static or limiting friction, 𝜇𝑠
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎
Coefficient of kinetic friction, 𝜇𝑘
Angle of friction: Angle of Repose:
Angle of friction, Angle of Repose is
𝑓𝑠 when the block starts
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = = 𝜇 sliding,
𝑁
𝜃 is the angle of friction 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃𝑠
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃𝑠

𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃𝑠 𝑓𝑠 𝜇𝑁
= =
𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃𝑠 𝑁 𝑁
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠
Beyon this angle the block will start sliding down.
tan 𝜃𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘
Once it starts moving, 𝜃𝑘 < 𝜃𝑠

An upward pull P is applied to make the block move An upward pull P is applied to make the block move
upwards with constant velocity, 𝑎 = 0, ∑ 𝐹 = 0 downwards with constant velocity, 𝑎 = 0, ∑ 𝐹 = 0
µ𝑁 + 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 𝑃 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ − µ𝑁
this implies that the P will be maximum in this case. this implies that the P will be minimum in this case.
Applying the Brakes:
Flat road: No forward force from engine, only the
braking or retarding force from brakes.
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
Inclined Road: No forward force from engine, but
the weight component along the downward slope
and retarding force in the opposite direction. 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚2
1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔. 2
= 105 𝑔. 2 = 105 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 1 𝐽 = 1 𝑁𝑚 = 10 𝑔. 2 = 107 𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑠
7
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

39
Pulling or Pushing which is easier? Pushing:
Pulling:
𝑁2 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑁1 + 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑁1 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑓𝑠2 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁2
𝑓𝑠1 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁1

𝑁1 < 𝑁2 → 𝑓𝑠1 < 𝑓𝑠2 so pulling is easier.

Two masses in contact: Three masses in contact:

𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎 𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎
𝐹 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑎 𝐹 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )𝑎
𝐹 𝐹
𝑎= 𝑎=
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
For body 1, 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 For body 1, 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 − 𝐹21 = 𝑚1 𝐹 − 𝐹21 = 𝑚1
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
𝐹 𝐹
𝐹21 = 𝑚2 𝐹21 = (𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
𝐹
𝐹12 = 𝑚2 (𝑚 +𝑚 ) (opp. in direction to 𝐹21 ) For body 2, 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
1 2 𝐹
𝐹12 − 𝐹32 = 𝑚2
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
𝐹
𝐹32 = 𝑚3
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
Example: Example:
For all masses together,
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
6 = (1 + 2 + 3)𝑎
𝑎 = 1 𝑚/𝑠 2

For all masses together, For the body 1,

𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
15 = (5 + 10)𝑎 6 − 𝐹21 = 1 (1)
𝑎 = 1 𝑚/𝑠 2 𝐹21 = 5 𝑁
For the body 1, For the body 2,
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
15 − 𝐹21 = 5 (1) 𝐹12 − 𝐹32 = 2 (1)
𝐹21 = 10 𝑁 5 − 𝐹32 = 2 (1)
For the body 2, 𝐹32 = 3 𝑁
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 For the body 3,
𝐹12 = 10 (1) 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹12 = 10 𝑁 𝐹23 = 3 𝑁
Note that 𝐹12 and 𝐹21 are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

40
Connected bodies over a Connected bodies over a Person climbing up or climbing
frictionless pulley: horizontal table and frictionless down a rope:
pulley:
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎

T tension will be
higher.

𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑎
T tension will be
lower.
At rest, 𝛴𝐹 = 0
𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 = 0 𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 = −𝑚1 𝑎
When moving,𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑇 − 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐. = 𝑚2 𝑎 This implies that if the rope is
𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 = 𝑚1 𝑎 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚2 𝑎 weak, don’t climb up too fast as it
𝑇 − 𝑚2 𝑔 = −𝑚2 𝑎 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑚2 𝑔 = 𝑚2 𝑎 will break the rope.
Solve for two unknowns T and a,
using two equations.
Apparent weight in a Lift accelerating Lift accelerating Weightlessness:
lift : upwards: downwards:

Lift at rest or moving at 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

const. velocity: 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Special case: Free fall
𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑎 when rope cuts or orbitting
𝛴𝐹 = 0 𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 + 𝑎) 𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎) of satellite around planet,
𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑎 = 𝑔, so 𝑅 = 0.Apparent
Apparent weight is Weight =0. Weightlessness
Apparent weight is more Apparent weight is less is not gravityless.
equal to real weight. than real weight. than real weight.
ISS International Space
This is like when the car This is like when the car Station in the orbit.
is started suddenly is stopped suddenly Weightlessness
passenger gets pushed passenger gets thrown experienced by astronauts.
backwards. By Pseudo forward. By Pseudo
force man in the lift gets force man in the lift gets
pushed downwards pushed upwards
increasing the apparent decreasing the apparent
weight R. weight R.
Free Fall: Displacement of Center of Mass CM:
Free fall means acceleration, 1
𝑠𝑐𝑚 = 𝑢𝑐𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑐𝑚 𝑡 2
𝑎 = 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 2
Connected with another body means the acceleration 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑎1 + 𝑚2 𝑎2
of fall will be less than 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2

41
Action and Reaction pairs:
Action and Reaction forces should act on two different bodies. If two forces are acting on the same body
then they are not action-reaction pair. (Misnomer: Action is not the cause and reaction is not the effect. Both
happen simultaneously.)
Book on the table example:
𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 and
𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ are action reaction
pairs. (Gravitational forces)
𝑁𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 and
𝑁𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 are action reaction
pairs. (Contact forces)

𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 and 𝑁𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘 are not action
reaction pairs, even though they are equal in magnitude. Because they are acting on the
same body. But in FBD Free Body Diagram, we show only the forces acting on a given
body.
Horse-Cart problem Force analysis:
F is the force given by the horse on the ground.R is the reaction force given by the ground on the horse.

Lami’s theorem: Applicable only for three forces in

equilibrium.

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛(180 − 𝐴) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(180 − 𝐵) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(180 − 𝐶)

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 α 𝑠𝑖𝑛 β 𝑠𝑖𝑛 γ
Insect crawling up hemispherical bowl:When the weight component pulling down equals the frictional
force, the insect will not be able to climb further.
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛼 = 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛼 = 𝜇𝑁
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛼 = 𝜇 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛼
tan 𝛼 = 𝜇

42
Pseudo Force:
Inertial Frame of Reference: No acceleration, a = 0,
Newton’s laws applicable.
Non-Inertial Frame of Reference: accelerating frame,
Newton’s laws not applicable.
Note: 𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 , 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 ≠ 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
Pseudo force is determined by the mass of the body
and pseudo acceleration.

Case 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 > 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 < 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 0
Accel. of trolley 𝑎 = 5 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 2 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 1 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −2 const.
forward velocity
Pseudo accel. of 𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = −5 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −2
body = −2 𝑚𝑠 −2 = −1 𝑚𝑠 −2
Pseudo force on 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 0 𝑁
body = −500 𝑁 = −200 𝑁 = −100 𝑁
Max. friction force 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑁 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑁 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑁 𝐹𝑓,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑁
(fwd dir) = 200 𝑁 = 200 𝑁 = 200 𝑁 = 200 𝑁
𝐹𝑓 = 100 𝑁 𝐹𝑓 = 0 𝑁 const.
velocity so no
relative motion
between body and
trolley, so friction
=0
w.r.t to the trolley 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = −300 𝑁 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0 𝑁 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0 𝑁 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0 𝑁
−2 −2
(Non-Inertial 𝑎 = −3 𝑚𝑠 𝑎 = 0 𝑚𝑠 𝑎 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −2
Frame of Body moves Body is stationary. Body is stationary. Body is stationary.
Reference or backwards at an (moves along with (moves along with (moves along with
Accelerating accel. of 3 𝑚𝑠 −2 the trolley) the trolley) the trolley)
Frame of There is no force
Reference) acting in the
backwards but the
body is moving
backwards, this is
why Newton’s laws
not applicable.
w.r.t to outside the Body moves forward Body moves Body moves Body moves
trolley at an accel. of forward at an forward at an forward at a const.
−2
(Inertial Frame of 2 𝑚𝑠 −2 accel. of 2 𝑚𝑠 accel. of 1 𝑚𝑠 −2 velocity.
Reference , Fixed Only the friction force is causing the body to move forward.
reference not
accelerating)

43
+ Rocket Propulsion:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 can be used only if the mass is constant. In the case of rockets major portion of rockets consists of
fuel which is liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. As the rocket travels in the space, it will consume the fuel
causing reduction in the mass.

𝐹 ⋅ Δ𝑡 = 𝑃𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖
𝐹 ⋅ Δ𝑡 = [(𝑚 − Δ𝑚)(𝑉 + Δ𝑉) + Δ𝑚(𝑉 − 𝑣)] − 𝑚𝑉
where (𝑉 − 𝑣) is velocity of gas w.r.t ground.
𝑉𝑔𝑟 = 𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉𝑟
−𝑣 = 𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉
Velocity of gas in opposite direction so –ve sign.
𝑉𝑔 = 𝑉 − 𝑣

−𝑚𝑔 Δ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑉 + 𝑚 Δ𝑉 − Δ𝑚 𝑉 − Δ𝑚 Δ𝑉 + Δ𝑚 𝑉 − Δ𝑚 𝑣 – 𝑚 𝑉
Here 𝑔 is not constant as it changes with the height of rocket! and Δ𝑚 Δ𝑉 ≈ 0

−𝑚𝑔 Δ𝑡 = 𝑚 Δ𝑉 − Δ𝑚 𝑉
𝑚 Δ𝑉 = −Δ𝑚 𝑣 − 𝑚𝑔 Δ𝑡
Decreasing mass so a –ve appears for Δ𝑚
Δ𝑚
Δ𝑉 = − 𝑣 − 𝑔 ⋅ Δ𝑡
𝑚
𝑉 𝑚 𝑡
𝑑𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑉 = − ∫ 𝑣 − ∫ 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡
𝑉0 𝑚0 𝑚 0

[𝑉]𝑉𝑉0 = −𝑣[𝑙𝑛 𝑚]𝑚 𝑡

𝑚0 − 𝑔[𝑡]0
𝑉 − 𝑉0 = −𝑣[𝑙𝑛 𝑚 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑚0 ] − 𝑔𝑡
𝑚
𝑉 = 𝑉0 − 𝑣 𝑙𝑛 ( ) − 𝑔𝑡
𝑚0
𝑚0
𝑉 = 𝑉0 + 𝑣 𝑙𝑛 ( ) − 𝑔𝑡
𝑚
𝑉0 initial velocity
𝑣 velocity of exhaust gases w.r.t to rocket is usually constant.
𝑔 will not be a constant but changes as the rocket’s altitude increases.

44
Thrust of rocket:
𝑚 Δ𝑉 = −Δ𝑚 𝑣 − 𝑚𝑔Δ𝑡
For thrust we do not consider the gravitational deceleration as thrust is the force produced by rocket.

Δ𝑉 Δ𝑚
𝑚 = −𝑣
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑚
𝑚 = −𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
𝐹⃗thrust = 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑣𝑟
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑣𝑟 is the velocity of exhaust gas w.r.t rocket.

+ Typed problem: Wedges

𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛 α = Horizontal direction,
𝑥 𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑚𝑤 𝑎𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑤 𝑎 𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 α = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 α
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2𝑥 𝑚𝑤 𝑎 𝑦
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑚𝑔 − = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 α 𝑡𝑎𝑛 α
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 α 𝑎𝑥 𝑔
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑚
Vertical direction, [1 + 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 α]
𝑚𝑔 − 𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠 α = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑔
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚
[𝑡𝑎𝑛 α + 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑡 α]

45
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P06 Work, Energy and Power
Work Energy And Power
 Force and displacement in same direction  Definition of Energy
 Force and displacement in different direction  Definition of Power
 Projection of 𝐹⃗ on 𝑆⃗
Example: 6.10, 6.11
 Work done by constant force Exercise: 6.9, 6.10, 6.15, 6.20, 6.21, 6.22, 6.23
 Work energy theorem for constant force
 Work done by variable force
 Work energy theorem for variable force

 Work done by resistive force

Example: 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6

Exercise: 6.1, 6.2, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13
Conservative force or Conservative field: Spring
 Conservative force vs non conservative  Hooke’s law
force  P.E stored in a spring
 Velocity of a free-falling body
 Concept of PE in conservative field, ∆𝑈 =  Velocity of a mass attached to spring
−ve Work done by conservative force  K.E, P.E, T.E graph of a pendulum
 Conservation of mechanical energy in a  K.E of mass = P.E of spring + Friction work
conservative field
𝑊 = ∆𝐾 (WE theorem), 𝑊 = −∆𝑈, Example: 6.8, 6.9
∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾 = 0, ∆(𝑈 + 𝐾) = 0, 𝑇𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. Exercise: 6.4, 6.26
 Work done in a cyclic path is zero.

Exercise:6.3, 6.5, 6.6, 6.25

Vertical Circular Motion
For looping the loop (to complete the vertical
circular motion), minimum speed at lowest point and
the highest point.

Collision in 1D
 Elastic vs. Inelastic collision
 Elastic collision derivation for a moving body
colliding with a stationary body
Special cases: Identical masses, Small ball
hitting a large rock, A large rock hitting a
small ball.
Example: 6.7
Collision in 2D
 Head on collision 1D vs. collision in 2D
 Momentum conservation in X and Y
direction separately, K.E has no direction
 Prove that angle between two directions after
collision is 900 for identical balls elastic
collision

 Perfectly inelastic collision Example: 6.13

 Proof for KE lost in perfectly inelastic
collision.

 Speed of approach = Speed of separation

(any elastic collision)
 Coefficient of restitution.
Example: 6.12
Exercise: 6.7, 6.8, 6.14, 6.16, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19,
6.24, 6.27, 6.28, 6.29

46
Force and displacement in same direction Force and displacement in different direction

𝑊=𝐹 × 𝑆
= 10 𝑁 × 2 𝑚 e.g. Carrom coin moving after striker hitting it.
= 20 𝑁𝑚 𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 is the projection of 𝑆⃗ on 𝐹⃗ .
= 20 𝐽 𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙. 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
= 𝐹 × Projection of 𝑆⃗ on 𝐹⃗
𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑆⃗ Vector form of work done.
Work done by constant force Work done by variable force

. Small work done in the strip,

𝑊=𝐹 × 𝑆 Δ𝑊 = 𝐹(𝑥). Δ𝑥
= 5 𝑁 × 20 𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
= 100 𝑁𝑚 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∑ 𝐹(𝑥). Δ𝑥
Δ𝑥 → 0
= 100 𝐽 𝑥𝑓
Area under the curve is work done or energy stored. 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖
Area under the curve is work done or energy stored.
Work energy theorem in constant force Work energy theorem in variable force
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠 2
1 1 1 Differentiate on both sides,
𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2 = 𝑚(2𝑎𝑠) 𝑑𝐾 1 𝑑𝑣
2 2 2 = 𝑚 2𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑎
= 𝑚𝑎 𝑠 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐹. 𝑠 𝑑𝐾 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝐾
= 𝐹. ⟹ =𝐹
𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑊 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝛥𝐾 = 𝑊 Integrating on both sides,
Change in KE = Work done
∫ 𝑑𝐾 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥
For accelerating force, final KE will increase, 𝑥𝑓
𝐾
𝐾𝑖 + 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙. = 𝐾𝑓 [𝐾]𝐾𝑓 = ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥
𝑖
𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑓
For decelerating force, final KE will decrease, 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑑𝑥
𝐾𝑖 − 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙. = 𝐾𝑓 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑓
𝛥𝐾 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖

47
Work done by unknown variable Resistive Force Forward force and Friction force
For a rain drop or when a body is dropped from a
height,
𝛥𝐾 = 𝑊
𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
1
𝑚𝑣 2 − 0 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
2
𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 will be -ve as 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 is opposite to the
displacement.Unknown average resistive force can 1000 J of energy spent to overcome the friction. So if
be determined from it was not for the friction we would have done only
𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 . 𝑠 750 J of work to move the block.

Work Energy theorem applied for speed reduced Work Energy theorem for Rotational motion
due to friction: Energy conservation concepts 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝐸 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖
1 1
= 𝐼ω𝑓2 − 𝐼ω2𝑖
2 2

Variable force w.r.t time

1 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
𝐾. 𝐸𝑎𝑡 𝐴 − 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐾. 𝐸𝑎𝑡 𝐵 2
1 1 𝑑𝑠
𝑚𝑣𝐴2 − 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⋅ 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
2 2 𝑑𝑡
1 1 𝑑𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡). 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑣𝐴 − µ𝑁 ⋅ 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2
2
𝑥𝑓
2 2
1 1 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑑𝑥
𝑚𝑣𝐴2 − µ𝑚𝑔 ⋅ 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 𝑥𝑖
2 2 𝑥𝑓
2 2
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 2µ𝑔 𝑑 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑠). 𝑑𝑠
𝑥𝑖
We can also use kinematics method, deceleration is
𝑡𝑓
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 µ𝑁 µ 𝑚𝑔
𝑎=− =− =− = −µ𝑔 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑡). (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡). 𝑑𝑡
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑡𝑖
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑣𝐵2 = 𝑣𝐴2 − 2µ𝑔 𝑑
Work Energy theorem applied in inclined plane

By conservation of energy
𝐾𝐸𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑝 + 𝑃𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑝 + 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 − 𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝐴2 − µ𝑁𝑑 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2 2
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝐴2 − 𝜇𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2 2
In kinematics the deceleration will be 𝑎 = 𝜇𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

48
+ Ball or coin dropped inside moving lift Relative velocity and damage caused

Relative velocity between two moving vehicles

Relative velocity of ball w.r.t floor will determine determines the seriousness of the accident. c- car, l-
the heat energy generated.b-ball, f-floor of lift. lorry.
𝑣𝑏𝑓 = 𝑣𝑏 − 𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑐𝑙 = 𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣𝑙
𝑣𝑏𝑓 = (𝑢𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑡) − (𝑢𝑓 + 𝑎𝑓 𝑡) 𝑣𝑐𝑙 = 60 − 0 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 = 60𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
At touchdown of ball to the floor 𝑠𝑏𝑓 = 0 𝑣𝑐𝑙 = 60 − 40 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 = 20𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝑠𝑏𝑓 = 𝑠𝑏 − 𝑠𝑓 𝑣𝑐𝑙 = 60 − (−40) 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 = 100𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
1 1
0 = (𝑠0𝑏 + 𝑢𝑏 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑡 2 ) − (𝑠0𝑓 + 𝑢𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑓 𝑡 2 )
2 2
Solve for t and substitute to find 𝑣𝑏𝑓
Heat energy generated due to ball or coin hitting the
floor,
1 2
1 2
𝑊 = Δ𝐾 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣𝑏𝑓 − 𝑚𝑢𝑏𝑓
2 2

Energy, Power Determining motor power

Energy is the capacity to do work.

Power is rate at which work is done.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐹. 𝑆
𝑃= = = = 𝐹. 𝑣
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
Efficiency,
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃 = 𝐹. 𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑟ω = 𝜏 ω
𝜂= =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 Pulley will be stopped from rotating by adding
weights, with which force can be calculated.
Hydro power Wind power
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
1⁄ 𝑀𝑣 2 1 𝜌𝑉𝑣 2 𝜌 𝐴 𝑣𝛥𝑡 𝑣 2
= 2 = =
𝑡 2 𝑡 2 𝛥𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑀𝑔ℎ 𝜌𝑉𝑔ℎ 1
𝑃= = = = 𝜌𝑄𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑡 2
𝑔 𝜌 − 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟,
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 = 1 3 , 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡
𝑐𝑚
𝑄 is volume flowrate

49
Hooke’s Law Potential Energy of a spring

Work done on the spring is stored as Elastic potential

Externally applied force,
energy or Strain energy.
𝐹∝𝑥
Small work done in extending to a distance of 𝑑𝑥,
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 𝑑𝑥
k is the spring constant or force constant, which is 𝑥𝑚
given by the slope of the graph. ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = −𝑘 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Spring force acts in the opposite direction of the 0
𝑥
displacement. Spring force 𝐹𝑠 = − 𝑘 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑚
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = −𝑘 [ ]
2 0
1 2
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = − 𝑘𝑥𝑚
Stiffer the spring 𝑘 value will be higher. It means 2
stronger the spring more force should be applied for 𝑥𝑚 is the amplitude or maximum displacement
the same extension.
Velocity of a free-falling body Velocity of block connected to spring

By conservation of mechanical energy (PE & KE)

we know that total energy is same everywhere.
Equating equation 1 and 2, By conservation of mechanical energy (PE & KE)
1 we know that total energy is same everywhere.
𝑚𝑔𝐻 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑚𝑣ℎ 2 Equating equation 1 and 2,
2
𝑣ℎ = √2𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ) 1 2 1 1
𝑘𝑥𝑚 = 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2 2
Special case when h =0 in the ground where the 𝑘 2
velocity will be maximum, 𝑣=√ (𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣𝑚 = √2𝑔𝐻
Special case when x = 0 in the mean position where
the velocity will be maximum,
PE, KE, TE of a free-falling body PE, KE, TE in an oscillating spring or pendulum

1 2
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥
2
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
1 1
1 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘(𝑥𝑚 2
− 𝑥2)
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ) 2 2
2 Note that 𝑥 2 term gives an erect parabola for PE and
Note that ℎ gives a positive slope for PE and −ℎ −𝑥 2 term gives an inverted parabola for KE.
gives a negative slope for KE.

50
Car testing with compression spring Work done in a spring to extend from position
𝒙𝟏 to 𝒙𝟐

𝐾𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑟 − 𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

1 1
𝑚𝑢2 − 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 . 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2 2 𝑊 = 𝑃𝐸2 − 𝑃𝐸1
1 1 1
𝑚𝑢2 − µ𝑁. 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 2 = 𝑘(𝑥22 − 𝑥12 )
2 2 2

51
 Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision (Plastic)
Momentum, Kinetic Energy, Total Energy are Momentum and Total Energy are conserved. Kinetic
conserved. Energy is not conserved as some energy is dissipated
e.g. microscopic collisions such as molecules as heat.
colliding e.g. macroscopic collisions such as cars colliding in
an accident
Basic equations for Elastic collision + Prove that identical balls when undergoing
elastic collision will interchange their velocities.
Since masses are same, from momentum and KE
conservation we have,
𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
𝑢12 + 𝑢22 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣22
Substitute,
𝑣1 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 − 𝑣2
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 nd
in the 2 equation and solve to get,
1 1 1 1 𝑣1 = 𝑢2
𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22
2 2 2 2 𝑣2 = 𝑢1
By solving the two equations, two unknowns 𝑣1 , 𝑣2
ssassww
can be determined.
Prove for Elastic collision When balls are moving in the opposite direction.
Relative speed of approach = Relative speed of
separation
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ) … . . (𝑖)
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ) … . . (𝑖𝑖) Relative speed of approach = Relative speed of
Dividing equation (𝑖𝑖) by (𝑖) separation
𝑢1 + 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 + 𝑢2
When balls are moving in the same direction.
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
Note that is true for all elastic collisions including
unidentical masses also.

Assuming 2nd body is at rest, + Assuming 2nd body is also moving

𝑚1 𝑢1 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 From speed of approach equals speed of separation,
𝑚1 𝑢1 2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 2 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
st
From 1 equation we get, 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑢2
𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑣1 =
𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 (𝑣2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 ) + 𝑚2 𝑣2
By elimination method, substitute this in 2nd equation 2𝑚1 𝑢1 (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )𝑢2
to find 𝑣2 𝑣2 = +
2𝑚1 𝑢1 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝑣2 = 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1
(𝑚, −𝑚2 )𝑢1
𝑣1 = 2𝑚1 𝑢1 (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )𝑢2
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) + 𝑚2 [ + ]
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
(𝑚, −𝑚2 )𝑢1 2𝑚2 𝑢2
𝑣1 = +
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

52
Special case 1 Special case 2 Special case 3
Identical masses, Small ball hits a huge rock, Huge rock hits a small ball,
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 𝑚2 ≫ 𝑚1 𝑚1 ≫ 𝑚2

𝑣1 = 0
𝑣2 = 𝑢1
2nd ball moves with the speed of
1st ball’s initial speed. 1st ball 𝑣1 ≈ −𝑢1 𝑣1 = 𝑢1
comes to a stop. 𝑣2 ≈ 0 𝑣2 = 2𝑢1
Rock does not move. The small Speed of small ball will become
ball bounces back with the same twice that of the large rock. Large
speed. rock continues to move with the
same speed.
Perfectly inelastic collision
After collision if both masses start moving together (as a single object)
then the heat loss will be maximum and it is called perfectly inelastic
collision.
𝑚1 𝑢1 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣
𝑚1 𝑢1
𝑣=
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝑖 − 𝐾𝑓
𝐾𝑓 = 𝑃𝐸𝑎𝑡 ℎ
Prove that perfectly inelastic collision will lead to + Prove that perfectly inelastic collision
loss of K.E (maximum KE loss) happens when 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒗𝟐 that
∆𝐾 = 𝐾𝑖 − 𝐾𝑓 is both bodies move together as single body.
1 1 1 1
∆𝐾 = 𝑚1 𝑢1 2 − (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 2 ∆𝐾 = [ 𝑚1 𝑢1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 2 ]
2 2 2 2
Substitute for 𝑣, 1 1
𝑚1 𝑢1 − [ 𝑚1 𝑣1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 2 ]
𝑣= 2 2
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 Differentiate w.r.t. 𝑣1 ,
1 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑢1 2 𝑢1 𝑢2 velocities are already fixed, so
∆𝐾 = >0 𝑑∆𝐾 1 1 𝑑𝑣2
2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 = [0 + 0] − [ 𝑚1 2𝑣1 + 𝑚2 2𝑣2 ]
𝑑𝑣1 2 2 𝑑𝑣1
𝐾𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 > 𝐾𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 , So, it is proved that perfectly
For maximum KE loss,
inelastic collision will lead to loss of KE. 𝑑∆𝐾
=0
𝑑𝑣1
𝑑𝑣2
𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 =0
𝑑𝑣1
From momentum conservation,
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
Differentiate w.r.t. 𝑣1 ,
𝑑𝑣2
0 + 0 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑑𝑣1
𝑑𝑣2 −𝑚1
=
𝑑𝑣1 𝑚2
Substitute this in the previously got equation to see
𝑣1 = 𝑣2

53
Head-On collision or collision in 1D Collision in 2D (Oblique collision)

When the direction of velocity of first body passes

through the center of second body, all the velocities
lie in the same straight line then it is called Head-On
collision or collision in 1D.
Collision in 2D
When the direction of velocity of first body does not
pass through the center of second body, the
velocities lie in different directions then it is called
collision in 2D.
Prove that a ball elastically colliding with an
identical stationary ball will have their final
velocities after collision perpendicular to each
other.

Vector form of momentum conservation,

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑖 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1𝑓 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃2𝑓
𝑚1 𝑢
⃗⃗1 = 𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2
Identical mass,
Momentum conservation: 𝑢
⃗⃗1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣1 + 𝑣⃗2
Basic principle is Momentum in
𝑢 ⃗⃗2 = (𝑣⃗1 + 𝑣⃗2 ). (𝑣⃗1 + 𝑣⃗2 )
⃗⃗1 . 𝑢
x-direction and momentum in y-
direction are conserved separately 𝑢1 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 2𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
2

in each direction. From KE conservation,

X- direction: 𝑚1 𝑢1 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 cos 𝜃2 𝑢12 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣22
Y- direction: 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 sin 𝜃1 − 𝑚2 𝑣2 sin 𝜃2 Comparing the above two equations,
Conservation of Kinetic energy: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 0
K.E is a scalar which means direction does not 0
So, 𝜃 = 90 which is the angle between two final
matter. For elastic collisions, velocities.
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑢1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 2 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 900
2 2 2 2
Squaring the first two equations and adding them
will help to solve the equations. 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝜃1 𝜃2 are the
unknowns. Usually one of them should be given to
find the other three.
This principle very often used in nuclear reactions
and sub-atomic particle collisions, which also helped
in predicting some previously unknown sub-atomic
particles such as neutrinos.

54
+ Coefficient of restitution or resilience For perfectly elastic collision,
𝑟𝑒𝑙. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑒 = 1, as 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝑒= =
𝑟𝑒𝑙. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 For perfectly Inelastic collision, 𝑒 = 0, as 𝑣2 = 𝑣1
In between elastic and Inelastic, 0 < 𝑒 < 1,
this means 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 > 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 , meaning some
energy is lost.

+ Free falling rebouncing ball on ground

𝑢1 = √2𝑔ℎ𝑜 1 1
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑚 𝑣12 = 𝑚 𝑒 2 2𝑔ℎ𝑜
2 2
𝑒= ℎ1 = 𝑒 2 ℎ𝑜
𝑢1 − 𝑢2
𝑣1 = −𝑒 𝑢1 = −𝑒. √2𝑔ℎ𝑜 Generalizing after nth rebounce, ℎ𝑛 = 𝑒 2𝑛 . ℎ𝑜
Generalizing after nth rebounce, 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛 . √2𝑔ℎ𝑜
Total distance travelled by the ball after many Total time taken by the ball after many rebounces
rebounces = 𝑡𝑜 + 2𝑡1 + 2𝑡2 + 2𝑡3 + ⋯
= ℎ𝑜 + 2ℎ1 + 2ℎ2 + 2ℎ3 + ⋯
2ℎ𝑜 2ℎ1 2ℎ2
= ℎ𝑜 + 2𝑒 2 ℎ𝑜 + 2(𝑒 2 )2 ℎ𝑜 + 2(𝑒 2 )3 ℎ𝑜 + ⋯ =√ + 2√ + 2√ +⋯
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
= ℎ𝑜 + 2ℎ𝑜 (𝑒 2 + 𝑒 4 + 𝑒 6 + ⋯ )
2ℎ𝑜 2ℎ𝑜 2ℎ𝑜
𝑒2 =√ + 2𝑒√ + 2𝑒 2 √ +⋯
= ℎ𝑜 + 2ℎ𝑜 ( ) 𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
1 − 𝑒2
1 + 𝑒2 2ℎ𝑜
= ℎ𝑜 ( ) =√ [1 + 2(𝑒 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑒 3 + ⋯ )]
1 − 𝑒2 𝑔

𝑎 2ℎ𝑜 𝑒
(Geometric Progression formula 𝑆∞ = 1−𝑟) =√ [1 + 2 ( )]
𝑔 1−𝑒

2ℎ𝑜 1 + 𝑒
=√ ( )
𝑔 1−𝑒

Typed problem:
1
𝑚𝑔 2ℎ = 𝑚𝑢12
2
1
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑣12
2
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 0 − √2𝑔ℎ 1
𝑒= = =
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 −√4𝑔ℎ − 0 √2
Even though it is a 2D problem, we take only the vertical velocities (normal direction
to the steps) to calculate the coefficient of restitution.

55
Conservative force or field Non-conservative force

e.g. Friction force, Viscous force

Work done depends upon the path taken.

e.g. Gravitational force, Electric force, Spring force

Work done does not depend upon the path taken, but
only upon the initial and final position.
Example: While climbing up the stairs to 3rd floor it
is very difficult as we are doing work against gravity,
but walking inside 3rd floor it is easier as we are not
doing work against gravity but against friction.
Concept of Potential Energy in conservative field Conservation of Mechanical Energy: PE, KE

Work done by external force = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝑠 = 𝑚𝑔. ℎ 𝑊 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = ∆𝐾

This work is stored as PE 𝑈(ℎ) = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑊 = −(𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 ) = −∆𝑈
Work done by gravitational force = − 𝑚𝑔. ℎ
as gravity is acting downwards, F and s are in ∆𝐾 = −∆𝑈
opposite directions, so 𝑐𝑜𝑠 180 = −1 This means as KE decreases, PE increases as in the
𝑑𝑈 case of ball thrown upwards.
= 𝑚𝑔 ∆(𝐾 + 𝑈) = 0
𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑈 Total Energy is conserved in conservative force or
− = −𝑚𝑔 = 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 field.
𝑑ℎ
−𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 . 𝑑ℎ
−𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹(𝑥) . 𝑑𝑥
𝑢𝑓 𝑥𝑓
− ∫ 𝑑𝑈 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑑𝑥
𝑢𝑖 𝑥𝑖 PE is by virtue of its position, KE is by virtue of its
−(𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 ) = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 motion.
For all conservative forces, change in PE = -ve of
work done.
∆𝑈 = −𝑊
Properties of Conservative field Combination of conservative and non-
1. Change in PE = -ve of work done conservative forces
𝑥𝑓
Ex. when a ball is thrown upwards, gravitational
∆𝑈 = − ∫ 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑑𝑥 force is the conservative force 𝐹𝑐 and air resistance
𝑥𝑖
2. Total mechanical energy conserved, so the name or viscous drag force is the non-conservative force
conservative force. 𝐹𝑛𝑐 .
𝑊 = −∆𝑈 = ∆𝐾 ∆𝐾 = (𝐹𝑐 + 𝐹𝑛𝑐 ). ∆𝑥
∆𝑃𝐸 = ∆𝐾𝐸 (magnitude) −∆𝑈 = 𝐹𝑐 . ∆𝑥
3. Work done in a cyclic path is zero. ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = 𝐹𝑛𝑐 . ∆𝑥
In a closed path 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 , then 𝑈𝑓 = 𝑈𝑖 , so 𝑊 = 0. ∆𝐸 = 𝐹𝑛𝑐 . ∆𝑥

56
Conservation of energy in Roller coaster Conservation of energy

𝑇𝐸1 = 𝑇𝐸2 = 𝑇𝐸3

𝑃𝐸1 = 𝐾𝐸3 + 𝑃𝐸3
1
𝑚𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑚𝑣32 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ3
2
A ball thrown with an initial velocity 𝑢 in three
different directions from the same height, when they
reach the ground all the three will have the same
speed. Based on conservation of mechanical energy.
𝑇𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝑇𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑝 + 𝑃𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝐾𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

57
Vertical Circular motion
Speed changes at every point due to gravity, so it is non-uniform circular motion.

At highest point H At lowest point L At middle point M

For minimum velocity at the top By conservation of total energy, By conservation of total energy,
for the ball to loop the loop, 𝑇𝐻 𝑇. 𝐸𝐿 = 𝑇. 𝐸𝐻 𝑇. 𝐸𝑀 = 𝑇. 𝐸𝐻
has to be minimum, so 𝑇𝐻 = 0, 1 1 1 1
0 + 𝑚𝑣𝐿2 = 𝑚𝑔2𝑅 + 𝑚𝑣𝐻2 𝑚𝑔𝑅 + 𝑚𝑣𝑀 2
= 𝑚𝑔2𝑅 + 𝑚𝑣𝐻2
𝑚𝑣𝐻2 2 2 2 2
𝑇𝐻 + 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑣𝐿2 = 4𝑔𝑅 + 𝑔𝑅 2
𝑣𝑀 = 2𝑔𝑅 + 𝑔𝑅
𝑅
𝑣𝐻 = √𝑔𝑅 𝑣𝐿 = √5𝑔𝑅 𝑣𝑀 = √3𝑔𝑅
If the speed at the top 𝑣𝐻 = 0 then 𝑚𝑣𝐿2 𝑚𝑣𝑀 2

the ball will fall straight down 𝑇𝐿 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑇𝑀 =

𝑅 𝑅
without completing the circle. 𝑇𝐿 = 6𝑚𝑔 𝑇𝑀 = 3𝑚𝑔
For the ball to loop the loop, For the ball to loop the loop, For the ball to loop the loop,
𝑣𝐻 ≥ √𝑔𝑟 𝑣𝐿 ≥ √5𝑔𝑅 𝑣𝑀 ≥ √3𝑔𝑅
𝑇𝐻 ≥ 0 𝑇𝐿 ≥ 6𝑚𝑔 𝑇𝑀 ≥ 3𝑚𝑔
At any general point P By conservation of total energy,
𝑇. 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑇. 𝐸𝐻
1 1
𝑚𝑔𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) + 𝑚𝑣𝑃2 = 𝑚𝑔2𝑅 + 𝑚𝑣𝐻2
2 2
𝑣𝑃 = √𝑔𝑅(3 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑚𝑣𝑃2
𝑇𝑃 − 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
𝑅
𝑇𝑃 = 3𝑚𝑔(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
For the ball to loop the loop,
𝑣𝑃 ≥ √𝑔𝑅(3 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑇𝑃 ≥ 3𝑚𝑔(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 in circular motion will be, force acting
towards the center is taken as positive, and away Special cases are,
from the center taken as negative. lowest point 𝜃 = 0𝑜 ,
𝑇𝐿 is the maximum tension, 𝑇𝐻 is the minimum highest point 𝜃 = 180𝑜
tension. middle point 𝜃 = 90𝑜
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝐿 − 𝑇𝐻 = 6𝑚𝑔
Interestingly we can verify that as tension increases, As tension increases velocity increases to make it
to make it spin faster, this difference remains the spin faster.
same.

58
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P07 System of Particles and Rotational Motion
Center of Mass and Motion of Center of Mass Moments
 CM for regular shapes  Moment of force
 CM for irregular shapes, plumb line method  Moment of couple
 Concept of CM, mass weighted mean
 Center of Mass vs. Center of Gravity  Principle of Moments
 Mechanical Advantage
 Motion of CM
 Motion of CM when net external force is zero  Translational Equilibrium
for static and dynamic  Rotational Equilibrium
 Explosion of stationary bomb vs. a bomb in
projectile motion Example: 7.4,7.5,7.7,7.8,7.9
 Radioactive decay and its motion of CM Exercise: 7.4, 7.5,7.8, 7.9, 7.17, 7.22
 CM in Trolley, Boat problems

Example: 7.1,7.2,7.3
Exercise: 7.1,7.2,7.3, 7.16,
Rotational Mechanics Moment of Inertia
 Angular velocity and its direction  Rotational KE and Moment of Inertia or
 Angular velocity and Linear velocity Rotational Inertia
 Angular acceleration and Linear acceleration  Radius of Gyration

 Angular momentum  Parallel Axes theorem

 Newton’s 2nd law for rotation
 Conservation of Angular Momentum
Example: 7.6
Exercise: 7.6,7.7, 7.12, 7.13, 7.33
 Perpendicular Axes theorem
 Moment of Inertia of standard shapes
uniform rod, disk, ring, solid cyliner, hollow
cylinder, solid sphere, hollow sphere

Example: 7.10,7.11,7.12, 7.15

Exercise: 7.10, 7.11, 7.14, 7.23, 7.24, 7.25, 7.26
Rotational Kinematics, Work, Energy and Power + Rolling
 Equations of Motion for Rotation  Skidding or Sliding vs. Slipping vs. Pure
 Rotational Work Rolling
 Rotational Power  Rolling in Horizontal Plane
 Rotaional KE  Rolling in Inclined Plane

 Linear vs. Rotational motion table Example: 7.16

Exercise: 7.18, 7.19, 7.20, 7.21, 7.27, 7.28, 7.29,
Example: 7.13,7.14 7.30, 7.31, 7.32,
Exercise: 7.15

59
Center of Mass CM
A rigid body is one which maintains its definite and
fixed shape even when an external force acts on it.
Shapes with very small uniform thickness are
considered to be two dimensional, with mass
uniformly distributed and called as Lamina.
The center of mass of a body is defined as the point
where the entire mass of the body appears to be
concentrated.
For regular shape and uniform mass distribution the
center of mass will coincide with the geometric
center. For triangles it will be the Centroid G.
CM of a two body system
Center of Gravity CG
When a body is held in the Center of gravity point
the body will be in translational equilibrium and
rotational equilibrium.
CG of a body can be defined as the point where the
total gravitational torque on the body is zero.
CM has got nothing to do with gravity. In deep space
when there is no gravity, a system can still have CM.
For most cases, when the body is small, the CM and
CG will be the same.
CG of an irregular shape, Plumb line method

When an irregular shaped body is suspended from

𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = point A, the line AB represents the vertical line
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 through which CG point passes. Similarly when
𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 hung from point C, the line CD represents the
𝑦𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 vertical line through which CG point passes. The
𝑥𝑐𝑚 is the mass-weighted mean of 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 intersection point will be the CG.
𝑦𝑐𝑚 is the mass-weighted mean of 𝑦1 and 𝑦2
Total gravitational torque about CG is zero, 𝜏𝑔 = 0
𝜏𝑔 = Σ 𝜏𝑖 = Σ 𝑟⃗ × 𝑚𝑖 𝑔⃗ = 0
Σ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗ = 0
Sum of the moments of all masses is zero. This
means that the CG is the point where the clockwise
moments is balanced by the counter-clockwise
moments.

Which can be generalized as,

𝑚1 𝑟⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗2
𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑀𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗2
𝑀𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = Σ 𝑚𝑖 ⃗𝑟⃗𝑖
Sum of moments of all masses about origin =
Moment of total mass acting from CM about origin
The above equations can be modified for uniformly
distributed mass as,
∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑥 ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑦 ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑧
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = 𝑦𝑐𝑚 = 𝑧𝑐𝑚 =
∫ 𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑟⃗
𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 =
∫ 𝑑𝑚

60
Example 1 Another method

𝑀𝑅𝐶𝑀 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2
Assuming CM as the origin
8 × 𝑅𝐶𝑀 = 3 × 4 + 5 × 8
𝑀𝑅𝐶𝑀 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2
𝑅𝐶𝑀 = 6.5 𝑐𝑚
(3 + 5) × 0 = 3(−𝑥) + 5 × (4 − 𝑥)
𝑥 = 2.5 𝑐𝑚
2.5 cm from the first mass and 6.25 cm from ‘O’.
Example 2 Column vector method
𝑀𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗2
−3 3
(10 + 5) 𝑅⃗⃗𝐶𝑀 = 10 ( 2 ) + 5 (6)
4 5
−30 15
15 𝑅⃗⃗𝐶𝑀 = ( 20 ) + (30)
40 25
1 −15
Position vectors 𝑅⃗⃗𝐶𝑀 = ( 50 )
10𝑘𝑔: (−3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂) 15
65
5𝑘𝑔: (3𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂) −1
10
𝑀𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗2 𝑅⃗⃗𝐶𝑀 = ( ⁄3)
15 𝑅𝐶𝑀 = 10(−3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂) + 5(3𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂)
⃗⃗ 13⁄
3
1 10 13
𝑅⃗⃗𝐶𝑀 = (−15𝑖̂ + 50𝑗̂ + 65𝑘̂) 𝑅⃗⃗𝐶𝑀 = −1𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
15 3 3
10 13
𝑅⃗⃗𝐶𝑀 = −1𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
3 3
Example 3 Cut out region and negative mass Example 4 CM of Uniform rod using Integration
[Exe. 7.16]

𝑀𝑅𝐶𝑀 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2
𝑀𝑅𝐶𝑀 = Σ𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑥=𝐿
𝑚1 – entire mass, 𝑚2 – cut out region, 𝑀𝑅𝐶𝑀 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑥
𝑥=0
M – effective mass
𝐿
𝑀𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗2 𝑀
𝑀𝑅𝐶𝑀 = ∫ . 𝑑𝑥. 𝑥
𝑅 0 𝐿
𝜌. 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑅𝐶𝑀 = 𝜌. 𝑉𝑜𝑙 × 0 − 𝜌. 𝑉𝑜𝑙 (+ )
2 𝐿
𝑅 2
𝑅 2
𝑅 𝑀 𝑥2
[𝜋𝑅 2 − 𝜋 ( ) ] ℎ. 𝑅𝐶𝑀 = −𝜋 ( ) ℎ. 𝑀𝑅𝐶𝑀 = [ ]
2 2 2 𝐿 2 0
𝑅 𝐿
𝑅𝐶𝑀 = − 𝑅𝐶𝑀 =
6 2
Higher mass on the left side, so CM is towards the
left of the origin.

61
Motion of centre of mass Motion of CM when 𝑭𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝟎
If 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡. = 0, 𝑎𝑐𝑚 = 0
then 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
which means the CM is at rest or in constant
velocity.

𝑀𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗2

Differentiate w.r.t to time,
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑀 𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗2 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 0, stationary bomb exploding CM remains the
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
same for the fragments at every instant.
𝑀𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2
Differentiate w.r.t to time,
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑀 𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑀𝑎⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑎⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑎⃗2
𝐹⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹⃗1 + 𝐹⃗2 + (𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗21 ) 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. , a bomb in a projectile motion
Internal forces such as 𝐹⃗12 and 𝐹⃗21 will cancel each explodes in the air. Very interestingly the fragments
of the bomb as they fly apart will have CM in the
other as they are equal and opposite. 𝐹⃗1 and 𝐹⃗2 are
same path of the projectile motion as earlier before
external forces.
explosion of the bomb. Proof from law of
𝐹⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹⃗1 + 𝐹⃗2 conservation of momentum.
𝐹⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑎⃗𝑐𝑚 =
𝑀

𝑅𝑎 → 𝑅𝑛 + 𝛼 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
In radioactive decay, CM of the two daughter nuclei
remain in the same path of CM as before.

62
 Example: Bomb exploding in air Example: Walking on a boat or trolley
When a 50 kg man walks on a 300 kg boat floating
on water from one end to other end with 2 m/s speed
w.r.t a stationary observer in the ground. Will the
boat move or will it be stationary? If it moves then
what is velocity of the boat w.r.t a stationary
observer in the ground?
𝑀𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑟⃗2
3
(3 + 2) × 𝑅 = 3 ( 𝑅) + 2(𝑥)
4
11
𝑥= 𝑅
8

Example: Man climbing a hot air balloon As the person moves forward, boat moves slightly
backwards.
𝑀𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 + 𝑚2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2
𝑀𝑣𝐶𝑀 = 𝑚1 𝑣2 + 𝑚2 𝑣1
All these velocities are w.r.t the stationary observer
in the ground.
(300 + 50) × 0 = 300𝑣𝑏 + 50𝑣𝑚
0 = 300𝑣𝑏 + 50 × 2
𝑣𝑏 = − 1⁄3 𝑚⁄𝑠
So that the boat moves slightly towards the left with
a speed of 0.33 m/s opposite to the direction of the
walking man. Note that the CM of boat moves
towards left but the CM of the system remains at the
As the man climbs up the rope, the man is going up same point.
while the ballon and the rope are coming down. The Suppose if the speed 2 m/s of the man was w.r.t the
CM of the system remains in the same position.
boat then it is not 𝑣𝑚 = 2 𝑚/𝑠, instead it will be
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑛 and 𝑣𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑛 must be w.r.t ground
𝑣𝑚𝑏 = 2 𝑚/𝑠
(𝑀 + 𝑚)𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑀𝑣𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑛 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑛
𝑣𝑚𝑏 = 𝑣𝑚 − 𝑣𝑏
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑛. 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑛 − 𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝑣𝑚 = 2 + 𝑣𝑏
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑛 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑛. 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 + 𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 Note that 𝑣𝑚 , 𝑣𝑏 are the velocities of man and the
𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑣𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑛 boat w.r.t a stationary observer in the ground.
Location of CM of standard shapes
Semi circular ring Semi circular disk

Notice that the CM is closer to the diameter in the

disk compared to ring.
Quarter circular ring Quarter circular disk

Hemispherical shell Solid hemisphere

63
If two masses M and 5M with radii R and 2R respectively are attracted only by the gravitational
force, then where will they meet?
Two masses attracted by internal forces alone such as gravitational, electric or magnetic forces, then the CM
will remain in the same point, as the masses come closer. They will meet in the CM if it were point masses.
But if it were not point masses, the bodies will collide in their surface but the CM location will still be
stationary.

𝒓𝒄𝒎 location method 𝒗𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎 method

CM location is taken as origin. Before the bodies are We also know that since there is no external force
attracted, acting the CM remains in the same point, which also
𝑚𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 means that 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 0.
6𝑀(0) = 𝑀(−𝑥) + 5𝑀(12𝑅 − 𝑥)
𝑥 = 10𝑅 In a small time interval ∆𝑡, the first mass moves a
Here 𝑥 is the location of CM w.r.t the first mass M distance of 𝑑 towards right while the second mass
before attraction. moves (9𝑅 − 𝑑) towards left.
𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑑 −(9𝑅 − 𝑑)
6𝑀(0) = 𝑀 ( ) + 5𝑀 ( )
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑑 = 7.5𝑅

CM location is taken as origin. After the bodies are

attracted and collide,
𝑚𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2
6𝑀(0) = 𝑀(−𝑦) + 5𝑀(3𝑅 − 𝑦)
𝑦 = 2.5𝑅
Here 𝑦 is the location of CM w.r.t the first mass M
after attraction and collision.

Since there is no external force acting the CM

remains in the same point, even though the two
individual masses are attracted towards each other.
So we can see that the difference between 𝑥 and 𝑦
will give the distance moved by the first mass.
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 10𝑅 − 2.5𝑅 = 7.5𝑅
CM and Connected bodies (with spring, rope etc.)
If a kick is given on the 5 kg block, what is the velocity of the CM,
what is the velocity of the two masses w.r.t CM, just after the kick?
𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
7 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 5 (14) + 2(0)
𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 10 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣1 𝑐𝑚 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 14 − 10 = 4 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣2 𝑐𝑚 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 0 − 10 = −10 𝑚/𝑠

64
Moment of Force Moment of Couple

𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ 𝑑 𝑑
𝑀 =𝐹 ×𝑑 𝑀=𝐹 × +𝐹 ×
2 2
d is perpendicular distance between the line of action 𝑀 =𝐹 ×𝑑
of force and center. d is perpendicular distance between the line of action
Moment, Torque, Turning effect all means the same. of two forces.
e.g., turning a steering wheel, opening the lid of a
bottle.
Principle of Moments Mechanical Advantage

Σ𝜏 =0 𝐹1 𝑑2
𝜏𝑐𝑐𝑤 − 𝜏𝑐𝑤 = 0 𝑀𝐴 = =
𝐹2 𝑑1
𝜏𝑐𝑐𝑤 = 𝜏𝑐𝑤 𝑑1
𝐹2 = 𝐹1
𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑤 = 𝑀𝑐𝑤 𝑑2
𝐹1 𝑑1 = 𝐹2 𝑑2 By keeping the 𝑑2 larger than 𝑑1 , effort 𝐹2 given to
raise the load 𝐹1 will be less.This is called the
Mechanical Advantage.
However by conservation of energy the work done
on the effort side is same as the work done on the
load side, this is because the displacement on the
effort side is larger than the displacement on the load
side.
Rotational equilibrium Translational equilibrium

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹 + 𝐹 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹 − 𝐹
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ≠ 0 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0
So the system is not in translational equilibrium, it So the system is in translational equilibrium, it will
will move. not move.
𝜏𝑐𝑐𝑤 = 𝜏𝑐𝑤 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏𝑐𝑐𝑤 + 𝜏𝑐𝑤
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏𝑐𝑐𝑤 − 𝜏𝑐𝑤 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 ≠ 0
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 So the system is not in rotational equilibrium. It will
So the system is in rotational equilibrium. It will not rotate.
rotate.

65
Rotational KE and Moment of Inertia ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Angular Velocity vector 𝝎

𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝐾𝐸3 + ⋯ Right Hand Thumb rule: While the curling fingers
1 1 1 represent the direction of rotation, the thumb
= 𝑚1 𝑣1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 2 + 𝑚3 𝑣3 2 + ⋯ represents the angular velocity vector 𝜔 ⃗⃗.
2 2 2
1 1 1
= 𝑚1 (𝑟1 𝜔)2 + 𝑚2 (𝑟2 𝜔)2 + 𝑚3 (𝑟3 𝜔)2 + ⋯ Angular velocity and Linear velocity
2 2 2
1 1 1
= 𝑚1 𝑟1 2 𝜔2 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 2 𝜔2 + 𝑚3 𝑟3 2 𝜔2 + ⋯
2 2 2
1
= 𝜔2 [𝑚1 𝑟1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 2 + 𝑚3 𝑟3 2 + ⋯ ]
2
1
= 𝜔2 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2
2
1
𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 𝜔2 𝐼
2 𝑣⃗ = 𝜔⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗
New term called Rotational Inertia or Moment of 𝑣⃗ = 𝜔𝑟 sin 𝜃
Inertia I is introduced. Here i represents the ith 𝑣⃗ = 𝜔𝑟⊥
element. 𝑟⊥ is the distance between axis of rotation and the
point considered.
𝑎⃗ = 𝛼⃗ × 𝑟⃗
Rotational Inertia or Moment of Inertia Radius of Gyration K
𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2

While the linear inertia is determined by mass, the The radius K at which the total point mass can be
rotational inertia is determined not only by mass, but acted upon about the same axis to give the same
also the location of the mass from the axis of moment of inertia.
rotation. 𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + ⋯ = 𝑀𝐾 2

𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + ⋯
𝐾=√
𝑀

𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + ⋯
𝐾=√
𝑛

66
Moment of Force or Torque Angular momentum or Moment of Momentum

𝐹⃗⊥ = 𝐹⃗ sin 𝜃 is the component of force ⊥𝑟 to 𝑟⃗ that

causes rotation. 𝐿 = 𝑟 𝑝 sin 𝜃
𝐹⃗ǁ = 𝐹⃗ cos 𝜃 is the component of force ǁ𝑙 to 𝑟⃗ that ⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
𝐿
does not cause rotation.
Moment or torque defined as,
𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃
𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗

Torque direction will be perpendicular to both 𝑟⃗ and

𝐹⃗ acoording to cross product rule.
⃗⃗
𝒅𝑳 External Torque vs. Internal Torque
Prove the relation 𝝉⃗⃗ = 𝒅𝒕
For many particles, i is the ith particle
𝑑𝐿⃗⃗ 𝑑 ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗𝑖
= (𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗) 𝑑𝐿 𝑑 𝑑𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = Σ𝐿 ⃗⃗𝑖 = Σ = Σ 𝜏⃗𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗
= 𝑟⃗ × + 𝑝⃗ × = Σ (𝜏𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝜏𝑖 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝⃗
= 𝑟⃗ × + 𝑝⃗ × 𝑣⃗ = Σ (𝑟⃗𝑖 × 𝐹⃗𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) + Σ (𝑟⃗𝑖 × 𝐹⃗𝑖 𝑖𝑛𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝⃗ = Σ (𝑟⃗𝑖 × 𝐹⃗𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
= 𝑟⃗ × + 𝑚𝑣⃗ × 𝑣⃗
𝑑𝑡
= Σ 𝜏⃗𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝜏
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ + 0
= 𝜏⃗ Basically, it says internal forces cancel each other,
⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 only external forces add up.
𝜏⃗ =
𝑑𝑡
Newtons 2nd law for rotation.
Conservation of Linear momentum Conservation of Angular momentum
If If
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝐿
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, = 0, 𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, = 0, 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑣𝑓 , 𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝐼1 𝜔1 + 𝐼2 𝜔2 = 𝐼1 𝜔1′ + 𝐼2 𝜔2′

67
Newtons 2nd law for Linear Motion Newtons 2nd law for Rotational Motion
Force is rate of change of linear momentum. Torque is rate of change of angular momentum.
When mass m is constant When moment of inertia I is constant
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝐿
𝐹= 𝜏=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑
= (𝑚𝑣) = (𝐼𝜔)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔
=𝑚 =𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
Using Rotational Power Using Torque definition
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝐸 𝜏 = 𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 . ⊥𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑 1 = 𝑚𝑎. 𝑟
𝜏. 𝜔 = ( 𝐼𝜔2 )
𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝑚 𝑟𝛼. 𝑟
1 𝑑𝜔 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝛼
𝜏. 𝜔 = 𝐼. 2𝜔.
2 𝑑𝑡 𝜏 = 𝐼. 𝛼
𝜏 = 𝐼. 𝛼
Kinematic Equations of motion Kinematic Equations of motion in rotation
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔
𝑎= 𝛼=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 𝜔 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝜔 = 𝛼 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑢 0 𝜔0 0
[𝑣]𝑣𝑢= 𝑎[𝑡]𝑡0 [𝜔]𝜔
𝜔0 = 𝛼[𝑡]𝑡0
𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑡 𝜔 − 𝜔0 = 𝛼𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜔 = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃
𝑣= 𝜔=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣. 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜔. 𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫(𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡). 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫(𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡) . 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 𝑡 𝜃 𝑡 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑢. 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑎𝑡. 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝜔0 . 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝛼𝑡. 𝑑𝑡
𝑠0 0 0 𝜃0 0 0
2 𝑡 𝑡
𝑡 𝑡2
[𝑠]𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑢[𝑡]𝑡0 + 𝑎 [ ] 𝜃 𝑡
[𝜃]𝜃0 = 𝜔0 [𝑡]0 + 𝛼 [ ]
2 0 2 0
1 2 1
𝑠 − 𝑠0 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 − 𝜃0 = 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 2
2 2
1 1
𝑠 = 𝑠0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝜃0 + 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 2
2 2
𝑣−𝑢 𝜔−𝜔
Substitute 𝑡 = 𝑎 in the above. Substitute 𝑡 = 𝛼 0 in the above.
𝑣−𝑢 1 𝑣−𝑢 2 𝜔 − 𝜔0 1 𝜔 − 𝜔0 2
𝑠 = 𝑠0 + 𝑢 [ ]+ 𝑎[ ] 𝜃 = 𝜃0 + 𝜔0 [ ]+ 𝛼[ ]
𝑎 2 𝑎 𝛼 2 𝛼
𝑣−𝑢 1 𝜔 − 𝜔0 1
𝑠 − 𝑠0 = [ ] . [𝑢 + (𝑣 − 𝑢)] 𝜃 − 𝜃0 = [ ] . [𝜔0 + (𝜔 − 𝜔0 )]
𝑎 2 𝛼 2
𝑣−𝑢 𝑣+𝑢 𝜔 − 𝜔0 𝜔 + 𝜔0
𝑠 − 𝑠0 = [ ].[ ] 𝜃 − 𝜃0 = [ ].[ ]
𝑎 2 𝛼 2
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 𝜔 2 − 𝜔0 2
𝑠 − 𝑠0 = [ ] 𝜃 − 𝜃0 = [ ]
2𝑎 2𝛼
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎(𝑠 − 𝑠0 ) 𝜔2 = 𝜔0 2 + 2𝛼(𝜃 − 𝜃0 )
Average velocity Average angular velocity
𝑢+𝑣 𝜔0 + 𝜔
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔. = 𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑔. =
2 2

68
Rotational Work done Rotational Power
𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑡. 𝜏. 𝜃
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡. = =
𝑡 𝑡
𝑃 = 𝜏. 𝜔

𝑑𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗
= 𝐹 sin 𝜃 . 𝑟. 𝑑𝜃
= 𝜏. 𝑑𝜃
∫ 𝑑𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑡. = ∫ 𝜏. 𝑑𝜃

𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑡. = ∫ 𝜏. 𝑑𝜃

69
 Linear or Translational Rotational
Displacement 𝑥, 𝑠 Angular displacement 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃
Velocity 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 Angular velocity 𝜔 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝜔 𝑑2 𝜃
Acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 = Angular acceleration 𝛼 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 2
Mass or Inertia 𝑚 Moment of Inertia, Rotational inertia, 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
Momentum 𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗ Angular Momentum 𝐿 ⃗⃗ = 𝐼𝜔
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑝⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿
Force 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ = 𝑑𝑡 Torque 𝜏⃗ = 𝐼𝛼⃗ = 𝑑𝑡
Law of conservation of momentum: Law of conservation of Angular momentum:
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝐿
If 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, 𝑑𝑡 = 0, 𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡., If 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, 𝑑𝑡 = 0, 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡., 𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 =
𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑣𝑓 , 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓 ,
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝐼1 𝜔1 + 𝐼2 𝜔2 = 𝐼1 𝜔1′ + 𝐼2 𝜔2′

Translational Equilibrium: Rotational Equilibrium:

𝛴𝐹 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, 𝑎 = 0, 𝛴𝜏 = 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, 𝛼 = 0,
𝑣 = 0 ⇒ Static Equil., 𝜔 = 0 ⇒ Static Rot.Equil.,
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ⇒ Dynamic Equil. 𝜔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ⇒ Dynamic Rot.Equil.
Impulse: ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹. ∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 Rotational Impulse: ∫ 𝜏. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜏. ∆𝑡 = 𝐼𝜔 − 𝐼𝜔𝑜
Work, 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑠⃗ Rot.Work, 𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑡. = ∫ 𝜏. 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜏⃗. 𝜃⃗
𝑊 𝐹⃗ .𝑠⃗ 𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑡. ⃗⃗
⃗⃗.𝜃
𝜏
Power, 𝑃 = = = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑣⃗ Rot.Power, 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡. = = = 𝜏⃗. 𝜔
⃗⃗
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
1 1
Kinetic Energy, 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 Rot.Kinetic Energy, 𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 2 𝐼𝜔2
Inelastic Collision: KE drop due to heat loss Inelastic Collision: KE drop due to heat loss
𝐾𝐸𝑓 < 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸2 𝐾𝐸𝑓 < 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸2
Hooke’s law for linear wire or spring: Hooke’s law for twisting wire or coil spring:
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥, 𝑘 is spring constant or force constant. 𝜏 = 𝑘𝜃, 𝑘 is coil spring constant or torque const.
Equations of Motion: when 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. Equations of Rotational Motion: when 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 + 𝛼𝑡
1 1
𝑠 = 𝑠𝑜 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑜 + 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎(𝑠 − 𝑠𝑜 ) 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 + 2𝛼(𝜃 − 𝜃𝑜 )
𝑢+𝑣 𝜔𝑜 + 𝜔
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2 2
Linear to Rotational Rolling Motion
𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃 Translation + Rotational,
⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗ 𝐿 = 𝑟𝑝 sin 𝜃
𝐿 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡. = 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡.
1 1
𝑠⃗ = 𝜃⃗ × 𝑟⃗ 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝜔2
2 2
𝑣⃗ = 𝜔⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗ 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 1 2
𝐾2
𝑎⃗ = 𝛼⃗ × 𝑟⃗ 𝑎 = 𝑟𝛼 = 𝑚𝑣 (1 + 2 )
2 𝑅

70
Parallel axes theorem Perpendicular axes theorem

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 𝑀𝑑 2 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦
Proof: For one of the particle with mass m at a Proof:
distance of 𝑥 from the axis of CM, 𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝐼 = 𝑚 (𝑥 + 𝑑)2 𝐼𝑧 = Σ 𝑚𝑟 2
For all the particles, = Σ 𝑚(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
𝐼 = Σ 𝑚 (𝑥 + 𝑑)2 = Σ 𝑚𝑥 2 + Σ 𝑚𝑦 2
= Σ 𝑚 (𝑥 2 + 𝑑2 + 2𝑥𝑑) 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑦 + 𝐼𝑥
= Σ 𝑚𝑥 2 + Σ𝑚 𝑑 2 + Σ𝑚𝑥 2𝑑 This theorem is valid only for 2D- Lamina like
= 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 𝑀𝑑2 + 0 objects and not valid for 3D objects such as sphere,
Since 𝑥 is the distance from the CM and CM is the cylinder etc.
point where the moments will balance, Σ𝑚𝑥 = 0.

Uniform rod or Rectangular Lamina: Thin uniform straight rod:

Hoop or Ring or Hollow Cylinder: Circular Disk or Solid Cylinder:

𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2 1
𝐾2 𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2
=1 2
𝑅2 𝐾2 1
2⁄ 2 =
𝐾 𝑅 is a value required for rolling calculations.
𝑅2 2
Hollow Sphere: Solid Sphere:
2 2 2 2
𝑀𝐾 = 3 𝑀𝑅 𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2
𝐾2 2 5
= 𝐾2 2
𝑅2 3 =
𝑅2 5

71
+ Integration methods to derive I
Ring: Disk:
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑥 2
𝑀
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑅 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2 = ∫ 2 2𝜋𝑥. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑥 2
𝜋𝑅
𝑅
2𝑀 𝑥 4 𝑀𝑅 2
= 2[ ] =
𝑅 4 0 2

Hollow Cylinder with Radius 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 : For larger radius I about the central axis of the
cylinder

Change the limits from 𝑅1 to 𝑅2 in the above. I about

the axis of the cylinder.
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑥 2
𝑀𝑙 2 𝑀(𝑅12 + 𝑅22 )
𝑀 2 𝐼= +
=∫ 2 2 ) 2𝜋𝑥. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑥 12 4
𝜋(𝑅2 − 𝑅1 Special cases:
𝑅
2𝑀 𝑥4 2 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 thin hollow cylinder,
= 2 [ ]
(𝑅2 − 𝑅12 ) 4 𝑅 𝑀𝑙 2 𝑀𝑅2
1 𝐼= +
2𝑀 (𝑅24 − 𝑅14 ) 12 2
= 2 𝑅1 = 0, solid cylinder,
(𝑅2 − 𝑅12 ) 4 𝑀𝑙 2 𝑀𝑅2
𝑀 2 𝐼= +
𝐼 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅22 ) 12 4
2 𝑅 ≪ 𝑙, very thin rod,
Special cases: 𝑀𝑙 2
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 thin hollow cylinder, 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2 𝐼=
12
𝑀𝑅 2
𝑅1 = 0, solid cylinder, 𝐼 = 2

Rectangular or Circular rod:

𝑙⁄2
𝑀 𝑀 𝑥3 𝑀𝐿2
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚. 𝑥 = ∫ . 𝑑𝑥. 𝑥 2 = [ ]
2
=
𝐿 𝐿 3 −𝑙⁄2 12

72
+ Angular Momentum
Angular Momentum of a Linear Motion Prove that angular momentum of a two particle
system about any point is constant.[Exe.7.7]

⃗⃗ = 𝐿
𝐿 ⃗⃗1 + 𝐿
⃗⃗2
Prove angular momentum is constant about a point
𝐿 = 𝑚 𝑣 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝑚 𝑣 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
for a body moving with constant velocity. [Ex. 7.6]
= 𝑚 𝑣 (𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 )
⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
𝐿 =𝑚𝑣𝑑
= 𝑟⃗ × 𝑚𝑣⃗ This shows that the angular momentum of the two
= 𝑚(𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗) particle system which are moving at constant
𝐿 = 𝑚 𝑣 𝑟 sin 𝜃 velocity opposite to each other separated by a
𝑟⊥ = 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 = 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 remains constant for both distance d is constant.
points P1 and P2.
Angular Momentum of a man running on a disk Angular Momentum of a bullet
on a circular path

⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
𝐿 Linear motion also has an angular momentum about
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 a given point or origin.
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝐼ω 𝐿⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = (𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 + 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑛 ) ω 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟
𝑀𝑅 2 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝐼ω
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = ( + 𝑚𝑅 2 ) ω
2 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = (𝐼𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 + 𝐼𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 ) ω
𝑀𝑙 2
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = ( + 𝑚𝑟 2 ) ω
3
Angular Momentum of a Projectile about its Angular Momentum of a Projectile about its
origin origin at its peak point

𝑟⃗ = 𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑦 𝑗̂
1 ⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
𝐿
= (𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑡) 𝑖̂ + (𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 ) 𝑗̂
2 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂ 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 ⋅ ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
= (𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) 𝑖̂ + (𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑗̂
⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
𝐿

73
Rotational + Translational combination: Ball attaches to the rod after collision to turn
Total Angular momentum about a point P about the fixed point of the rod

⃗⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡. = 𝐿
𝐿 ⃗⃗𝑟𝑜𝑡. + 𝐿 ⃗⃗𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. Conservation of Angular Momentum
= 𝐼𝜔⃗⃗ + (𝑟⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑝⃗) 𝐿𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝐿𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 𝐼𝜔⃗⃗ + (𝑟⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑚𝑣⃗) (𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑑 + 𝐿𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 )𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = (𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑑+𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 )𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 𝐼𝜔⃗⃗ + 𝑚(𝑟⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣⃗) 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝜔𝑜 + 𝑚𝑢 . 𝑙 = (𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑑 + 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 )𝜔𝑓
𝑀𝑙 2
0 + 𝑚𝑢𝑙 = ( + 𝑚𝑙 2 ) 𝜔𝑓
3
Initially the rod is not turning so 𝜔𝑜 = 0.
Particle placed on a spinning disk Rotating disk falling into another rotating disk

Conservation of angular momentum

𝐿𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝐿𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝜔𝑖 = (𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 + 𝐼𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 )𝜔𝑓
Radius of earth shrinks by n times
𝐿𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝐿𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐼1 𝜔1 + 𝐼2 𝜔2 = 𝐼1 𝜔1′ + 𝐼2 𝜔2′
𝐼1 𝜔1 + 𝐼2 𝜔2 = (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )𝜔𝑓
Two disks attaches together to spin at the same final
angular velocity. This is analogous to perfectly
inelastic collision, where the objects move together
as one single object after collision.
𝐾. 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾. 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐾. 𝐸𝑓
1 1 1 1
= ( 𝐼1 𝜔12 + 𝐼2 𝜔22 ) − ( 𝐼1 𝜔1′ 2 + 𝐼2 𝜔2′2 )
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
= ( 𝐼1 𝜔12 + 𝐼2 𝜔22 ) − (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )𝜔𝑓2
2 2 2
Speed of earth in its orbit around sun

𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝐿𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑚𝑣𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑣𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑣𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝐿𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝐿𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 This shows nearer to the sun the earth and other
𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓 planets move faster, while it is farther from sun they
move slower.
2 2
2π 2 𝑅 2 2π
𝑀𝑅 ( ) = 𝑀( ) ( )
5 24 × 3600 5 𝑛 𝑇2 ⋅ 3600
24
𝑇2 = 2
𝑛
will be the no. of hours in a day.

74
Moment of Inertia of two particle system Moment of Inertia example for shifting the axes

CM taken as the origin.

𝑚𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 (−𝑥) + 𝑚2 (𝑟 − 𝑥)
𝑚1 𝑥 = 𝑚2 (𝑟 − 𝑥)
𝑚2 𝑟
𝑥=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 For whole solid disk,
𝑅2
𝐼𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑥 2 + 𝑚2 (𝑟 − 𝑥)2 𝐼1 = 𝑚1
2
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑟 2 For empty disk cut-out region,
= 𝑅 2
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝐼2 = 𝑚2 ( )
𝐼𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 . 𝑟 2 2
Reduced mass is defined as For empty disk cut-out region, 𝐼2 shifted to the
1 1 1 location of 𝐼1 , using parallel axes theorem,
= + 𝐼2 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐼2 + 𝑀𝑑 2
𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑅 2 𝑅 2
𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝐼2 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚2 ( ) + 𝑚2 ( )
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 2 2
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑
Since 𝑚2 is a cut-out region we subtract the term
instead of adding.
Hollow cylinder: Find acceleration of the block Unwinding thread spool /solid pulley

Mass of the hollow cylinder is equal to the mass of

the block. 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝑇𝑟
𝑃. 𝐸𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 = 𝐾. 𝐸𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎cm
1 1 = 𝑚 𝑟𝛼
𝑚𝑔𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐼ω2 𝑇𝑟
2 2 = 𝑚𝑟
1 1 𝐼
𝑚𝑔𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + (𝑚𝑟 2 )ω2 𝑇𝑟
2 2 = 𝑚𝑟
1 1 𝑣 2 𝑚𝑟 2
( 2 )
𝑚𝑔𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + (𝑚𝑟 2 ) ( )
2 2 𝑟 𝑚𝑔
𝑔𝑥 = 𝑣 2 𝑇=
3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 Substitute T in the above equation to find
𝑔 = 2𝑣 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑚 = 𝑔
𝑔𝑣 = 2𝑣𝑎 3
Note that the acceleration of the fall is less than the
𝑎 = 𝑔/2
‘g’ so it is not a free fall.
Note that the acceleration of the falling block is not
g as it is not a free fall and held by the hollow
cylinder.

75
Moment of Inertia of half disk Centrifugal Machine
Centripetal force = centrifugal force (pseudo)
𝑚𝑣 2
= = 𝑚𝑟ω2
𝑟

For full disk,

(2𝑀)𝑅 2
𝐼= = 𝑀𝑅 2 The liquid or the substance inside the container
2
Then for half disk, experiences centrifugal force as the container spins at
𝑀𝑅 2 high speed.
𝐼ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 =
2 𝐶. 𝐹 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚 𝑥 ω2
𝑀
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ω2
𝑙
𝑀𝑙ω2
=
2
Hinged rod falling down and rotating about an Object placed on a rotating disk, will it flyout or
axis not?

Centripetal force for the rotation is provided by the

frictional force.
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸
1 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝐼ω2 𝜇𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
2
𝑙 1 2 𝜇𝑔 = 𝑟𝜔2
𝑚𝑔 = 𝐼ω This 𝜔 will give the maximum angular speed with
2 2
𝑙 1 𝑚𝑙 2 𝑣 2 which the disk can be rotated so that the object does
𝑚𝑔 = ⋅ ⋅ not flyout. For planets, gravity is the force holding or
2 2 3 𝑙2 providing centripetal force.
𝑣 = √3𝑔𝑙 𝐺𝑀𝑚
= 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
𝑟2

76
Stability of a body, Center of Gravity and Center of Gravity and Equilibriums
Moments

As the weight from the CG falls within the base of
the body as shown in the 2nd case, it will cause a
CCW moment about A making it to come back to its
original position.
As the weight from the CG falls outside the base as
shown in the 3rd case, it will cause a CW moment
about A making it to fall down and does not come
back to its original position.
So we can see bigger the base more stability.
Ladder sliding problem
When we make a small disturbance if CG rises up
then it will come back to its original position, stable
equilibrium. If CG lowers down then it will not come
back to its original position, unstable equilirium. If
the CG remains in the same position as we make the
disturbance, then it is in neutral equilibrium.
Without fixing a fulcrum or hinge point

If a force is applied on a body without fixing a

Even if there is no friction, normal reaction will be
there. If friction is also there then it will be
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜇𝑁.
KE of a hollow sphere filled with water
fulcrum, the body will rotate about its CM.
Rotation stopped suddenly to increase the heat
energy of body

𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 × 𝐽
1 2
𝐼ω = 𝑚 𝑐 Δ𝑇 × 𝐽
2
𝐽 is called the mechanical equivalent of heat, given
by Joule’s experiment.
𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝐸𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠.+ 𝑟𝑜𝑡. + 𝐾𝐸𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 ≡ 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. ) + 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠.𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑊
Hollow sphere has translational and rotational =J
𝐻
motion while the water will do translational only. 𝑊 = J𝐻
If water is half filled, like raw egg, then water will
move out of the center and increase the moment of
inertia.
Central force means it passes through the axis of If Rotational power = const k
rotation. 𝑑 1 2
[ 𝐼𝜔 ] = 𝑘
𝑑𝑡 2
1 2
𝐼𝜔 = ∫ 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡
2
𝜔2 ∝ 𝑡
n is the no. of rotations,
2𝜋𝑛
𝜔=
𝑡
Replacing t with 𝜔2 we get,
𝜔3 ∝ 𝑛

77
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P07B Rolling Motion
Skidding or Sliding Slipping Pure Rolling

𝑓𝑘 acts opposite to resultant 𝑓𝑘 acts opposite to resultant 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. , so 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0,

velocity
𝑓𝑘 the kinetic friction force will
turn the wheel, increasing 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. ,
so eventually 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. , so
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0, 𝑓𝑘 = 0, causing
pure rolling.
When we apply sudden brakes,
the wheels are locked and cannot
rotate, but due to inertia the car
still skids forward. This is
dangerous and we lose control of
the car.
To avoid this ABS (Anti-lock
Braking Systems) brakes are
used.
velocity
𝑓𝑘 the kinetic friction force will
increase the 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. , so eventually
𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. , so 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0,
𝑓𝑘 = 0, causing pure rolling.
When we start the car, we keep it
in low gear to have 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. less, so
that a proper rolling motion is
ensured by getting proper torque
from the friction.
Instead if it is started in a high
gear the wheel will slip as shown
above, wheel will be spinning but
vehicle will not move forward.
𝑓𝑘 = 0
This is why Rolling friction is very
low compared to sliding friction,
almost close to zero.
The bottom most point will be
momentarily stationary.
At lowest point 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. So
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0.
At top most point, 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠.
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. =
2 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠.
At the center point, 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 0,
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. =
𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. = 𝑉𝑐𝑚

Another situation is wheel getting Friction opposes sliding motion, but

caught in mud or snow, so no friction is what makes the rolling
friction so no torque to move the motion possible. Rolling friction is
wheel forward. negligibly small compared to
sliding friction.
For Rolling usually the well known shapes are solid cylinder, hollow cylinder, solid sphere and hollow
sphere. To make the rolling theory and formulas common for these different shapes we make use of the
radius of gyration K in our derivations. So that the common formulas and theory can be applied for different
shapes just by changing the K2/R2 value .
Ring or Hollow cylinder Disk or Solid cylinder Hollow sphere (thin Solid sphere
(thin walled) walled)

𝐾2 𝐾2 1 𝐾2 2 𝐾2 2
=1 = = =
𝑅2 𝑅2 2 𝑅2 3 𝑅2 5

78
Rolling motion in Rough Inclined plane
If it was not for the friction it will not be rolling,
instead it will be sliding.
Rolling stops, Sliding begins as Inclined plane is
raised
The friction is what is causing the object to roll.
However as the plane is raised 𝜃 ↑, 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 ↓, 𝑁 ↓,
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑁 ↓ when 𝑓𝑘 = 0, the object slides instead of
rolling.

At what angle does this sliding start, instead of

rolling?
Mathematically we know that cos 90o = 0, practically
we know when the object is left at perpendicular
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 plane the object does not roll but it slides or falls
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑓𝑘 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚 down, free fall.
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚 − − − −(𝑖) However in reality we see the object slides even
− before we reach 90o. This is because 𝑎𝑐𝑚 = 𝑅𝛼,
𝛴𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 causes rolling. But if 𝑎𝑐𝑚 > 𝑅𝛼, then sliding starts
𝑎𝑐𝑚 without rolling. From above,
𝑓𝑘 . 𝑅 = 𝑚𝐾 2 . 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑐𝑚
𝑅
2 𝑐𝑚
𝑎
𝜇𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 . 𝑅 = 𝑚𝐾 .
𝑅 𝛴𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
𝐾2 𝑓𝑘 . 𝑅 = 𝐼𝛼
𝜇𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚 2 − − − (𝑖𝑖)
𝑅 𝜇𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 . 𝑅 = 𝑚𝐾 2 𝛼
𝜇𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 . 𝑅 2
Combining the above two equations we get, = 𝑅𝛼
𝐾2
𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 At the maximum angle where rolling stops and
𝑎𝑐𝑚 = =
𝐾 2 𝐼 sliding begins,
(1 + 2 ) (1 + 𝑚𝑅 2 )
𝑅 𝑎𝑐𝑚 = 𝑅𝛼
From 𝑎𝑐𝑚 , time of descent and velocity at the lowest 𝜇𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 . 𝑅 2
point can be found using kinematic equations of 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
𝐾2
motion. 𝑢 = 0 as the object is initially at rest.
1 𝑅2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜇 (1 + )
2 𝐾2
1
𝑙 = 𝑎𝑐𝑚 𝑡 2 This relationship gives the minimum coefficient of
2 friction or the maximum angle upto which rolling
ℎ 1 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2
= 𝑡 can happen.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 𝐾2
(1 + 2 )
𝑅
For Solid cylinder, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 3𝜇
𝐾2 For Hollow thin walled cylinder, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 2𝜇
2ℎ (1 + 2 )
√ 𝑅 For Solid sphere, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 3.5 𝜇
𝑡=
𝑔 sin2 𝜃 For Hollow thin walled sphere, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 2.5 𝜇

2𝑔ℎ
𝑣𝑐𝑚 = √
𝐾2
(1 + 2 )
𝑅
Same result of 𝑣𝑐𝑚 can be obtained by applying
energy conservation method.
𝑃𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝐾𝐸𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 + 𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡
1 1
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝜔2
2 2
1 1 𝑣2
= 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝐾 2 2
2 2 𝑅

79
 1 2
𝐾2
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑣 (1 + 2 )
2 𝑅
2𝑔ℎ
𝑣𝑐𝑚 = √
𝐾2
(1 + 2 )
𝑅
1 𝐾2
𝑚𝑔 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑣 2 (1 + 2 )
2 𝑅
2
𝑣 1 𝐾2
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑣 2 (1 + 2 )
2𝑎 2 𝑅
𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑎𝑐𝑚 = =
𝐾2 𝐼
(1 + 2 ) (1 + 𝑚𝑅 2 )
𝑅
2
For solid cylinder, 𝑎 = 3 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
1
For Hollow thin walled cylinder,𝑎 = 2 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
5
For solid sphere, 𝑎 = 7 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
3
For Hollow thin walled sphere, 𝑎 = 5 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ

Rolling motion in a Horizontal plane Special cases

Rolling friction will be less than the kinetic

friction. 𝑓 can be +ve, -ve or zero depending upon
h/R and K2/R2.

ℎ 𝐾2
<
𝑅 𝑅2
𝑓 –ve, 𝑓 towards left, 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. < 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. sliding action
forward so friction is acting towards left, as friction
towards left causes it to rotate , it will get into rolling
action eventually 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠.
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 + 𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚 − − − (𝑖) ℎ 𝐾2
>
. 𝑅 𝑅2
𝛴𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 𝑓 +ve, 𝑓 towards right, 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. > 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. slipping or
𝑎𝑐𝑚 more rotating action so friction is acting towards
𝐹. ℎ − 𝑓. 𝑅 = 𝑚𝐾 2 .
𝑅 right, friction force towards right opposes the rotation
ℎ 𝑎 𝑐𝑚 and reduces the rotation, so it will get into rolling
𝐹. − 𝑓 = 𝑚𝐾 2 . 2 − − − (𝑖𝑖)
𝑅 𝑅 action eventually 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠.
Adding equation (i) and (ii),
ℎ ℎ 𝐾2
𝐹. (1 + 𝑅 )
𝑎𝑐𝑚 = =
𝐾2 𝑅 𝑅2
𝑚 (1 + 2 ) 𝑓 = 0 so pure rolling. 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠.
𝑅
Substitute this in equation (i) to get,
ℎ 𝐾2
𝐹. (𝑅 − 2 )
𝑅
𝑓= ≤ 𝜇𝑚𝑔
𝐾2
(1 + 2 )
𝑅

80
Initially skidding object to start rolling, Initially rotating object kept on the floor to roll,
Skidding to Rolling Rotation to Rolling
Rotating ring when placed on a horizontal plane, as it
touches the plane, the frictional force causes the
wheel to move forward with an acceleration 𝑎,
𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚
𝜇𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚
Also 𝑓 causes a torque about the centre point,
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐.
opposite to the initial spin 𝜔𝑜 ,
𝑚𝑎 = 𝜇 𝑚𝑔 𝑓. 𝑅 = −𝜏
𝑎 = 𝜇𝑔 𝑓. 𝑅 = −𝐼𝛼
As the body is skidding forward, the friction will act
𝜇𝑚𝑔. 𝑅 = −𝐼𝛼
backwards. This friction force will cause a torque
Since 𝑓 is acting opposite to 𝜔𝑜 , the 𝜔𝑜 will decrease
about the center, making it to rotate. For rolling to
in its value. 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑅𝜔 so 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. will decrease, when
happen,
𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑐𝑚 , 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0, so no friction at the
𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠
contact point and rolling motion starts only at this
𝑅𝜔 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 instant. This time taken determines when it starts
𝑅(𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡) = 𝑢 − 𝜇𝑔𝑡 rolling.
no initial spin, 𝜔0 = 0
𝜏 𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑐𝑚
𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑢 − 𝜇𝑔𝑡 𝑅𝜔 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑐𝑚 𝑡
𝐼
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐. 𝑅 𝑅(𝜔𝑜 + 𝛼𝑡) = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑐𝑚 𝑡
𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑢 − 𝜇𝑔𝑡 𝑅
𝐼
𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑅 2 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐. 𝑅
𝑡 = 𝑢 − 𝜇𝑔𝑡 𝑅𝜔𝑜 − 𝑅. 𝑡 = 0 + 𝜇𝑔𝑡
𝐼 𝐼
𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑅
𝑚𝑅 2 𝑅𝜔𝑜 − 𝑅. 𝑡 = 0 + 𝜇𝑔𝑡
𝜇𝑔𝑡 (1 + )=𝑢 𝐼
𝐼 𝑚𝑅 2
𝑅2 𝑅𝜔𝑜 = 𝜇𝑔𝑡 (1 + )
𝜇𝑔𝑡 (1 + 2 ) = 𝑢 𝐼
𝐾 𝑅2
𝑢 𝑅𝜔𝑜 = 𝜇𝑔𝑡 (1 + 2 )
𝑡= 𝐾
𝑅2
µ𝑔 (1 + 2 ) t can be calculated from this expression.
𝐾
This is the time taken for the body to roll.
𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 𝑢 − 𝑎𝑡
𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 𝑢 − 𝜇𝑔𝑡
Substituting the above t value,
𝑢
𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 =
𝐾2
(1 + 2 )
𝑅
This is the velocity with which it will start rolling.
𝑢 2𝑢
For Solid cylinder, 𝑡 = 3μ𝑔 , 𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 3
𝑢 𝑢
For Hollow thin walled cylinder, 𝑡 = 2μ𝑔 , 𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 2
2𝑢 5𝑢
For Solid sphere, 𝑡 = 7μ𝑔 , 𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 7
2𝑢 3𝑢
For Hollow thin walled sphere, 𝑡 = 5μ𝑔 , 𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 5

81
+ Driver wheels vs. Driven wheels

Back wheel not driven, just pulled
F acts at the center, so h=0, so friction 𝑓 is –ve and
acting opposite to F, in the reverse direction. So
rotation is caused by the friction, if it was not for
the friction, the wheel will be sliding not rolling.
Front wheel driven by engine.
Friction acts forward initially, causing 𝑉𝑐𝑚 , when
𝑉𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝑉𝑐𝑚 , 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0, so 𝑓 = 0, this is why
rolling friction is very low compared to sliding
friction.

Total angular momentum and KE in rolling Cycle with different radius

𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 𝑟 + 𝐼𝑐𝑚 ω

𝑟1 = 2𝑟
𝑇𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 + 𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑟2 = 𝑟
1 2
1 For larger wheel
𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 + 𝐼𝑐𝑚 ω2 𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑡1 = 𝑟1 𝜔1
2 2
= 2𝑟 𝜔1
For smaller wheel,
𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑡2 = 𝑟2 𝜔2
𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑡2 = 𝑟𝜔2
𝑣𝑐𝑚 is same for both wheels.Velocity at the top most
point is same for both wheels.
𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑡1 = 𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑡2
2𝑟 𝜔1 = 𝑟𝜔2
2𝜔1 = 𝜔2
This means the smaller wheel spins twice as fast as
the larger wheel.

82
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P08 Gravitation

Kepler’s Laws Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

 Law of Orbits  General form
 Law of Areas  Vector form
 Law of Periods  Superposition principle
 Proofs  Cavendish Experiment to determine G
Gravitational Field Strength Gravitational Potential Energy
 Acceleration due to gravity  GPE derivation.
 g above the surface of earth  Gravitational Potential Energy near the
 g below the surface of earth surface of earth
 Gravitational Potential
 Potential Energy of a system
Satellites + Miscellaneous
 Orbital Velocity  Object sticks to the planet or does it fly off ?
 Escape Velocity Gravitational force vs. Centrifugal force
 Time period of a satellite  Newton’s balance or Apparent weight
 Total Energy of a satellite  Weightlessness in orbit

 Geostationary satellite  Binary stars and Double planetary systems

 Polar satellite  Inertial mass vs. Gravitational mass
 Black holes
 g effective at different latitudes
 Angular momentum of planet
 Gauss law for Gravitation
 Tidal action of moon
 Newton’s historical calculations
 Binomial Theorem McLaurin Infinte series

83
Kepler’s 1st law: Law of Orbits Kepler’s 2nd law: Law of Areas Kepler’s 3rd law: Law of Periods

Planets move in elliptical path In equal time intervals Area swept

with sun as one of its focal point. by the planet is equal.

𝑇2 ∝ 𝑟3
Square of time period of a planet
is proportional to cube of the
average orbital radius of the
planet.

Prove: The planet moves faster Proof for Law of Areas Proof for Law of Periods
near the sun and slower when it is Time period of a satellite,
away from the sun. 2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑣𝑜
No external torque is acting on the 2𝜋𝑟
planet and sun system. So angular =
momentum is conserved or √𝐺𝑀
𝑟
constant. Swept Area, 2 3
4𝜋 𝑟
𝐿1 = 𝐿2 1 𝑇2 =
∆𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝐺𝑀
𝐼1 𝜔1 = 𝐼2 𝜔2 2 2 3
𝑣1 𝑣2 1 𝑇 ∝ 𝑟
𝑚𝑟12 = 𝑚𝑟22 = (𝑟⃗ × ∆𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑟1 𝑟2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ Kepler devised this law
𝑟1 𝑣1 = 𝑟2 𝑣2 ∆𝐴 1 ∆𝑠
= (𝑟⃗ × ) completely based on observations.
𝑟𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ∆𝑡 2 ∆𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. More than 50 years later Newton
𝑣= 1 verified all three laws of Kepler
𝑟 = (𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗)
As 𝑟 increases 𝑣 decreases. 2 using his universal law of
1 gravitation.
= (𝑟⃗ × 𝑚𝑣⃗)
2𝑚
1
= (𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗)
2𝑚
𝑑𝐴 ⃗⃗
𝐿
=
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚
Since angular momentum is
𝑑𝐴
conserved, Areal velocity 𝑑𝑡 is a
constant.

84
Newton’s Universal law of Gravitation Vector form

𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑟2
Force acts along the line joining the two masses. 𝐺 is 𝐹⃗12 = 𝐺 2 𝑟̂21
𝑟21
the universal gravitational constant. 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑟⃗21
𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 =𝐺 2
𝑟21 𝑟21
𝑚1 𝑚2
= 𝐺 3 𝑟⃗21
𝑟21
Super position principle of Forces Cavendish experiment to determine G

Force of attraction in two small lead spheres causes a

rotational torque. When the wire is twisted by an
angle 𝜃, the torque on the wire is 𝜏 = 𝑘 𝜃 similar to
force constant, 𝑘 is torque constant.
𝜏𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝜏𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝐹⃗1 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13 + 𝐹⃗14 𝐹 ×𝐿 =𝑘𝜃
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑀𝑚
= 𝐺 2 𝑟̂21 + 𝐺 2 𝑟̂31 + 𝐺 2 𝑟̂41 𝐺 2 .𝐿 = 𝑘 𝜃
𝑟21 𝑟31 𝑟41 𝑟
Knowing all other values, G value was found to be
6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2

Force of attraction due to hollow spherical shell

Case i) When an object is outside the spherical shell.
Y-components will cancel each other. X-components
will add. Resultant effect is, the spherical shell acts
as though the entire mass is concentrated at the
centre of the spherical shell.
Case ii) When an object is placed inside the spherical
shell, all forces cancel each other and net force is
zero on the mass m.
This same principle is applicable in charged
spherical shell in Electrostatics.

85
What is Gravitational Field strength? Gravitational Field Strength or Acceleration due
A 6 kg mass experiences a force of approx. 60 N on to gravity
earth,
𝐹𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 60 𝑁
A 100 kg mass experiences a force of 160 N on
moon,
𝐹𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 160 𝑁
If we want to compare the gravitational field strength
of earth and moon, we should not be comparing
these force as they are for different masses. Instead 𝑀𝑚
𝐹=𝐺 2
we should compare the force for a unit mass, which 𝑟
we call it as gravitational field strength. 𝐹 𝐺𝑀
𝐹 𝑔= = 2
𝑚 𝑟
𝑔= Near the surface of earth,
𝑚
60 𝑁 6.67 × 10−11 × 6 × 1024 𝑁 𝑚
𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = = 10 𝑁/𝑘𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = = 9.8 𝑜𝑟
6 𝑘𝑔 (6.4 × 106 )2 𝑘𝑔 𝑠2
160 𝑁 This value is true only near the surface of earth.
𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 = = 1.6 𝑁/𝑘𝑔
100 𝑘𝑔
Moon’s gravitational field strength is only one-sixth
of that of earth.
𝒈 above the surface of earth 𝒈 below the surface of earth

. Outer shaded region mass does not contribute to the

𝐺𝑀 force at the depth d, as the forces will cancel each
𝑔= 2
𝑟 other. Only the inner core exerts force on the mass.
𝐺𝑀 We assume that the earth is a solid sphere with
𝑔ℎ =
(𝑅 + ℎ)2 uniform density.
𝐺𝑀 ℎ −2 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝜌𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
= 2 (1 + ) 𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑅 𝑅 =
2ℎ 4 3 4 3
𝑔ℎ = 𝑔 (1 − )
𝑅 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜋𝑅
We are using binomial approximation in the above as 𝑀 3
𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 3 𝑟
ℎ≪𝑅 .
𝑅
𝐺𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑔𝑑 =
𝑟2
𝑀 3
3𝑟
=𝐺 𝑅 2
𝑟
𝐺𝑀 𝑅 − 𝑑
= 2[ ]
𝑅 𝑅
𝑑
𝑔𝑑 = 𝑔 [1 − ]
𝑅

86
Gravitational Potential Energy Gravitational Potential Energy near the surface
GPE does not have any absolute value. But it is of the earth
calculated with a fixed reference taken as per our
choice and convenience. Arbitrarily GPE is taken as
zero at infinity.

Work done to move a mass from infinity to a

particular point is called the Gravitational Potential GPE on the surface of the earth is taken as zero. GPE
Energy at that point. at a height ℎ from the ground will be 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Work done to move from ℎ1 to ℎ2 is the change in
A small work done 𝑑𝑊 to move the mass through a PE.
small distance 𝑑𝑥, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 The above is true only for near the surface of earth
𝐺𝑀𝑚 for small distances where we assume g is a constant.
𝑑𝑊 = . 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 This is not true for large distances from the surface
The total work done to move the mass from ∞ to 𝑟, of earth as g is not a constant.
𝑥=𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ . 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=∞ 𝑥
2 Deriving 𝒎𝒈𝒉 from GPE formula
−1 𝑟 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ ] ∆𝑈 = − − (− )
𝑥 ∞ (𝑅 + ℎ) 𝑅
1 1 𝐺𝑀
𝑊 = −𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ − ] = 𝑚ℎ
𝑟 ∞ 𝑅 (𝑅 + ℎ)
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀
𝑈=− = 2 𝑚ℎ
𝑟 𝑅
-ve sign represents attractive forces and system is = 𝑔𝑚ℎ
doing work, rather than an external force doing the 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
work. Since ℎ ≪ 𝑅
The total work done to move the mass from 𝑟1 to 𝑟2 ,
1 1
𝑊 = −𝐺𝑀𝑚 [ − ]
𝑟2 𝑟1
Gravitational Potential is defined as the
gravitational potential energy per unit mass.
𝑈 𝐺𝑀
𝜙 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = = −
𝑚 𝑟
Potential difference between two points 𝑟1 to 𝑟2 ,
1 1
𝑉 = −𝐺𝑀 [ − ]
𝑟2 𝑟1

Gravitational Force Gravitational Potential Energy

𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺 𝑈 = −𝐺
𝑟2 𝑟
Gravitational Field Strength Gravitational Potential
𝐹 𝐺𝑀 𝑈 𝐺𝑀
𝑔= = 2 𝑉= =−
𝑚 𝑟 𝑚 𝑟

87
Orbital Velocity Escape Speed or Escape Velocity

Minimum speed required to be given to a body to

make it completely come out of the gravitational pull
of earth or any celestial object, so that it does not fall
Rocket takes the satellite to the required height and back in to the earth or any celestial object.
pushes the satellite with a particular velocity called As 𝑟 → ∞, 𝑈 → 0 GPE at infinity is zero. Speed at
orbital velocity after which the satelite goes around infinity is zero, so KE is zero.
the earth. 𝑇𝐸1 = 𝑇𝐸2
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸1 = 𝑃𝐸2 + 𝐾𝐸2
𝑚𝑣𝑜2 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 1
= 2 − + 𝑚𝑣𝑒2 = 0
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 2
𝐺𝑀 2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑜 = √ 𝑣𝑒 = √
𝑟 𝑟
𝐺𝑀 2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑜 = √ 𝑣𝑒 = √
𝑅+ℎ 𝑅+ℎ
Near the surface of earth, Near the surface of earth,
𝐺𝑀 𝑅 2𝐺𝑀 2𝐺𝑀 𝑅
𝑣𝑜 = √ . = √𝑔𝑅 = 8 𝑘𝑚/𝑠 𝑣𝑒 = √ =√ . = √2𝑔𝑅 = 11.2 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Mercury orbits around sun at 50 km/s, whereas For higher altitudes, as 𝑟 ↑, 𝑣𝑒 ↓ so its easy to escape
Neptune it is 5 km/s. So as r increases 𝑣𝑜 decreases from higher altitudes. The relation between escape
because gravitational force and so centripetal force speed and orbital velocity,
decreases. 𝑣𝑒 = √2 𝑣𝑜
Injection velocity and paths taken by a satellite RMS velocity of gases
When they are higher than the escape velocity of the
planet, those gases will escape the planet and
atmosphere of the planet will not contain those
gases.
𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
Earth 11.2 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 O2 0.5 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1
Moon 2.5 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 N2 0.5 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1
He 1.3 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1
H2 1.8 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1
𝑣𝑖 ≥ 𝑣𝑒 escapes gravitational pull
𝑣𝑒 > 𝑣𝑖 > 𝑣𝑜 takes elliptical path
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑜 takes circular path
𝑣𝑖 < 𝑣𝑜 spirals and falls into the planet
Black hole is an extremely large mass concentrated
in a very small region. The gravitational force of
attraction is so high that even light cannot escape its
gravitational pull. If earth mass becomes a black hole
to be concentrated in a very small region what will
2𝐺𝑀
be the size of earth? 𝑣𝑒 = √ If the escape speed
𝑟
is taken to be the speed of light to calculate the
radius of earth r, then we get 𝑟 = 1 𝑐𝑚

88
 Geostationary Satellite Polar Satellite

With respect to the earth the satellite is stationary,

meaning it is spinning along with the earth at the
same speed. So the time period T=24 hrs. h=36,000
km, from the center of earth r = 36,000 + ℎ ≈ 100 𝑘𝑚 very close to the earth, scans the earth,
6,400=42,400 km region by region as it spins across and above the
e.g. communication satellites. poles.
e.g. weather and spying satellites
ISRO’s Rocket ISRO’s Rocket
GSLV – Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle. PSLV – Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle.
Total Energy of a satellite in the orbit Time period of a satellite in the orbit
𝑇𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 𝑑
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑇=
= 𝑚𝑣𝑜2 − 𝑣𝑜
2 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
1 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑚 =
= 𝑚 − 𝑣𝑜
2 𝑟 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚 =
𝑇𝐸 = −
2𝑟 √𝐺𝑀
𝑟
2 3
Note that, 4𝜋 𝑟
𝑇2 =
𝑃𝐸 𝐺𝑀
𝑇𝐸 = − 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑇2 ∝ 𝑟3
2
This is Kepler’s 3rd law of periods.
Angular Momentum of Planet:
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟
𝐺𝑀
𝐿 = 𝑚√ 𝑟
𝑟
𝐿 ∝ √𝑟
Farther the planet from the sun, the angular
momentum increases as square root of the distance
from the sun. (assuming for the same mass of planet)

Mass (kg) Radius (km) Time Period Orbital Radius (m)

(Days)
Sun 2 × 1030 696,000
Earth 6.02 × 1024 6400 365 1.5 × 1011
Mars 6.4 × 1023 3395 684 2.28 × 1011
Moon 7.3 × 1022 1700 27.3 3.84 × 108

No. of seconds in one year 365 days x 24 hrs x 3600 s = 3.15 x 107 s

89
Will an object stick to the planet surface or stick Weightlessness in orbit: (Circular)
to an orbit or will it fly off?

If the centripetal force demanded > gravitational

force then the object will flyoff the planet. e.g. for a
When the space station is orbiting the planet near the
mass of 2.5 kg,
Centripetal force = Centrifugal force surface, 𝑣𝑜 = √𝑔𝑅, in this case gravitational force
𝑚𝑣 2 equals centripetal force required to go in the orbit.
𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2 𝐹𝑔 − 𝑅 = 𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑟
2𝜋 2 𝑅 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
= 2.5 × 6.37 × 106 × ( ) 𝑅=0
24 × 3600
= 0.084 𝑁 This means no reaction force, so apparent weight is
Gravitational Force 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = 2.5 × 9.8 = 24.5 𝑁 zero. This is called weightlessness. However
As CF < GF the object will stick to earth without weightlessness is not the same as gravityless.
flying off. It means continuously falling into the planet and at
In the case of coin flying off a rotating disk we the same time going around the planet.
compare the centripetal force with the frictional
force. Instead here we compare it with the Satellite experiences centripetal force while the
gravitational force. loose objects or astronauts inside the satellite or
space station experience centrifugal force. When the
Newton’s Balance or Apparent Weight centrifugal force is same as gravitational force then
The Apparent Weight seen in balance, is the reaction objects and astronauts float around. (Car taking a
force. turn to the left experiences a centripetal force, but
the passengers experience a centrifugal force
Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Since this is circular motion, the acceleration will be towards the right.)
centripetal acceleration and not linear acceleration.
Towards the center the forces are taken positive and Weightlessness in free fall: (Linear)
away from the center the forces are taken negative.
𝐹𝑔 − 𝑅 = 𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑅 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐹𝑔 is the gravitational force.
Near the surface of earth,
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
If a body is in orbit farther from the surface of earth
then,
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹𝑔 = 2
𝑟 During free fall
𝑎=𝑔
𝑅 = 24.5 − 0.084 = 24.416 𝑁
𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑎
is the apparent weight seen in the balance for the
𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎)
above example.
𝑅=0
It means falling continuously in the gravity due to
free fall.

90
Minimum velocity with which a ball to be thrown Binary stars or Double Planetary systems:
to reach the second mass:

e.g. Pluto and Charon is an example for double

planetary system.
ω is in the same direction and equal. This means the
two masses will always be opposite to each other in a
straight line.
ω1 = ω2
𝑇𝐸1 = 𝑇𝐸𝑁 𝑣1 𝑣2
=
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚 𝐺𝑚2 𝑚 1 𝑟1 𝑟2
− − + 𝑚𝑣 2 Centripetal force will be same,
𝑟1 𝑑2 2
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚 𝐺𝑚2 𝑚 𝑚1 𝑣12 𝑚2 𝑣22
=− − + 𝐾𝐸𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙 =
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑟1 𝑟2
If we provide the minimum velocity to make the ball 𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2
reach the null point, thereafter the attraction force 𝑣2 𝑚1 𝑟2
= =
from the second object will pull the ball towards it. 𝑣1 𝑚2 𝑟1
So 𝐾𝐸𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙 = 0. 𝑚1 𝑑 − 𝑥
=
𝑚2 𝑥
1 1
𝑚∝ 𝑚∝ 𝑟∝𝑣
𝑟 𝑣

This graph illustrates that the null point is the point

where the gravitational potential is maximum and
either side it will drop.
𝒈𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 at different latitudes: Potential Energy of a system:

Work done to assemble the masses is stored as the

potential energy of the system.
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 + 𝑊4
𝑊1 = 0
Centrifugal acceleration along the radial direction of 𝐺𝑚2
earth. 𝑊2 = −
𝑙
Centrifugal acceleration = centripetal acceleration 𝐺𝑚2 𝐺𝑚2
= 𝑟ω2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 λ = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 λ ω2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 λ = 𝑅ω2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 λ 𝑊3 = − −
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑅ω2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 λ 𝑙 √2𝑙
𝐺𝑚2 𝐺𝑚2 𝐺𝑚2
𝑊4 = − − −
𝑙 𝑙 √2𝑙

91
Inertial Mass: Gravitational Mass:
When a constant force F acts on two different When a large object such as earth is attracting two
masses, different masses,
𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹𝐵 𝐺𝑀𝑚𝐴 𝐺𝑀𝑚𝐵
𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹 𝐵 =
𝑚𝐴 𝑎𝐴 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑎𝐵 𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑎𝐵 𝑚𝐴 𝐹𝐴
𝑚𝐴 = 𝑚 =
𝑎𝐴 𝐵 𝑚𝐵 𝐹𝐵
If 𝑚𝐵 is taken as a reference mass say 1 kg, then 𝐹𝐴
other mass can be defined according to the above 𝑚𝐴 = 𝑚𝐵
𝐹𝐵
equation which is inertial mass. If 𝑚𝐵 is taken as a reference mass say 1 kg, then
other mass can be defined according to the above
equation which is gravitational mass.
𝐹 𝐹𝑔
Inertial mass defined as 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑎 Here F is constant. Gravitational mass defined as 𝑚𝑔 = g is the
𝑔
Different acceleration values will give different gravitational field strength. Here the large mass like
masses. 𝐺𝑀
earth is kept constant. So 𝑔 = 𝑟 2 is constant. But 𝐹𝑔
will change for different masses.
Gauss law for Gravitation: 𝜙𝑔 = 4𝜋𝐺 𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 Tidal action between earth and the moon: Moon
𝑞 moves 4 cm away from earth. So potential energy
Gauss law for electrostatics: 𝜙𝐸 = 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝜀 𝑜 increases. Δ𝑈 = 𝐹. Δ𝑥

Newton’s historical calculations that led to Law of Gravitation, Terrestrial vs. Celestial:
2𝜋𝑅𝑚
𝑣=
𝑇
Radius of the moon was known to be, 𝑅𝑚 = 3.84 × 108 𝑚 and time
period of the moon is 𝑇 = 27.3 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠. Acceleration of the moon
(Centripetal acceleration) is,
𝑣 2 4𝜋 2 𝑅𝑚
𝑎𝑚 = =
𝑅𝑚 𝑇2
Based on these calculations acceleration of the moon was determined and also acceleration of an apple
falling from the tree near the surface of the earth was also determined.
Newton proposed the acceleration due to gravity or the gravitational strength at a given location to be
inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the center of the earth.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑎𝑚 = 2
𝑅𝑚
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑔𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 2
𝑅𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
When Newton did the calculations for the constant, he arrived at ~ 4 × 1014 from both the equations
confirming the correctness of his inverse square law proposal, with moon being the celestial object and the
apple being the terrestrial object.

+ Binomial Theorem: McLaurin Infinite series:

If n is -ve or fraction and |𝑥| < 1 then it is converging series.
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑛𝐶0 + 𝑛𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝑛𝐶2 𝑥 2 + ⋯
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3
= 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2! 3!
(1 + 𝑥)−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ ≈ 1 − 𝑥
(1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ ≈ 1 + 𝑥
(1 + 𝑥)−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + ⋯ ≈ 1 − 2𝑥
(1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + ⋯ ≈ 1 + 2𝑥
Usually for approximation, second order and higher order terms can be ignored as they are negligible.

92
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P09 Mechanical Properties of Solids
Interatomic Forces and Elasticity: Elasticity and Plasticity:
Spring ball model:
When you apply load, balls get
displaced, spring is compressed
or elongated. When the load is
removed spring pushes back the
balls to its original position.

Stress: Strain:
Stress for solids is similar to pressure for fluids.
Stress,
𝐹 𝑁 𝛥𝑙
𝜎= ( ) 𝜀= (𝑛𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡)
𝐴 𝑚2 𝐿
Hooke’s law for spring: Hooke’s law:
𝐹 ∝ 𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 𝜎 ∝𝜀
𝜎=𝐸𝜀
𝜎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑁
𝐸= = ( )
𝜀 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚2
E is modulus of elasticity.
Youngs modulus Bulk modulus Shear modulus or
(Volume Elasticity) Modulus of Rigidity

𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌=
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜂=
𝐵= 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹 ⁄𝐴 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑌= 𝑃 𝑃𝑉 𝐹 ⁄𝐴
𝛥𝑙 ⁄𝑙 𝐵=− =− 𝜂=
𝛥𝑉 ⁄𝑉 𝛥𝑉 𝜃
𝐹𝑙 Negative sign shows the reduction
𝑌= in volume. Sometimes this 𝑃 can 𝐹
𝐴 𝛥𝑙 𝜂=
be given as ∆𝑃 as it is increase in 𝐴𝜃
pressure.
Poisson’s ratio: Compressibility:
𝛥𝑥
1 𝛥𝑉 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = − 𝑥
𝐵 𝑃𝑉 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜃
(Opposite of Bulkiness)
When 𝜃 is small, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜃

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎=
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝛥𝑑⁄𝐷
𝜎=−
𝛥𝑙 ⁄𝐿

93
 Stress-Strain diagram for increasing load on wire: Steel or Rubber, which is more elastic?

Slope A is high so material A is more elastic than

B and C.
A – Limit of proportionality
OA – Hooke’s law region Steel is more elastic than rubber because for steel
AB – Elastic but not obeying Hooke’s law less 𝛥𝑙 compared to rubber. So
B – Elastic limit Yield point 𝑌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 > 𝑌𝑟𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑟
OB – Elastic region
BE – Plastic region So we say steel is more elastic than rubber. In
C – If load removed here permanent strain 𝑂𝑂′ fact, rubber is classified as Elastomers the one
D – Maximum Tensile Stress, Ultimate Tensile which undergoes strain of many times its original
Strength UTS, Breaking stress (Beyond this it will length.
break by going to E)
CD – strain increases very quickly compared to stress
D – beyond D even if load removed wire continues
to elongate.
E – Breaking point
Material Classification:
Ductile Brittle Elastomer

Large plastic region, so can be

drawn into wires. e.g. Copper No well defined plastic region,
Small plastic region, so it will
though the elastic region is large,
break into pieces very soon as we
it does not obey Hooke’s law, Can
cross the elastic region. e.g. Glass
be pulled many times its original
length L, e.g. Rubber, tissue of
aorta in heart.
Young’s modulus measurement experimental setup:
Ref wire is to compensate for 𝛥𝑙 due to any temperature effects. If
there is any change in the length in experimental wire due to room
temperature change, it will be equally accompanied by same amount of
change in reference wire. Both wires are of same length, same area,
same material.
𝜎 𝐹 ⁄𝐴 𝑀𝑔 𝑙
𝑌= = = ⋅
𝜀 𝛥𝑙 ⁄𝑙 𝜋𝑟 2 𝛥𝑙

94
 Energy stored in an elongated wire: Work done and Elastic energy in a catapult:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒
= 𝐹. 𝑆
= 𝑎𝑣𝑔. 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝛥𝑙
𝐹
= × 𝛥𝑙
2
1 𝐹 𝛥𝑙
= 𝐴𝐿
2𝐴 𝐿
1
= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙
2 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐾𝐸
Energy Density, 𝐹 1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1 1 Δ𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑌. 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛2 2 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙. 2 2 F can be found.
Applications of elasticity of materials:
Cables in Cranes: Why maximum height of a mountain in earth is
10 tonnes to be lifted, 10,000 kg FOS 10 times 10 km?
usually, so 105 𝑘𝑔, 106 𝑁 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
The cable of cranes is to be done with steel. Yield
strength of steel
𝜎𝑦 = 300 × 106 𝑁𝑚−2
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜎𝑦 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
106
300 × 106 = Vertical force cause shear stress on rocks.
𝜋𝑟 2 Shear stress limit on rock is 30 × 107 𝑁𝑚−2
1
𝑟2 ≈ Density of earth material is 3 × 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
𝜋 × 300 Pressure due to a mountain,
1
𝑟≈ 𝑚 ≈ 3.3𝑐𝑚 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 3 × 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3 × 10 𝑚𝑠 −2 × ℎ
3 𝑥 10 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
It will become steel rod
without any flexibility, ℎ = 10 𝑘𝑚
so braided wires of steel Note that the height of Mount Everest ≈ 9000 𝑚
of this radius will be Breaking stress,
used. 𝐹
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴
Bridges: For circular cross section:
For rectangular cross section:

𝑤𝑙 3
𝛿=
By calculus method 12𝜋𝑟 4 𝑌
𝑤𝑙 3
𝛿=
4𝑏 𝑑 3 𝑌
To reduce the 𝛿 increasing d is more effective than
increasing b as we can see 𝑑3 is present.
Buckling: Bending of bar is Pillars and columns: To support
called buckling.Common in bridges and buildings, distributed
Bridges.To overcome this shape at the ends can take more
different types of cross load.
sections are used such as the I beam.

95
Elongation due to own weight W: Strain of a buckling rod:

Strain,
𝑑𝑊 is the weight pulling the 𝑑𝑥 length. Δ𝐿
ε=
At every location of 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑊 will change 𝐿
𝐹/𝐴 √𝐿2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝐿
𝑌= ε=
Δ𝐿/𝐿 𝐿
1/2
The elongation for the small elemental length 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
𝐿 [1 + 2 ] − 𝐿
considered, 𝐿
𝐹/𝐴 ε=
𝐿
𝑌= 1 𝑥2
Δ𝐿/𝑑𝑥
ε = [1 + 2 ] − 1
𝑑𝑊 2𝐿
𝑑(Δ𝐿) = 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑌 𝑥2
𝑊 𝑑𝑥 ε= 2
𝑑(Δ𝐿) = (𝐿 − 𝑥) 2𝐿
𝐿 𝐴𝑌 Binomial approximation used ignoring the higher
To get the total elongation due to various 𝑑𝑥 from order terms.
length 0 𝑡𝑜 𝐿
1 𝑊 𝐿
Δ𝐿 = ∫ 𝑑(Δ𝐿) = ∫ (𝐿 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑌 𝐿 0
𝑊𝐿
Δ𝐿 =
2𝐴𝑌

Volume Strain for a Sphere: Tensile and Shearing Stress in Inclined Plane:

𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
𝐴𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
Binomial approximation used ignoring the higher
order terms. 𝐴𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
4 3 4 3
Δ𝑉 3 𝜋(𝑅 + ∆𝑅) − 3 𝜋𝑅 ∆𝑅 3
= = (1 + ) − 1
𝑉 4 3 𝑅
3 𝜋𝑅
∆𝑅 ∆𝑅
= 1+3 −1=3
𝑅 𝑅
Δ𝑉 3Δ𝑅
=
𝑉 𝑅
𝐹𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐹
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝐴𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐴
𝐹𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐹
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = =
𝐴𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐴

96
Twisting a rod: Twisting or Torsional couple (torque)

𝐺∝𝜃
𝛥𝑥 = 𝑙 𝜙 = 𝑟 𝜃 𝐺 = 𝐶𝜃
𝜙 angle or shear C is the torsional rigidity or Modulus of Torsion.
𝜃 angle of twist Torsional rigidity or Modulus of Torsion is defined
as torsional couple per unit twist.
𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝐺 𝜋𝜂𝑟 4
𝐶= = =
𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝜃 2𝑙
1
𝜃∝ 4
𝑟
For hollow cylinder,

𝜋𝜂(𝑟24 − 𝑟14 )
𝐶=
2𝑙
1
𝜃∝
𝑟24 − 𝑟14

97
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P10 Properties of Fluids
11P10A Fluid Statics
Density: Pascal’s Law:
Pressure exerted by a fluid is equal
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 in all directions at a given height.
𝜌 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙.

Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure due to Liquid column:

1 atmospheric pressure
= 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎
= 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟
Atmospheric pressure
is a result of air
column above the
earth.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑔 𝜌𝑉𝑔 𝜌ℎ𝐴𝑔
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = = = = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

Toricelli’s Barometer: Liquid always finds its own level:

Pressure at a given height is same everywhere.

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
= 13600 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 × 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2 × 0.76 𝑚
= 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎
U-tube manometer: U-tube Differential manometer:

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑙 + 𝑃𝐵
= 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

98
Pascal’s law proving: Hydraulic Machine:

𝑐 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑏 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑃1 = 𝑃2
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐴2
𝐹2 = 𝐹
𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐴1 1
𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐴2
is the multiplication factor.
𝐴1
𝐹𝑐 𝐹𝑏 𝐹𝑎
= =
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑏 𝐴𝑎

𝑝𝑐 = 𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝𝑎
Pascals law proved: When fluid is at rest, at a given
height, pressure is same at all points.

Fully submerged: Submerged in two liquids:

Method 1 pressure difference method In equilibrium

Upward thrust force 𝐹𝐵 = (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )𝐴 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝐵 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐹𝐵 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
= 𝜌𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )𝐴 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑔ℎ𝑤 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ𝑚 𝐴
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐴 If the height of the object h is known then from ℎ𝑚 ,
ℎ𝑤 the ratio of submerging can be found.
Method 2 with liquid displacement
Upward thrust force 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑙 𝑔
= 𝜌𝑣𝑙 𝑔
= 𝜌𝑣𝑜 𝑔
= 𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔

99
Archimedes Principle: Partially Submerged: Law of Atmospheres:

Density of air is not constant in the atmosphere. As

we go to higher heights the density will decrease. The
When a body is floating, no matter how much it is empirical relation for density with changing heights
submerged, since the body is in equilibrium, is,
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝜌 = 𝜌0 𝑒 −𝑦/𝑦0
3
Weight of body = weight of liquid displaced 𝜌0 = 1.25 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 at sea level
this depends upon the fraction of the body submerged 𝑦0 = 8000 𝑚 is a constant
in the liquid
𝑚𝑜 𝑔 = 𝑚𝑙 𝑔
𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑙 𝑔
𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑙 × 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 × 𝑉𝑜 𝑔
𝜌𝑜
= 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑
𝜌𝑙
If the liquid is water then fraction submerged gives
the relative density of the object.
Archimedes Principle: Fully Submerged: + Archimedes Principle: RD of an object lighter
Apparent Weight, RD of an object heavier than than water:
water:

Apparent weight of sinker = 𝑊1

Weight of Object in air, App. weight of sinker + Weight of cork = 𝑊2
𝐹𝑔 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑔 App. weight of sinker + App. weight of cork = 𝑊3
Upward thrust, Bouyancy force= weight of the liquid
displaced, Weight of cork = 𝑊2 − 𝑊1
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑙 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑜 𝑔 Apparent weight of cork = 𝑊3 − 𝑊1
Bouyancy force of cork = 𝑊2 − 𝑊3 =Weight of
Weight of Object in liquid, water displaced by cork
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝐵
= 𝑚𝑜 𝑔 − 𝑚𝑙 𝑔 𝜌𝑜 𝑚𝑜 ⁄𝑉𝑜 𝑚𝑜 𝑊𝑜 𝑊2 − 𝑊1
= 𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑔 − 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑜 𝑔 𝑅𝐷 = = = = =
𝜌𝑤 𝑚𝑤 ⁄𝑉𝑤 𝑚𝑤 𝑊𝑤 𝑊2 − 𝑊3

Relative Density, (if the liquid is water)

𝜌𝑜 𝐹𝑔
𝑅𝐷 = =
𝜌𝑤 𝐹𝐵

100
 11P10B Fluid Dynamics (Bernoulli’s Theorem)
Pressure Energy: Equation of Continuity:
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃. 𝑉
𝑁
⟹ 2 𝑚3 = 𝑁𝑚 = 𝐽
𝑚

e.g Compressor Tank.

Bigger the tank more work can be done by
compressed air so higher pressure energy.
From Law of conservation of mass:
𝑀𝑝 = 𝑀𝑞
𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 = 𝜌𝑞 𝑉𝑞
𝜌𝑝 𝐴𝑝 𝑑𝑝 = 𝜌𝑞 𝐴𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝜌𝑝 𝐴𝑝 𝑣𝑝 𝛥𝑡 = 𝜌𝑞 𝐴𝑞 𝑣𝑞 𝛥𝑡
Incompressible liquid assumed so density same at
different cross sections,
𝑣𝑝 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑣𝑞 𝐴𝑞
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝐴𝑣 is the volume flow rate, units m3/s or cm3/s

Bernoulli’s Principle: Proof:

according to Work -Energy theorem,
Work done on fluid by surface 1,
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑡 1 = 𝑃1 𝛥𝑉
Work done by fluid on surface 2,
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑡 2 = −𝑃2 𝛥𝑉

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 𝛥𝑉

1
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )

Law of conservation of energy. 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 1 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 2 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 𝛥𝑉 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) + 𝑚𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
(assuming no friction losses in pipe, ideal situation) 2
1 1
𝑃1 𝛥𝑉 + 𝑚𝑣12 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 𝛥𝑉 + 𝑚𝑣22 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ⇒ 2 2
1 1
𝑃1 𝑉 + 𝑚𝑣12 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 𝑉 + 𝑚𝑣22 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 Divide by volume term gives,
2 2 1 1
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2 2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
⇒
𝑉𝑜𝑙
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2 2
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
2
This means as velocity increases, pressure decreases.
This equation can be used only for frictionless,
laminar, non-viscous fluids. For viscous fluids
poiseuille’s equation has to be used.

101
Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem:
Torricelli Speed of Efflux: Venturimeter:
flu-flow, Efflux-Exit flow
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦2 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦1
1 2 1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1
2 2
1
(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) + 𝜌𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) = 2 𝜌𝑣12

case i) Inside the tank when

there is high pressure like
pressure tanks, rocket fuel
Principle 1:
tanks then
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝐴 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝐵
2(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) 1 1
𝑣1 = √ + 2𝑔ℎ 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣𝐴2 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑣𝐵2
𝜌 2 2
1
If Pressure P is so high, 𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌 (𝑣𝐵2 − 𝑣𝐴2 )
2
then the √2𝑔ℎ term can be From Manometer,
ignored. 1 2 𝑣𝐵 2
𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑣𝐴 [( ) − 1]
2 𝑣𝐴
case ii) If 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 where the tank is open to Principle 2:
atmosphere then 𝑣1 = √2𝑔ℎ This is torricelli’s law. 𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑣𝐵
ℎ is the height through which water falls down 1 2 𝐴𝐴 2
(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ). 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑣𝐴 [( ) − 1]
2 𝐴𝐵
From this velocity at A can be deduced. No need to
Same as free falling body. Why free-falling body
memorize this complicated formula. Just start from
analogy?
the basic principles.
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ

Pitot tube: Modified pitot tube, Prandtl tube,

Air speed indicator:

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝐴 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝐵
1 1
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣𝐴2 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑣𝐵2
2 2 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝐴 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝐵
The liquid is brought to stop at B, 𝑣𝐵 = 0 1 1
1 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣𝐴2 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑣𝐵2
𝜌𝑣 2 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 2 2
2 𝐴
1 1
𝜌𝑣 2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝜌𝑣 2 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴
2 𝐴 2 𝐴
𝑣𝐴 = √2𝑔ℎ 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑦
𝑃𝐵 + 𝑋 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑋 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 = (𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌)𝑔ℎ

1
(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌)𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑣 2
2 𝐴

102
Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem:
Range of water projectile: Application of Bernoulli theorem for liquid in a
rotating vessel:

Range,
𝑅 = 𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡
𝑅 = √2𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ) 𝑡
𝑅 = 2√ℎ(𝐻 − ℎ) Location 1 is at the center. Location 2 is at the rim.
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
1 2 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 As the vessel spins, at location 1 the liquid is
2
1 2 stationary, 𝑣1 = 0. Liquid at the location 2 will be
ℎ = 𝑔𝑡 moving fast, 𝑣2 = 𝑟𝜔. The heights of two locations
2
can be taken to be same ℎ1 = ℎ2 Note that this is for
2ℎ the potential energy.
𝑡=√
𝑔 1
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑣22
Height at which the range will be maximum: 2
Maxima, Minima method in differentiation. 1 2
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑣2
𝑅 = 2√ℎ(𝐻 − ℎ) 2
This height is not due to potential energy difference
𝑑𝑅
=0 but the pressure difference between location 1 center
𝑑ℎ point and location 2 at the rim.
Differentiating by chain rule,
1
2. [ℎ(𝐻 − ℎ)]−1/2 [ℎ (−1) + (𝐻 − ℎ)] = 0
2
𝐻 − 2ℎ
=0
√ℎ(𝐻 − ℎ)
𝐻
ℎ=
2

103
Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem:
Spray Gun: Air Foil:

Magnus Effect: Basket ball dropped from a cliff:

When the ball is thrown without a spin, it goes

straight. The ball dropped without a spin will just fall down
straight as shown. The ball that is given an inward
spin will take a very different path as shown due to
magnus effect.

When the ball is given a spin as shown the upper

layers of air closer to the ball is moving in the same
direction as the moving air which adds up to its
velocity. The lower layers of air closer to the ball is
moving in the direction opposite to the moving air
which reduces its velocity. So according to
Bernoulli’s theorem the ball experiences a push
upwards.

This is the technique used in sports such as cricket,

football where a spinning ball takes a totally
unexpected path making it difficult for the opponent.

104
 11P10C Viscosity
Understanding Viscosity: Viscosity Definition:
𝑑𝑣
𝐹∝𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = η𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝐹
η=
𝑑𝑣
𝐴
𝑑𝑥
Coefficient of viscosity is defined as the force
required to move the fluid with unit velocity gradient
for unit area.
Viscosity can be thought of measure of stickiness. To Also coefficient of viscosity,
𝑑𝑣
produce same velocity gradient more force has to 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑥 η=
be applied since viscosity η is high in honey. η is 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒
low in water. 𝐹 ⁄𝐴
=
𝛥𝑙
𝛥𝑣 𝑙
Change in velocity for a small gradient in the
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑡
transverse direction. Higher the stickiness more force
required to achieve the same required velocity 𝐹∕𝐴
η=
gradient. 𝑣⁄𝑙
𝐹ℎ𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦 > 𝐹𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 Dimensions for viscosity,
ηℎ𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦 > η𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 η ⇒ 𝑁𝑚−2 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−1 𝑠 −1 ⇒ [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 ]
Ideal liquid: Viscosity units:
Ideal liquid means stickiness or viscosity is zero. So 𝑁 105 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠
the velocity gradient will be very high. This means 1 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 = 1 2 . 𝑠 =
𝑚 104 𝑐𝑚2
for a very small ∆𝑥, ∆𝑣 will be very high. 1 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 = 10 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 (𝑐𝑔𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
Δ𝑣 1 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 = 1 𝑃𝑙 (𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒)
η = 0, = ∞
Δ𝑥 Poise is the most widely used units for viscosity. The
above is dynamic viscosity. There is some other
quantity called kinematic viscosity also.
Reynold’s number: Terminal velocity of the sphere:

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝐷 − 𝐹𝐵 = 0
(𝐹𝐷 from Stoke’s formula)
𝑚𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣 + 𝑚𝑙 𝑔
𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣 + 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑔
(𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑙 ) 𝑉𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣
4𝜋𝑎3 𝑔
(𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑙 ) = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣𝑡
3
Terminal velocity,
2𝑎2 𝑔
𝑣𝑡 = (𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑙 )
𝜌𝑣𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 9𝜂
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜂 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝜌𝑜 - density of ball
𝑅𝑒 = 1000 Laminar stream lined flow
𝜌𝑙 -density of liquid
𝑅𝑒 = 1000 𝑡𝑜 2000 unstable flow
𝑅𝑒 > 2000 Turbulent flow
The velocity where the steady laminar flow changes
to turbulent flow is called the critical velocity.

105
.
+ Poiseuille’s equation for fluid flowrate: The electrical equivalent is, 𝑖 =
𝑉
𝑅
8η𝑙
So the term, is the fluid flow resistance.
π𝑟 4
𝐴
𝑄volume flow rate ∝ (𝑃 − 𝑃2 ) Series and parallel flow:
𝑙 1 1 1 1
Using dimensional analysis the fluid flowrate equation 𝑝𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 is same in parallel, = +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
can be derived.
𝑝 𝑐 Q flowrate is same in series, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑎 𝑏
𝑄=η 𝑟 ( )
𝑙
Poiseuille’s equation for fluid flowrate,
𝑝𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓
𝑄volume flowrate =
8η𝑙
π𝑟 4
Stoke’s formula: Temperature effect on viscosity:
Drag force of a spherical body falling through a For air(gas), as 𝑇 ↑ 𝜂 ↑ (due to 𝑇 4 molecule speed
viscous liquid increases more force needs to be given to move the
𝐹𝐷 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣 molecules in one particular direction)
𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 For water(liquid), as 𝑇 ↑ 𝜂 ↓ (due to more
𝑣 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 temperature, stickiness reduces, so less force
𝐹 ∝ η𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑣 𝑐 using dimensional analysis the above required to move the water)
formula can be derived.

Surface tension Viscosity in Pa.s Viscosity in P Density in kg/m3 Density in g/cc

in N/m or J/m2 or Pl (Poiseuille) (Poise cgs units) or g/cm3 or g/ml
Air NA 1.7 × 10−5 1.7 × 10−4 1.29 0.00129
Water 0.0727 0.001 0.01 1000 1
Honey 0.05 to 0.06 0.2 2 ~1400 ~1.4
Mercury 0.4355 0.0016 0.016 13600 13.6
Soap 0.03
water

106
 11P10D Surface Tension
Definition of Surface tension: Microscopic understanding of Surface tension:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑇=
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Intermolecular force of attraction.
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑇=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Needle on Surface of water: Intermolecular forces of attraction can be
classified as two types namely,
cohesive forces where the same type of molecules
attract each other e.g. water to water.
Adhesive forces where different types of molecules
attract each other e.g. water to glass.

As temperature increases intermolecular force of

attraction decreases, so the surface tension decreases.

Surface acts like a stretched membrane.

𝑚𝑔
2 𝑇 sin 𝜃 =
𝑙
Work done on a thin film: Experiment to determine Surface tension:

𝑊
Due to surface tension, the soap bubble will act like 𝑇=
an elastic membrane pulling the rod back. 2𝑙
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐹. ∆𝑥 = 𝑇. 2𝑙 ∆𝑥
𝐹
𝑇=
2𝑙

107
Why spherical shape for droplets?
Why does a water droplet or soap bubble tends to
take spherical shape, why not it take a cubical or
ellipsoidal or cuboidal or conical shapes?
Minimum surface potential energy can be achieved
with minimum surface area. For a given volume the
minimum surface area is achieved with spherical
shape. (A free falling ball falls to the ground because
that is where the potential energy is minimum)

Astronaut drinking water droplets in ISS.

Soap bubble Experiment 1: Soap bubble Experiment 2:

Make a thread loop to float on the surface of soap Make a thread loop to float on the surface of water.
bubble. Then prick the inner part with a sharp piece. Then touch the inner part with a soap. You will see
You will see that the thread expands to form a perfect that the thread expands to form a perfect circle. Why?
circle. Why?
When the inner part of the thread is touched with a
When the soap bubble part inside the thread is soap, the soap solution will have a surface tension
pricked, we will see that the thread takes up a circular lower than that of water in the outer part of ring. So
shape. This is because the soap bubble on the rim the outer part of the surface tension in water pulls the
should be minimum to minimize the surface energy. thread outward to keep the surface tension minimum
To achieve this the thread should take up a shape that by minimizing the area.
will be of maximum inner area. For a given perimeter
circle will give the maximum area.

Soap and detergents: Surface tension is not applicable for gases:

Surface tension is basically due to cohesive forces
between molecules. In gas due to high inter
molecular distances there is no cohesive forces and
so the concept of surface tension is applicable for
liquids and not applicable for gases.

When added they form a interface between water and

oil, dirt, grease. So the surface tension is reduced
between the water and oil So it can be washed away
easily.
Hydro philic – likes water
Hydro phobic – does not like water (likes oil or dirt)

108
 Water Mercury

Water wets the glass. Mercury does not wet the glass.
Angle of contact is acute. (0o) Angle of contact is obtuse. (135o)

Water to glass attraction adhesive force is higher than Mercury to mercury cohesive force is higher than
water to water attraction cohesive force. mercury to glass adhesive force.

Lower meniscus is used. Upper meniscus is used.

Capillary Rise: Capillary Fall:

Cause for angle of contact:

If solid force of If solid force of attraction

attraction 𝐹𝑠 is higher 𝐹𝑠 is lower than the liquid
than the liquid force of force of attraction 𝐹𝑙 , then
attraction 𝐹𝑙 , then the the resultant force will be
resultant force will be towards the liquid making
towards the solid the liquid to stay away
making the liquid to from the solid.
rise over the solid.
Water Proof Jackets: As surface tension 𝑇 increases angle of contact 𝜃 also
Water proof jackets and other water proof items are increases.
coated with substance that will have obtuse angle of 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑎
contact. 𝑇=
2 cos 𝜃
Though water wets the glass it does not wet lotus leaf
or banana leaf because the angle of contact of water
to these leaves will be obtuse angle.
Water with Paraffin wax angle of contact is 105o

109
Excess Pressure: Concave side 𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 convex side 𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒘 :

Concave side is the higher pressure.

Surface tension is the stretched membrane holding
the higher pressure.
Downward force is balanced by the excess pressure
for equilibrium.
For droplet,
2𝑇
𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑟
For bubble, as it has two surfaces,
4𝑇
𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑟
Excess pressure derivation: Energy method: Excess pressure derivation: Force method:

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

= 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 . 𝛥𝑉 = 𝑇. 𝛥𝐴
𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 . 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝛥𝑟 = 𝑇. (4𝜋(𝑟 + 𝛥𝑟)2 − 4𝜋𝑟 2 ) At equilibrium,
= 𝑇(𝑟 2 + (𝛥𝑟)2 + 2𝑟𝛥𝑟 − 𝑟 2 ) 𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
2𝑇
𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑝1 𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝑇2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑝2 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑟 2𝑇
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 =
𝑟
2𝑇
𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑟
Soap bubble:

2𝑇
𝑃′ − 𝑃1 =
𝑟
2𝑇
𝑃2 − 𝑃′ =
𝑟
4𝑇
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 =
𝑟

110
Two different size narrow tubes: Coalesceing of bubbles to form single bubble:

By law of conservation of energy,

Total surface energy after coalesceing is same as the
total surface energy before coalesceing.

2𝑇 4𝜋𝑟12 + 2𝑇 4𝜋𝑟22 = 2𝑇 4𝜋𝑅 2

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠2 For a bubble two surfaces so 2T.
When we have a capillary column, excess pressure After coalesceing if the bubble is moving then some
should be considered. energy is given to KE. Then,
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠1 − 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠2
2𝑇 2𝑇 2𝑇 4𝜋𝑟12 + 2𝑇 4𝜋𝑟22 = 2𝑇 4𝜋𝑅 2 + 𝐾𝐸
𝜌𝑔ℎ = −
𝑟1 𝑟2
If 𝜃 = 0𝑜 ,
2𝑇 2𝑇
𝜌𝑔ℎ = −
𝑎1 𝑎2
𝑎 is the radius of the narrow tube. 𝑟 is the radius of
curvature. 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑎
Capillary rise: Proof by Excess pressure method:
2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑎 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
1 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
ℎ∝
𝑎 2𝑇
𝜌𝑔ℎ =
𝑟
a - radius of the 2𝑇
tube 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑎
𝑇=
2 cos 𝜃
Proof by Force method: When is 𝑎 ≪ 𝑟 then ignoring the small dark shaded
region is a good approximation. If this cannot be
neglected say 𝑎 = 𝑟, then
2
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ + [𝜋𝑟 2 . 𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 3 ]
3
2
𝜋 3
= 𝜋𝑟 ℎ + 𝑟
3
Surface tension pulling the liquid 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝑔
upwards.For the entire circumference 𝑟
2
force acting upwards = 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 . 2𝜋𝑎 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔𝜋𝑟 [ℎ + ]
3
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 .2𝜋𝑎 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑟
ρ𝑔𝑟 [ℎ + 3]
= 𝑚𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑇=
= 𝜌. 𝑉. 𝑔 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
= 𝜌. 𝜋𝑎2 . ℎ. 𝑔
Surface Tension,
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑎
𝑇=
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

111
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P11 Thermal Properties
Heat Capacity: Specific Heat Capacity: Molar Heat Capacity:
∆𝑄 ∆𝑄 ∆𝑄
𝑆= 𝐶= 𝑐=
∆𝑇 𝑚. ∆𝑇 𝜇. ∆𝑇
Heat required for a given amount Heat required for 1 kg of Heat required for 1 mole of
of substance to increase the substance to increase the substance to increase the
temperature by one kelvin or one temperature by one kelvin or one temperature by one kelvin or one
degree celcius. degree celcius. degree celcius.
Principle of Calorimetry or Law of mixtures: Heating Curve:

𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑚𝑐𝑢 𝐶𝑐𝑢 ∆𝑇𝑐𝑢 = 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 ∆𝑇𝑤
𝑚𝑐𝑢 𝐶𝑐𝑢 (𝑇𝑖,𝐶𝑢 − 𝑇𝑓 ) = 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑤 )
1 calorie = 4.2 J (energy required to raise 1g of water Temperature in macroscopic level is equivalent to
by 1o C) KE of molecules in microscopic level.
o
C + 273 = K Phase or State in macroscopic level is PE of
+ Water equivalent: molecules (separation of molecules) in microscopic
Mass of water that will give same result as the level.
substance considered. PE of gas = 0 as the interatomic distances are far
𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 ∆𝑇 away and there is no attraction between two gas
𝑚𝐶 molecules in ideal gases.
𝑚𝑤 = 𝐿𝑣 > 𝐿𝑓 because more energy required for pulling
𝐶𝑤
This is numerically equal to 𝑚 𝐶 when 𝐶𝑤 = 1 in the molecules apart to form liquid to gas as
calories. compared to solid to liquid.

Specific 𝑱𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 𝑪𝒂𝒍 𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 Latent 𝑱𝒈−𝟏 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑪𝒂𝒍 𝒈−𝟏
Heat Heat
𝑪𝒊𝒄𝒆 2.1 2100 0.5 𝑳𝒇 336 3.36 × 102 80
𝑪𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 4.2 4200 1.0 𝑳𝒗 2256 2.256 × 106 536
𝑪𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 2 2000 0.5 𝑳𝒔 2838 2.838 × 106 676
+ Saturation vapour pressure: + Continuity of liquid and gaseous phase:
Max pressure possible by water vapor at a given
temperature (beyond which it will condense and so
no pressure will increase)
Strong intermolecular force → low evaporation rate
→ low vapor pressure
Weak intermolecular force → high evaporation rate
→ high vapor pressure
Does not change by changes in volume. So as V
decreases, P remains the same. So gas laws are not Below critical temperature, gas can be liquefied by
applicable for saturated vapour pressure. applying pressure without decreasing temperature.
Condensation temperature of 100o C for steam to Until all gas is converted to liquid the pressure
water. remains the same. (at vapour pressure gas laws are
100o C steam is more dangerous than 100o C water not valid).
as steam has more latent heat energy in it than water. Gas to liquid is a continuous process.
(KE + high PE in steam)

112
Typed problem: Resulting mixture and
temperature: When ice, water, steam at different
temperatures are mixed, the resulting state or mixture
of state and its final equilibrium temperature depends
upon the heat content of each state.
e.g. 1g of ice and 1g of steam mixed will result in
what? 80 cal for 0oC ice to 0oC water + 100 cal for
0oC water to become 100oC water, so the total is 180
cal which is less than 536 cal contained in 100oC
steam to become 100oC water. So the part of the
steam turns to water by giving out 180 cal while the
remaining remains as steam. So 180/536 ~0.3 g of
steam turns to water at 100oC. So 1g+0.3g water and
0.7g steam at 100oC is the final resulting mixture. Or
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 1 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 0 deg 𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑚 𝐿𝑣 = 𝑚 𝐿𝑓 + 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇
𝑚 536 = (1𝑔) 80 + (1𝑔)(1)(100 − 0)
𝑚 536 = 180
180
𝑚= = 0.3𝑔
536
Another method that can be followed is to assume a
final state and take the final temp as 𝑇𝑓 and use the
usual 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 calculations to find the 𝑇𝑓 . If
the 𝑇𝑓 is outside the expected location in the heating
curve then the assumed final location in water or ice
or steam should be wrong.
Suppose 10 g of ice at 0o C mixed with 1 g of 100o C
water, then what is the resulting mixture and its
temperature?
Let us assume that the resulting mixture is water
between 0o and 100o C.
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 1𝑔 𝑜𝑓 100 deg 𝐶 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 10 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 0 deg 𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚 𝐿𝑓 + 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇
1𝑔 1 (100 − 𝑇𝑓 ) = 10𝑔 (80) + 10𝑔 1 (𝑇𝑓 − 0)
100 − 𝑇𝑓 = 800 + 10𝑇𝑓
𝑇𝑓 will be negative which is not correct. So
assumption that the final mixture will result in the
water region is wrong.

Let us assume that the resulting mixture is at ice +

water at 0o C. 𝑥 𝑔 of ice 0o C converted to water at 0o
C.
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 1𝑔 𝑜𝑓 100 deg 𝐶 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 0 deg 𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚 𝐿𝑓
1𝑔 1 (100 − 0) = 𝑥 80
𝑥 = 1.25 𝑔
This means 1.25 g of ice at 0o C got converted to 0o
C water. 1g of water at 100o C became 1g of water at
0o C. So the final mixture will be 1g + 1.25 g =2.25 g
of water at 0o C and 8.75g of ice at 0o C.
+ Accounting for heat transfer to the surroundings in experimental trials:
To account for heat lost or gained from the surroundings, the experiment trials should be done in two
different power settings.
Determination of Specific heat capacity C: ∆𝑇 Determination of Latent heat capacity L: Time 𝑡
kept constant in both trials, so that heat transfer rate kept constant in both trials, so that heat transfer to
to the surroundings is constant in both trials. Time the surroundings is constant in both trials.(since
taken will be different. temperature remains constant at melting point or
Power setting 1: 𝑄1 ± ℎ1 = 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇 boiling point)
𝑄1 ℎ1 ∆𝑇 Power setting P1: 𝑄1 ± ℎ = 𝑚1 𝐿
± =𝑚𝐶
𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑃1 . 𝑡 ± ℎ = 𝑚1 𝐿
Power by heater, heat transfer rate to surrounding,
rate of change in temperature. Power setting P2: 𝑄2 ± ℎ = 𝑚2 𝐿
Power setting 2: 𝑄 ± ℎ = 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇 𝑃2 . 𝑡 ± ℎ = 𝑚2 𝐿
2 2
𝑄2 ℎ2 ∆𝑇
± =𝑚𝐶 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ). 𝑡 = (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 ) 𝐿
𝑡2 𝑡2 𝑡2 Even if the time given is different, calculate one of
Heat loss or gain rate from surrounding is equal. So, the setting for the same time as the other.
ℎ1 ℎ2
=
𝑡1 𝑡2
Heat loss is –ve, Heat gain is +ve.

113
 Temperature Scale Calibration:
With two fixed points: Linear scale: +Faulty Thermometer calibration and correction:

As temperature changes pressure or resistance or For a temperature 59o C shown in the faulty
length of a mercury column changes. By measuring thermometer, what is the correct temperature?
and calibrating these quantities such as pressure, 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
resistance or length of mercury column, temperature
𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0 𝑋100 − 𝑋0
can be measured. = − −(1)
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝜃−0 100 − 0
𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0 𝑋100 − 𝑋0
𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0 𝑋100 − 𝑋0 = − −(2)
= 59 − 5 95 − 5
𝜃−0 100 − 0 Dividing equation 1 by 2, and solve for 𝜃,
𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0 𝜃 = 60𝑜 𝐶
𝜃= . 100
𝑋100 − 𝑋0

Thermocouple TC: With one fixed point: Triple point:

Working principle: Usually cold junction is the

reference temperature. Hot junction is the unkown
temperature to be measured. When they are
connected with dissimilar metals such as iron and
copper, an emf is generated proportional to the
difference in the temperature which is used to find
the unknown temperature. Triple point is the point where all the three phases or
Quick response because heat cpapcity less, meaning states co-exist.
temperature raises quickly with less heat. Used in For water,
engine testing laboratories. 𝑇𝑡𝑟 = 273.16 𝐾 = 0.01 𝑜 𝐶
𝑃𝑡𝑟 = 0.006 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Resistance thermometer: Triple point is independent of pressure, so it is
Working principle: As temperature increases, preferred over boiling and melting points.
resistance increases.
𝑋∝𝑇
Not preferred because of high heat capacity meaning 𝑋𝑡𝑟 ∝ 𝑇𝑡𝑟
more heat taken to rise temp and has slow response. 𝑋
𝑇= 𝑇
𝑋𝑡𝑟 𝑡𝑟
𝑋 can be any parameter such as resistance, pressure,
length of mercury column, voltage etc.
𝑃
𝑇= 273.16 𝐾
𝑃𝑡𝑟

114
Farenheit to Celcius convertion: Ideal gas or Pressure thermometer:
𝐹 − 32 𝐹 − 32 𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇
𝐶= =
9/5 1.8 𝑃∝𝑇
− 40 𝐶 = − 40𝑜 𝐹
𝑜 Gas thermometers are more sensitive than liquid
F can be greater, lower or equal to C value. thermometers. Gases expand more than the liquids.
Kelvin, 𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273 𝛼𝑔𝑎𝑠 > 𝛼𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Rankine, 𝑅 = 𝐹 + 460 𝛼 is the coefficient of thermal expansion.
Anomalous or peculiar behaviour of water: Survival of Aquatic life in freezing temperatures:

As top layers reach 4oC due to increased density it

Usually as temperature increases density decreases
and volume increases. But this is not so below 4o C
for water.
will sink. The lower layers will come to the top
layers and continue to do the same until the entire
pond is 4oC. As the top layers drop down further in
temp. the density is low so it will not sink, instead it
will float forming ice reaching 0oC or lower
temperatures while the lower layers remain at 4oC.
This makes aquatic life possible in the lower layer
even though the top layer is ice.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Coefficient of Linear Thermal Coefficient of Area Thermal Coefficient of Volume Thermal
Expansion: 𝜶𝒍 Expansion: 𝜶𝑨 Expansion: 𝜶𝑽

∆𝑙 ∆𝐴
= 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇 = 𝛼𝐴 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑉
𝑙 𝐴 = 𝛼𝑉 ∆𝑇
𝑙2 = 𝑙 + ∆𝑙 𝐴2 = 𝐴 + ∆𝐴 𝑉
𝑉2 = 𝑉 + ∆𝑉
𝑙2 = 𝑙(1 + 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇) 𝐴2 = 𝐴(1 + 𝛼𝐴 ∆𝑇)
𝑉2 = 𝑉(1 + 𝛼𝑉 ∆𝑇)
Similar to temp. coefficient of For Isotropic Solids, 𝛼𝐴 = 2𝛼𝑙 For Isotropic Solids, 𝛼𝑉 = 3𝛼𝑙
resistivity or resistance,
𝜌2 = 𝜌(1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑇) ∆𝐴 = (𝑙 + ∆𝑙)2 − 𝑙 2 ∆𝑉 = (𝑙 + ∆𝑙)3 − 𝑙 3
𝑅2 = 𝑅(1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑇) ∆𝐴 = 𝑙 2 + 2 𝑙 ∆𝑙 + (∆𝑙)2 − 𝑙 2 ∆𝑉 = 𝑙 3 + 3 𝑙 2 ∆𝑙 + 3 𝑙 (∆𝑙)2
∆𝐴 2 𝑙 ∆𝑙 + (∆𝑙)3 − 𝑙 3
1 = 2
For Ideal Gas, 𝛼𝑉 = 𝑇 𝐴 𝑙 ∆𝑉 3 𝑙 2 ∆𝑙
𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇 𝛼𝐴 ∆𝑇 = 2 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇 =
𝑉 𝑙3
𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅∆𝑇 𝛼𝐴 = 2 𝛼𝑙 𝛼𝑉 ∆𝑇 = 3 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
∆𝑉 ∆𝑇
= 𝛼𝑉 = 3 𝛼𝑙
𝑉 𝑇
∆𝑇
𝛼𝑉 ∆𝑇 =
𝑇 Note that some books use 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾
1
𝛼𝑉 = instead of 𝛼𝑙 , 𝛼𝐴 , 𝛼𝑉 .
𝑇

115
Bimetallic strip: Ring expansion due to heating:

If heated a ring will increase in size expanding out.

A common application is to heat the ring or bearing
α𝐶𝑢 > α𝐹𝑒 before inserting into the shaft for press fit.
Higher coefficient of thermal expansion for copper Circumference is what is increasing here by length
makes it bend in such a way that the length will expansion. Ring of diameter d is expanding to
increase as compared to iron. diameter D.
A common application for bimetallic strip is Δ𝑙
thermostat, to regulate temperature. = α𝑙 Δ𝑇
𝑙
π(𝐷 − 𝑑)
α𝐶𝑢 > α𝐴𝑙 > α𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 > α𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑧𝑒 = α𝑙 Δ𝑇
π𝐷
Heating the hole to expand or cooling the shaft to
contract is decided by the Δ𝑇 change in temperature
to be achieved and the energy required to achieve it.

Same is applicable for a hollow sphere,

when heated the inside cavity will
expand.
Apparent liquid expansion: Stress developed when heated:

𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
Δ𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑞. = Δ𝑉𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝 + Δ𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑝.𝑙𝑖𝑞. 𝐴
Δ𝑙 1
= 𝑌𝐴
Δ𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑞. Δ𝑉𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝 Δ𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑝.𝑙𝑖𝑞. 𝑙 𝐴
= + = 𝑌 α𝑙 Δ𝑇
𝑉 Δ𝑇 𝑉 Δ𝑇 𝑉 Δ𝑇 Note that stress is independent of length. 𝑌, α𝑙 are
𝑉 Δ𝑇 is same for all three. material properties. So,
𝛼𝑉 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝛼𝑉 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝 + 𝛼𝑉 𝑎𝑝𝑝.𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝛥𝑇
For spillage calculations only the apparent liquid
term is considered.
Rubber when heated increases in Y.
As temp. increases, agitation increases, coiling up
increases, so more difficult to uncoil, so Y increases.
So higher temperatures rubber contracts.

116
 Energy Transfer Modes
Conduction Convection Radiation
Heat transferred from one atom to
the other through atomic
vibrations in solids.

 All hot bodies emit IR Infra

Red radiation called Thermal
radiation.
Natural or Free Convection: Heat  It does not need a medium to
transferred in liquids and gases transfer heat as it uses EM
Heat conduction rate H, due to movement of molecules waves.
𝐴 which is caused by density  Black body is a good emitter
𝐻 = 𝐾 ∆𝑇 changes which is a slow process. and good absorber of heat.
𝐿
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇  White is good reflector. Bad
=𝐾𝐴 emitter and bad absorber.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝐿 Forced Convection: by forcing
K is the thermal conductivity of movement molecules at a high  Rough surface absorbs well
the material. rate to cause heat transfer which is and smooth surface reflects
a fast process. e.g. stirring, fan well.
This is analogous to current which blowing on a hot body to cool it.
is charge flow rate,
𝑉 𝑉 1 𝑉 𝑉
𝑖= = = 𝐴 =𝜎𝐴
𝑅 𝑙
𝜌𝐴 𝜌 𝑙 𝑙
𝜎 is the electrical conductivity.

117
 Effective Thermal Conductivity 𝑲𝒆𝒇𝒇. :
Junction Temp. 𝑻𝒋 : Series:

Heat transfer rate is same in a series connection, so

Heat transfer rate is same,
𝐻1 = 𝐻2
𝐻 = 𝐻1 = 𝐻2
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐾1 (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑗 ) = 𝐾2 (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇2 )
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝑇𝑗 can be found. 𝐾 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝐾1 (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑗 ) = 𝐾2 (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇2 )
2𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
Similar to 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2,
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑗 ) + (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑗 ) (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇2 )
= +
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝐾 𝐾
1= +
2𝐾1 2𝐾2
2 1 1
= +
𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝐾1 𝐾2
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Parallel: Typed problem: Thermal conductivity for series
and parallel:

∆𝑇 is same.
Similar to 𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 , Condutivity can be assumed to be opposite of
𝑘
𝐻 = 𝐻1 + 𝐻2 resistances. So series conductivity will become 2 for
𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝐴 = 𝐾1 𝐴1 + 𝐾2 𝐴2 𝑘
the upper arm and 2 for the lower arm. So the upper
A is Area of the effective conducting rod.
1 1 1 arm and lower arm in parallel connection so the
= + 𝑘 𝑘
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 conductivity is 2 + 2 = 𝑘.
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
Similar to electrical resistance, (𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝐵 ) = (𝑇 − 𝑇𝐷 )
𝑙 2𝑙 𝐵
𝑙
𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝜌𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝐴
1𝑙
𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚 =
𝐾𝐴

118
Newton’s Law of Cooling: Typical Problem:
Rate of cooling is proportional to the difference A body cools down from 100oC to 75oC in 2 min,
between the body temperature and the surrounding then how long does it take to cool from 75 oC to
temperature, 45oC?
∆𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
= −𝐾(𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. )
∆𝑡
25 100 + 75
= −𝐾 ( − 25) → 𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1
2 2
30 75 + 45
= −𝐾 ( − 25) → 𝐸𝑞𝑛. 2
𝑡 2
𝑡 can be found from above.

𝑑𝑄
− ∝ (𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
−𝑚𝑐 = 𝑘(𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
= −𝐾(𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
= −𝐾 𝑑𝑡
(𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. )
𝑑𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
∫ = −𝐾 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
(𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. )
log(𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. ) = −𝐾𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. = 𝑒 −𝐾𝑡+𝐶
𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. + 𝑒 −𝐾𝑡 . 𝐶′
Usually this law is applicable for smaller
temperature differences with the surroundings, say
less than 40oC.

119
 Radiation Definitions
Absorbtivity, Reflectivity, Transmittivity:
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 + 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 + 𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑎= , 𝑟= , 𝑡=
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
Opaque/Adiathermanous materials if 𝑡 = 0, then 𝑎 + 𝑟 = 1

Absorbtive Power 𝒂 : Emissive Power, 𝒆:

𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑒 Heat radiated per unit area, per unit time, for a
𝑎=
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 given temp.,
Also called as Absorbtivity. (Wm-2)
For black body 𝑎 = 1 ∆𝑄 1
𝑒=
∆𝑡 𝐴
Spectral absorbtive power: 𝒂𝝀 Spectral emissive power, 𝒆𝝀 :
𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 ∆𝑄 1
𝑎𝜆 = 𝑒𝜆 =
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑡 𝐴
It is absorbtive power for a particular wavelength 𝜆. It is emissive power for a particular wavelength 𝜆.
Total of all spectral absorbtive power adds up to Total of all spectral emissive power adds up to
absorbtive power. emissive power.
∞ ∞
𝑎 = ∫ 𝑎𝜆 . 𝑑𝜆 𝑒 = ∫ 𝑒𝜆 . 𝑑𝜆
0 0

Emissivity 𝜺: Perfect Black body:

𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑒 Perfect black body absorbs
𝜀= = all the energy incident on
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 it.
For a black body 𝜀 = 1 e.g. Ferry’s black body,
Wein’s black body.
Net Power Emitted:
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑

Solar Constant: Albedo:

S is the power per unit area received from the sun 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
near the surface of earth (above the atmosphere 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
measured from satellites to avoid energy loss to
atmosphere) 𝛼 = 0 for black body
𝑆 ≈ 1.366 𝑘𝑊 𝑚−2 𝛼 = 0.1 water, forest
Estimating Surface temperature of Sun: 𝛼 = 0.3 global Albedo
𝛼 = 0.3 𝑡𝑜 0.4 desert
𝛼 = 0.85 snow
This shows that black body is a perfect absorber and
snow is a good reflector.

Power radiated by the Sun = Power radiation

received by the orbital radius of earth sphere
𝜎 𝑇 4 . 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑆. 4𝜋𝑅 2
1 1
𝑆 4 𝑅 2
𝑇=( ) ( )
𝜎 𝑟

120
 Kirchoff’s Radiation Law: Wein’s Displacement Law:
At a given temp., ratio of emissive power to
absorbtive power is equal for all surfaces and is
equal to a constant which is emissive power of black
body at that temp.
𝑒1 𝑒2
= = ⋯ = 𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝑎1 𝑎2
Since e and a are proportional it implies a good
absorber is also good emitter or radiator.

1
𝜆𝑚 ∝
𝑇
𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑏
𝑏 = 2.898 × 10−3 𝑚. 𝐾
𝜆𝑚 is the wavelength which is emitted with
maximum intensity. Higher temperature leads to
higher energy, so higher frequency, so lower
wavelength.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law and its variants:

Stefan-Boltzmann law tells that the intensity of radiation emitted by a hot body at a given temperature is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∝ 𝑇4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
(𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝐸)
For black body 𝜀 = 1 , kept in 𝑃 𝑃 = 𝐴 𝜎 𝑇4
𝐼 = = 𝜎 𝑇4
vacuum, so 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 = 0 𝐴
For any hot body kept in vacuum, 𝑃 𝑃 = 𝐴 𝜀 𝜎 𝑇4
𝐼 = = 𝜀 𝜎 𝑇4
so 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 = 0 𝐴
For any hot body kept in a 𝑃 𝑃 = 𝐴 𝜀 𝜎(𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4 )
𝐼 = = 𝜀 𝜎 (𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4 )
surrounding 𝐴

𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −4

If 𝑇 > 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. then heat radiated is positive, from body to the surroundings.
If 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. then heat radiated is negative, from surroundings to the body.
If 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. then heat radiated is zero, so body and the surroundings are in equilibrium.
Radiation laws are mostly empirical in nature, meaning these laws are devised from experimental trials.

Steady state temperature means the temperature remains constant w.r.t time. Thermal equilibrium means the
body has the same temperature w.r.t different locations of the body.

121
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P12 Thermodynamics
Temperature vs. Heat: Thermal or Thermodynamic equilibrium:
Temperature is a measure of hotness. It determines The variables such as P, V, T are stabilized and does
the direction of heat energy flow. Heat flows from not change with respect to time. No energy flow
hotter body to colder body. from one system to another.
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics: Internal Energy:
If 𝑈 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐶 , As Temp. increases KE increases. In gases already
𝑇𝐵 = 𝑇𝐶 the molecules are farther away and 𝑃𝐸 ≈ 0. So
then, internal energy increase is only due to the KE
𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐵 increase.
meaning A and B are in thermal equilibrium.
P vs. V Indicator diagram: Net Work done:
= Work by system – Work on the system
𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

𝑉2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1
Area under the curve is work
done

Point function / State variable: Path function / Path variable:

Depends upon the state only. Internal energy U is Depends upon the path
determined by the P,V,T. taken. Work done W is
(+ Entropy, measure of disorder is also a point area under the curve so
function) path function.
This is similar to Conservative and Non-
Conservative force or fields.

Intensive property: Extensive property:

Independent of mass
Examples: Pressure P, Temperature T, Internal
energy per unit mass u, Density 𝜌
When a container with gas is separated with a
partition, the above values will not change between
the two sides of the partition.
Internal Energy U, can be increased by:
Giving Heat Q:
Temp. increases, KE increases,
Internal energy increases.
Q +ve when given in to the system
Q -ve when given out of the system
1st law of Thermodynamics:
When work is done by the system, 𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝑈
when work is done on the system 𝑄 − (−𝑊) = ∆𝑈, 𝑄 + 𝑊 = ∆𝑈
Dependent on mass
Examples: Volume V, Mass M, Internal energy U
When a container with gas is separated with a
partition, the above values will reduced in the two
sides of the partition.
Giving work W:
When work is done on the piston,
pressure increases, temperature
increases, internal energy increases.
W +ve when work is done by the
system
W -ve when work is done on the
system

Shown is the Sankey diagram.

122
Heat Engine e.g. car engine: Heat Pump e.g. refrigerator:
Efficiency, Coefficient of Performance
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊 COP,
𝜂= = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄2
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄1 𝛽= =
𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊
= 𝑄2
𝑄1 =
𝑄2 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
= 1−
𝑄1
𝑇2 𝑇2
𝜂 = 1− 𝛽=
𝑇1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
2nd Law of Thermodynamics: Kelvin-Planck 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: Clausius Statement:
Statement: All heat absorbed from reservoir cannot Heat can never flow from colder object to hotter
be converted to work. There will always be some object without giving some external work.
heat lost to sink. In other words efficiency of heat In other words COP can never be infinity.
engine can never be 100%.
First law of Thermodynamics applied to different Thermodynamic processes: 𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝑈
Cyclic process: ∆𝑈 = 0, 𝑄 = 𝑊
Isolated system: 𝑄 = 0, 𝑊 = 0, ∆𝑈 = 0
Isochoric process: ∆𝑉 = 0, 𝑊 = 0, 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 e.g. pressure cooker
Isothermal process: ∆𝑈 = 0, 𝑄 = 𝑊
Isobaric process: 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. , 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉, 𝑄 = 𝑃∆𝑉 + ∆𝑈
Adiabatic process: 𝑄 = 0, −𝑊 = ∆𝑈 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = −∆𝑈 , work on the system
increases the internal energy, work by the system decreases the internal
energy.
Specific heat capacity at const. Vol. Specific heat capacity at const. P
𝐶𝑣 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑘𝑔, 𝑐𝑣 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑘𝑔, 𝑐𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
∆𝑉 = 0, 𝑊 = 0, 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉,
∆𝑄 ∆𝑈 𝑄 = 𝑃∆𝑉 + ∆𝑈
=
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 Energy supplied is used to raise the
∆𝑈 internal energy and also to do work at
𝜇𝑐𝑣 = (𝑄 = 𝜇𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇)
∆𝑇 constant pressure.
Note that, 𝑐𝑣 < 𝑐𝑝 as some energy is ∆𝑄 𝑃∆𝑉 ∆𝑈
given for the work done in constant = +
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
pressure process, as opposed to no work 𝜇𝑐𝑝 = 𝜇𝑅 + 𝜇𝑐𝑣 (𝑄 = 𝜇𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇)
done in a constant volume process. 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅 Mayer’s relation.
Quasi static process: Non-Quasi static process:
Each point or state of Initial and final
the process is in states are in
thermodynamic thermodynamic
equilibrium (P, V, T equilibrium, but
are well defined) intermediate points
W is made up of very are not. (P, V, T
small weights 𝑑𝑤, which is removed in succession states cannot be well defined)
gradually. W, a large weight is removed at once.
It is a slow process. It is a fast process.
Reversible process: Irreversible process:
If initial state is restored by reversing the process. If initial state cannot be restored by reversing the
It must be quasi static. No dissipative effects such as process. It will be non-quasi static. Dissipative
friction, viscosity are present. So it is hypothetical. effects such as friction, viscosity are present. Most
e.g. small weights 𝑑𝑤, are put back in small practical processes are irreversible.
increments, state 1 is restored. e.g. when large weight W is put back at once, state 1
cannot be restored.
123
Work done by Isothermal process: Work done by Adiabatic process:
∆𝑈 = 0, 𝑄 = 𝑊 𝑐𝑝
𝑉2 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑘 𝛾 =
𝑐𝑣
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉
𝑉1
𝑑𝑉 𝑉 −𝛾+1 2
𝑉2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝛾
= 𝑘[ ]
𝑑𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉 −𝛾 + 1 𝑉
= 𝜇𝑅𝑇 ∫ 1

𝑉1 𝑉 𝑘 1 1
𝑉2 = [ 𝛾−1 − 𝛾−1 ]
1 − 𝛾 𝑉2 𝑉1
= 𝜇𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑉1 1 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝛾
𝑃1 𝑉1
𝛾
𝑃1 = [ − ]
𝑊 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇 ln 1 − 𝛾 𝑉2𝛾−1 𝑉1𝛾−1
𝑃2
1 𝜇𝑅
(from Boyle’s law 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2) 𝑊= [𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2 ] = [𝑇 − 𝑇2 ]
𝑃1 > 𝑃2 means W is +ve as ln 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 for x > 1. 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 1
𝑃1 < 𝑃2 means W is -ve as ln 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 for x < 1. = 𝜇𝑐𝑣 [𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ]
𝑇1 > 𝑇2 is W +ve so work done by the system.
Bulk Modulus and Compressibility: Isothermal Bulk Modulus and Compressibility: Adiabatic
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑃𝑉 γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
Differentiating, Differentiating,
𝑃. 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉. 𝑑𝑃 = 0 𝑃𝛾𝑉 𝛾−1 . 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉 𝛾 . 𝑑𝑃
𝑃. 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑉. 𝑑𝑃 =0
Slope of PV diagram, 𝑃𝛾. 𝑑𝑉 = − 𝑉. 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑃 𝑃 Slope of PV diagram,
=− 𝑑𝑃 𝛾𝑃
𝑑𝑉 𝑉
Bulk Modulus, =−
𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝑑𝑃 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝛾 × 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙
𝐵=− =𝑃
𝑑𝑉
𝑉 Bulk Modulus,
1 𝑑𝑃
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐵=− = 𝛾𝑃
𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
1
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝛾𝑃

𝐥𝐧 𝒙 , 𝒆𝒙 graphs: Adiabatic Relationships:

From Adiabatic relation,
𝑃𝑉 γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝐾1
From Ideal Gas Equation,
𝑃𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝐾2
𝑇
By eliminating P we get,
𝑃𝑉 γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝐾1
𝐾2 𝑇 γ
𝑉 = 𝐾1
𝑉
𝑉 γ−1 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
By eliminating V we get,
𝑃𝑉 γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝐾1
ln 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 for x > 1, and -ve for x < 1 𝐾2 𝑇 γ
𝑃( ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑃
𝑃1−γ 𝑇 γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.

124
 First law of Thermodynamics applied to: (Isobaric process)
Vaporization: Freezing:
Volume of liquid expands against the constant Volume of ice increases compared to the water. So
atmospheric pressure, some energy is used to do work is done against the atmospheric pressure. Here
work against the atmospheric pressure and most the ∆𝑈 is negative because heat is removed from the
energy is used to increase the PE of the molecules by water to reduce the internal energy. PE is decreased.
pulling them apart from each other. During phase 𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝑈
change process the KE is not changed only PE is 𝑄 − 𝑃∆𝑉 = ∆𝑈
increased, increasing the internal energy U. −𝑚𝐿𝑓 − 𝑃(𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑙 ) = ∆𝑈
𝑄 = 𝑃∆𝑉 + ∆𝑈 T is constant, so KE is same. PE decreases.
𝑚𝐿𝑣 = 𝑃(𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉𝑙 ) + ∆𝑈 𝑉𝑠 > 𝑉𝑙
When 1 cm3 of water evaporates it becomes 1471
cm3 of water vapour. 𝑉𝑔 ≫ 𝑉𝑙
Carnot Engine: Carnot Engine’s Efficiency:
𝑉2
𝑊1−2 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 ln = 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑉1
work done by the gas so +ve, Isothermal process so
∆𝑈 = 0, 𝑄 = 𝑊
𝜇𝑅
𝑊2−3 = [𝑇 − 𝑇2 ]
𝛾−1 1
work done by the gas so +ve.
𝑉4 𝑉3
𝑊3−4 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇2 ln = −𝜇𝑅𝑇2 ln
𝑉3 𝑉4
work done on gas so –ve.
𝜇𝑅
𝑊4−1 = [𝑇 − 𝑇1 ]
𝛾−1 2
work done on gas so –ve.
Net work
𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑊1−2−3−4 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 ln − 𝜇𝑅𝑇2 ln
𝑉1 𝑉4
𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 ln 𝑉1 − 𝜇𝑅𝑇2 ln 𝑉4
Hypothetical reversible engine with maximum 𝜂= =
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑉
efficiency when the following sequence is done. 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 ln 𝑉2
1
𝑇2
Isothermal Expansion: Heat should be absorbed 𝜂 = 1−
isothermally at 𝑇1 . 𝑇1
Adiabatic Expansion: System should come from 𝑇1 to From Adiabatic relationship,
γ−1 γ−1
𝑇2 adiabatically. 𝑉3 𝑇2 = 𝑉2 𝑇1
γ−1 γ−1
Isothermal Compression: Heat should be released 𝑉4 𝑇2 = 𝑉1 𝑇1
isothermally at 𝑇2 . we get,
Adiabatic Compression: System should come from 𝑉3 𝑉2
=
𝑇2 to 𝑇1 adiabatically. 𝑉4 𝑉1
𝑻
Practical application of 𝜼 = 𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐
𝟏
𝑇1 is the source temperature,
𝑇𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 < 𝑇𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝜂𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 < 𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝑇2 is the sink or atmospheric temperature,
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑦 > 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝜂ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑦 < 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑦

125
Carnot Theorem 1: Carnot Theorem 2:
Heat engine working between two temperatures 𝑇1 Efficiency of carnot engine is independent of the
and 𝑇2 cannot have efficiency more than that of the nature of the working substance.
carnot engine.
Proving Carnot Theorem 1: Proving Carnot Theorem 2:

A similar argument like what we did for proving

theorem 1 can be set up for two engines working in
different working substance. The final result will be
𝑊1 − 𝑊2 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄2 which is not possible
according to Kelvin-Planck statement of Second law
of thermodynamics.
So 𝜂𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1 > 𝜂𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2 is not
𝐸𝑖𝑟𝑟 irreversible engine, possible. So the efficiency of carnot engine is
𝑊1 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 independent of the working substance.
𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑣 reversible engine
𝑊2 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄3
Suppose if we assume,
.

𝑊1 𝑊2
𝜂𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣 > 𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑣 ⇒ > ⇒ 𝑊1 > 𝑊2 ⇒ 𝑄2 < 𝑄3
𝑄1 𝑄1

𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑣 is reversed now as it is a reversible engine,

meaning it acts as a heat pump. However the
magnitudes remains the same but the directions are
reversed.

Equivalent heat engine:

𝐸𝑖𝑟𝑟 + 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑣 , 𝑊1 − 𝑊2 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄2
From this we see all the heat energy 𝑄3 − 𝑄2 is
converted to 𝑊1 − 𝑊2 work output. Which is against
the Kelvin-Planck statement of Second law of
thermodynamics.
So 𝜂𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣 > 𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑣 is not possible. So the efficiency of
any irreversible engine can never be higher than that
of the reversible carnot engine.

126
Efficiency of Isobaric process: Constant pressure process Isobaric:
𝑊 𝑃Δ𝑉 µ𝑅Δ𝑇 Work done in Isobaric process,
η= = =
𝑄 𝑃Δ𝑉 + Δ𝑈 µ𝑅Δ𝑇 + µ𝑐𝑣 Δ𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = µ𝑅𝑇
𝑅 𝑃𝛥𝑉 + 𝑉 𝛥𝑃 = 𝜇𝑅 𝛥𝑇
η= 𝑃𝛥𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅 𝛥𝑇
𝑅 + 𝑐𝑣
𝑐𝑣
=1− 𝑄 − 𝑊 = Δ𝑈
𝑐𝑝
1 𝜇𝑐𝑝 𝛥𝑇 − 𝜇𝑅𝛥𝑇 = 𝜇𝑐𝑣 𝛥𝑇
η=1− for one mole,
γ
𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅
Mayer’s Relation.
From Mayer’s relation, for one mole, 𝑪𝒑 is in per unit mass, 𝒄𝒑 is in per unit mole,
𝑐𝑝 − 𝑅 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑄 𝑄
𝑃Δ𝑉 𝑐𝑝 = = 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑝
𝑐𝑝 − = 𝑐𝑣 𝜇 𝛥𝑇 𝛥𝑇
Δ𝑇 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑑𝑉 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅
𝑐𝑝 − 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑣
𝑑𝑇 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑝 − 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
𝑑𝑉
where 𝑑𝑇 is obtained by the equation of process. 𝑅
𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 =
𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
For one mole, For monoatomic gas and constant pressure
𝑛 process,
𝑄 = Δ𝑈 + 𝑊 = 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑃Δ𝑉
2 𝑄 = Δ𝑈 + 𝑊
n here is the total no. of degrees of freedom in 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅
translational and rotational modes. 5 3
𝑅 = 𝑅+𝑅
2 2
3 2
𝑄= 𝑄+ 𝑄
5 5
This means out the total energy Q provided, 3/5th
goes to temperature or internal energy increase and
the remaining 2/5th goes to work done.
Relation between 𝛈 and 𝛃 : Modulus of Elasticity or Bulk Modulus, Isobaric:
Efficiency of a Heat Engine η and Coefficient of
Performance COP of a Heat Pump β: Constant pressure so Δ𝑃 = 0,
𝑇2 𝑇2 −Δ𝑃
𝜂 =1− ; 𝛽 = 𝐵= =0
𝑇1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 Δ𝑉
1 𝑇1 1 η 𝑉
= −1= −1=
β 𝑇2 1−η 1−η
1−η
β=
η
Net Work: Net Work:

When the expansion work (work done by the system

or engine) is higher than the compression work
(work done on the system or engine) then the net
work is positive.

127
Temperature dependency of Pendulum clock:
Method 1: Method 2:
Clock faster means T reduced, clock slower means T
𝑙
increased 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑇 ′ is the new time period due to rise in temperature.
𝑔
𝑙 (1 + 𝛼 𝛥𝜃)
𝑇 ∝ 𝑙1/2 𝑇 ′ = 2𝜋√
T is time period, θ is temperature 𝑔
𝑑𝑇 1 𝑑𝑙 Using Binomial approximation
= 𝑘 𝑙 −1/2
𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 𝑙
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑙 −1/2 𝛼 𝑙 𝑇 ′ = 2𝜋√ (1 + 𝛼 𝛥𝜃)1⁄2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑙1/2 𝑔
Since,
𝑙 𝑙1
𝑇 ∝ √𝑙 𝑇 ′ = 2𝜋√ + 2𝜋√ 𝛼 𝛥𝜃
𝑑𝑇 𝑔 𝑔2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑇
𝑑𝜃 𝑙1
𝑇 ′ − 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝛼 𝛥𝜃
𝑔2
𝑑𝑇
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑇
𝑑𝜃
What is the increase in temperature of a gas when Velocity of the box vs. Vrms of the gas molecules:
the container is suddenly stopped?
When an insulated container
containing gas is moving with a
velocity v and is suddenly
stopped, the gas molecules will
hit the wall of the container.
This will increase the internal energy and therefore Box velocity doesn’t affect the vrms velocity of
the kinetic energy of the molecules. molecules as only the relative velocity between
𝑄 − 𝑊 = 𝛥𝑈 molecues and walls matters, hence P,V, T remain
𝑄 = 0 same.
−(−𝑊) = 𝛥𝑈
Work is done on the gas. So –ve. When temperatue of gas and walls are same,
𝑊 = 𝛥𝑈
Internal energy + ve means, it has increased.
𝐾𝐸 = 𝛥𝑈
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝜇𝑐𝑣 𝛥𝑇
2
1 𝑚
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑐 𝛥𝑇 there is no energy loss to walls. Whether molecules
2 𝑚𝑜 𝑣 do elastic or inelastic collisions, heat loss is again
1 𝑅
𝑚𝑜 𝑣 2 = 𝛥𝑇 absorbed by the gas. Due to this reason P and T
2 𝛾−1 remains constant.
𝑚𝑜 𝑣 2
𝛥𝑇 = (𝛾 − 1)
2𝑅
𝑚𝑜 is the molar mass.

128
 Equation of State Equation of Process
𝑛
𝑃𝑉 = µ𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (Polytropic process)
𝑃𝑉 γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (Adiabatic process)
𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (Boyle’s law)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑉
𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (Charle’s law)
is applicable for all processes 𝑇
𝑃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (Gay Lussac’s pressure Law)
𝑇
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (Hypothetical process)
𝑃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (Hypothetical process)
𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (Isobaric process)

Mixing of gases in two chambers: Free Expansion:

𝜇1 + 𝜇2 = 𝜇
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃𝑓 (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 ) Consider a two vessel system which is insulated. The
+ = gas is filled in one of the chamber and the other one
𝑅𝑇1 𝑅𝑇2 𝑅𝑇𝑓 is empty.
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑃𝑓 (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 ) Suddenly open the stopper.P halved as V is doubled.
𝑇𝑓 =
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇1 As there is no piston work, work done 𝑊 = 0
As the system is insulated, no heat transfer, 𝑄 = 0
Boyle’s law for two vessel, using the pressure energy Using 𝑄 − 𝑊 = Δ𝑈 implies Δ𝑈 = 0.
conservation, This means the temperature is constant.
𝑃1 𝑉1 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑃𝑓 (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )
𝑇1 𝑇2 (𝑃1 𝑉1 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 )
𝑇𝑓 =
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇1

Δ𝑄
Entropy formula: Δ𝑆 = 𝑇

Heating increases entropy, Cooling decreases entropy.

Lowest temperature reached in the laboratory is about 38 pico Kelvins. 0 K is impossible due to Nernst
heat theorem
Sudden process: If the process is done suddenly, it means the process is taking place very quickly that there
is no time for heat transfer, so it is taken as Adiabatic process.
Mechanical equivalent of heat: 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 4.2 𝐽
Mixing of two different gases:
Final pressure of mixture of two gases is given by 𝑝 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2
𝑝1 , 𝑝2 partial pressures are the pressure of individual gases at final volume and temperature.

129
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P13 Kinetic Theory of Gases
Basis of Kinetic theory of gases: John Dalton’s Atomic theory to explain laws of
 Gas consist of rapidly moving atoms or molecules. definite and multiple proportions obeyed by elements
 Interatomic forces (short range forces) significant when they combine into compounds.
for solids and liquids, but not for gases.So it can 1st law: Any given compound has a fixed proportion
be neglected for gases. by mass of its constituents. H2O,CO2
 It was developed by Maxwell, Boltzmann and 2nd law: When two elements form more than one
others. compound for a fixed mass of one element the
 It is very successful theory, gives molecular masses of other elements are in the ratio of small
interpretation of pressure and temperature of a integers. H2O : H2O2 1:2, CO : CO2 1:2
gas, consistent with gas laws, Avagadro’s To explain these laws Dalton suggested
hypothesis and correctly explains specific heat  Smallest constituents of elements are atoms.
capacities of many gases.  Atoms are identical but differ between
 Atomic size ~10-10 m = 1Å different elements.
Inter atomic Solid Liquid Gas They combine to form a molecule or compound
Distances ~ 2Å ~2Å ~10Å
 Mean free path is the distance a gas molecule can Gay Lussac’s law: when gases combine to form
travel without colliding ~ 1000Å another gas, their volumes are in the ratios of small
 Interatomic forces are long range attractive and integers.
short range repulsive . Avagadro’s law or hypothesis : All gases at same
V,T,P will have the same no. of molecules.(same as
saying same no. of moles). In other words, the molar
volume of any gas will be same in a given P and T.
Basics: Molar Volumes:
Mass Density, STP 0oC, 273K, 100kPa, Vmolar = 22.7L
𝑀 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 old STP 0oC, 273K, 101.325kPa, Vmolar = 22.4L
𝜌= = NTP 20oC, 293K, 101.325kPa, Vmolar = 24L
𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Number density, Using the ideal gas equation, volume for one mole of
𝑁 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 gas can be determined.
𝑛= =
𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
No. of moles, Universal gas const., R = 8.314 J mol-1 K-1
𝑀 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 Boltzmann const. KB = 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1
µ= =
𝑀𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 Avagadro’s number NA = 1 mol = 6.02 x 1023
𝑁 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 Atomic mass unit, 1 u = 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-27 kg,
µ= = ≈ mass of a proton ≈ mass of a neutron
𝑁𝐴 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜’𝑠 𝑁𝑜.
Gas Specific constant, Absolute or Kelvin Temperature, T = oC + 273
𝑅 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑅𝑠 = = Molar Mass calculation,
𝑀𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Boltzmann constant, 𝑀𝑜 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑁𝐴
𝑅 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. = 𝑥 𝑢 × 𝑁𝐴
𝐾𝐵 = = = 𝑥 × 1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 × 6.02 × 1023
𝑁𝐴 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜’𝑠 𝑁𝑜.
= 𝑥 × 1.66 × 10−27 × 103 𝑔 × 6.02 × 1023
=𝑥𝑔
This means the molar mass of a substance is nothing
but the mass number in grams.
Atom / Molecule Mass no. of atom Molecular Mass Molar Mass
𝐻 1 1u 1g
𝐻2 1 2u 2g
𝑁2 14 28u 28g
𝑂2 16 32u 32g
C 12 12u 12g
U 235 235u 235g

130
Boyle’s law: Charle’s law: Gay Lussac’s Pressure law:

when T is kept const. when P is kept const, when V is kept const.,

1 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇 𝑃 ∝ 𝑇
𝑃 ∝ 𝑉 𝑃
𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑇 𝑇

𝜃 is Celcius temp.
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
T is Absolute temp.
𝑉𝑜 𝑃𝑜
𝑉= 𝜃 + 𝑉𝑜 𝑃= 𝜃 + 𝑃𝑜
273.15 273.15
𝜃 𝜃
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 [1 + ] 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 [1 + ]
273.15 273.15
Ideal Gas Equation:
𝑃𝑉 = µ𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = µ𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = µ𝑅𝑇
𝑀 𝑁
𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
=𝑘 𝑀𝑜 𝑁𝐴
𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀𝑅𝑠 𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑀 𝑁
𝑃 = 𝑅𝑠 𝑇 𝑃 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑉 𝑉
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑠 𝑇 𝑃 = 𝑛𝐾𝐵 𝑇
Ideal gas vs. Real Gas: + Real gas equation, Vander waal’s equation of
Any gas that obeys gas laws and satisfies ideal gas state:
equation is called an ideal gas. 𝑎𝑛2
But in practice gases do not completely obey gas (𝑃 + 2 ) (𝑉 − 𝑛𝑏) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉
laws and ideal gas equation. It comes very close to n is the no. of moles, a and b are constants depending
ideal gas behavior only at low pressures, high on the gas. Note that for ideal gas a, b will be zero.
temperatures. These are called real gases.
Boyle’s temperature:
𝑎
𝑇𝐵 =
𝑅𝑏
Temperature beyond which real gas behaves like
ideal gas.

Critical parameters:
𝑎
𝑃𝑐 =
27𝑏 2
Reason for this is at high pressures the molecules are 𝑉𝑐 = 3𝑏
compressed and brought closer to each other, causing 8𝑎
𝑇𝑐 =
intermolecular forces of attraction and so deviation 27𝑅𝑏
from ideal gas behavior. 𝑃𝑐 𝑉𝑐 3
=
𝑅𝑇𝑐 8
Critical temperature is the maximum temperate
below which the gas can be liquefied just by
increasing the pressure alone.

131
Kinetic Theory Interpretation of Pressure of gas: Kinetic Theory Interpretation of Temperature of
gas:
1 2
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑛𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
3
1 𝑁 2
𝑃 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
3 𝑉
1 2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑁𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
3
1 2
𝜇𝑅𝑇 = 𝑚𝑁𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
Momentum of a molecule, 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 3
𝜇𝑅𝑇 1 2
Momentum after hitting the wall, 𝑝𝑓 = −𝑚𝑣𝑥 = 𝑚𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
×
Change in momentum, ∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = −2𝑚𝑣𝑥 𝑁 3 2
𝑁 𝑅 2 1 2
In time Δ𝑡 the molecules in the region shown with a 𝑇 = ( 𝑚𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )
𝑁𝐴 𝑁 3 2
length of 𝑣𝑥 Δ𝑡 will be hitting the wall. However only 𝑅 2
half of them will moving in the +ve direction and the 𝑇 = K.Emolecule
𝑁𝐴 3
other half will be moving in the –ve direction.
2
no. of molecules hitting the wall in time Δ𝑡, 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 = K.Emolecule
1 3
= 𝑣𝑥 Δ𝑡 𝐴 𝑛 3
2 K.Emolecule = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2
force K.E molecule ∝ 𝑇
𝑃ressure =
area K.Emolecule is microscopic, 𝑇 is macroscopic property
This important relation tells us that the internal
rate of change of momentum energy of the gas depends (PE=0, only KE) only
=
area upon temperature T and not on P, V and mass of
1 molecules.
2𝑚𝑣𝑥 ⋅ 2 𝑣𝑥 𝛥𝑡𝐴𝑛
𝛥𝑡 As temperature increases, K.Emolecule increases,
= internal energy of gas increases.
𝐴
= 𝑚𝑛𝑣𝑥 2 K.Emole = K.Emolecule × 𝑁𝐴
1 3
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑛𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 × 𝑁𝐴
3 2
1 𝑁 2 3
= 𝑚 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 K.Emole = 𝑅𝑇
3 𝑉 2
1𝑀 2 K.Etotal in a box = 𝑁 × K.Emolecule
= 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
3𝑉 K.Etotal in a box = 𝜇 × K.Emole
1 2 How to find the speed of molecules if temperature
𝑃 = ρ𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
3 is given?
As velocity increases, pressure of the gas 1 2
3
K.Emolecule = 𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
increases.As density increases, pressure increases. 2 2
e.g. speed of 𝑁2 molecules at room temperature
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2 270 𝐶, 𝑇 = 27 + 273 𝐾 = 300 𝐾
Assuming 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑧 m is mass of one molecule,
𝑣 2 = 3𝑣𝑥2 𝑀𝑁2 28𝑔 28 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔
𝑚= = =
2
1 2 𝑁𝐴 6.02 × 1023 6.02 × 1023
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑚 = 4.65 × 10 𝑘𝑔 −26
3
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the root mean square velocity. 1 2
3
𝑚𝑣 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑘 𝑇
1 2
2 2 2 𝐵
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 1
3 2 × 4.65 × 10−26 × 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
2 2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 3
3 = × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
2 2
𝑃= 𝐸 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 516 𝑚𝑠 −1
3
E is the energy per unit volume. Lighter the molecule, higher the speed

132
Velocity of gas molecules: + Maxwell’s Molecular speed Distribution law:
1 2
3
𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 2
RMS velocity,
3𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ =√
𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Most Propable speed,
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑚𝑝 = √ =√
𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Average Speed,
8 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 8 𝑅𝑇 Different molecules will have different speeds
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =√ =√ Maxwell found how many molecules will have the
𝜋 𝑚 𝜋 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 speed in the range of 𝑣 and 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 .
Note that 𝑣𝑚𝑝 < 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 < 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 3/2 2 −𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑣2
𝑁𝑣 = 4π𝑁 ( ) 𝑣 𝑒 2𝑅𝑇
molar mass 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 should be entered in kg and not in 2π𝑅𝑇
g. 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 3/2 2 −𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑣2
𝑁𝑣 = 4π𝑁 ( ) 𝑣 𝑒 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2π𝑘𝐵 𝑇
No atmosphere in moon: As temperature increases, 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 will shift towards
Day temperature of moon is 127 0C or 400 K, so right as shown in the graph for 900 K.
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 of gas is high due to temperature increase in Total no. of molecules in this velocity range 𝑣 and
surface of moon. Escape velocity of moon is 2.4 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣
km/s, 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 of molecules in a gas is so high, that it 𝑣2
escapes moon’s gravity. This is the reason for no 𝑁 = ∫ 𝑁𝑣 𝑑𝑣
atmosphere in moon. 𝑣1
Total number of molecules = Area under curve
Wave speed: 𝑣𝑚𝑝 : 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 : 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝐵 𝛾𝑃 𝛾𝑃𝑉 𝛾𝑚𝑅𝑠 𝑇 2𝑅𝑇 8𝑅𝑇 3𝑅𝑇

𝑣𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = √ = √ = √ =√ √ :√ :√
𝜌 𝜌 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 π𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

𝛾𝑅𝑇 8
= √𝛾𝑅𝑠 𝑇 = √ √2: √ : √3
𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 π
Wave speed in a medium should not be confused √2: √2.6: √3
with the 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 speed of the molecules.
Pressure due to one molecule: If internal energy U is doubled,T is doubled, so KE
𝐹 Δ𝑝 −2𝑚𝑢 will be doubled.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = =
𝐴 Δ𝑡 𝐴 Δ𝑡 𝐴
What is RMS (Root Mean Square)? Gas volume vs. Molecular volume:
Just like mean and median, RMS is a centering
technique in statistics.
Mean or Average RMS
1, 5, 3, 4, 2 12 , 52 , 32 , 42 , 22
15 1, 25, 9, 16, 4
𝑥̅ = =3 55 4
5 ̅̅̅
𝑥2 = = 11 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝑁 × 𝜋𝑟 3
5 3
Volume of the gas represents the volume of the
𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √̅̅̅𝑥 2 = √11 ≈ 3.31 container as the gas molecules are moving around
everywhere in the container.
Molecular volume refers to the total volume of the
molecules alone.

133
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures: Graham’s Law of Diffusion from kinetic theory:
If there is a mixture of two or more gases which are Rate of diffusion,
non-interacting, the total pressure exerted by the 1
gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of 𝑟∝
√𝑚
the gases in the same volume if other gases were not 𝑚 is molecular mass.
present. Kinetic theory gives,
𝑃 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + ⋯ 3
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures from Ideal Gas K.Emolecule = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2
Equation: For a given temperature, K.E is constant.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇 1
𝑃𝑉 = (𝜇1 + 𝜇2 + ⋯ )𝑅𝑇 𝑚𝑣 2 = const.
2
µ is total no. of moles given by 𝜇 = 𝜇1 + 𝜇2 + ⋯ 𝑘
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑣=
𝑃 = 𝜇1 + 𝜇2 +⋯ √𝑀
𝑉 𝑉 velocity of gas molecules will decide how quickly it
𝑃 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + ⋯ will diffuse. So, rate of diffusion is
1 1
𝑟∝𝑣∝ ∝
√𝑀 √𝜌
So, Graham’s law of diffusion is a consequence of
Kinetic theory.
If the temperature is changing then,
𝑟 ∝ 𝑣 ∝ √𝑇
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure from kinetic Mean Free Path:
theory:
1 2
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑛𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
3
1 1
= 𝑚1 𝑛1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑛2 𝑣22 + … .
3 3
2 1 2 1
= 𝑛1 [ 𝑚1 𝑣1 ] + 𝑛2 [ 𝑚2 𝑣22 ] + ⋯
2
3 2 3 2
K.E of a molecule is same for a given temperature no
matter what gas it is. (if mass is higher, velocity is
lower). no. of molecules close to a molecule that can collide
2 in time ∆𝑡 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑃 = K.Emolecule (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ ) = 𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣 ∆𝑡
3
2 3 Rate of collisions (no. of collisions in time ∆𝑡)
= × 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ ) 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
3 2 = = 𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣
= 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ ) 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑅𝑇 𝑁1 𝑁2 Time between two collisions also called as relaxation
= ( + +⋯) time,
𝑁𝐴 𝑉 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 𝑁1 𝑁2 1 1
= ( + +⋯) 𝜏= =
𝑉 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣
𝑅𝑇 Distance between two collisions, Mean free path,
= (𝜇 + 𝜇2 + ⋯ ) 1
𝑉 1 𝑙 = 𝑣 𝜏 = 𝑣.
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣
= 𝜇1 + 𝜇2 +⋯ 1
𝑉 𝑉 𝑙=
𝑃 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + ⋯ 𝑛 𝜋𝑑 2
1
more accurately, 𝑙 = 𝑛 𝜋𝑑2
√2
1
Collision frequency = 𝜏
𝑙
Time between collision = 𝑣
𝑑
Time of collision = 𝑣
d is the diameter of molecule

134
Law of Equipartition of Energy: For 1 mode of vibration = 𝐾𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟 + 𝑃𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟
In equilibrium, the total energy is equally 1 𝑑𝑦 2 1 2
distributed in all possible energy modes, with each = 𝑚 ( ) + 𝑘𝑦
1
2 𝑑𝑡 2
mode having an average energy equal to 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇. 1 1
= 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
Energy modes: 2 2
Translational modes,
1 1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑥2 𝑚𝑣𝑦2 𝑚𝑣𝑧2
2 2 2
Rotational modes,
1 1 1
𝐼𝑥 𝜔𝑥2 𝐼𝑦 𝜔𝑦2 𝐼 𝜔2
2 2 2 𝑧 𝑧

Mono Atomic Di / Linear Tri Tri Atomic Non Di Atomic with 1 Tri Atomic with f
e.g He, C Atomic Linear vibration mode vibration mode
e.g O2, N2, H2, CO2

𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
= 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡. = 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡.
+ 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟. + 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟. + 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟. + 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟. + 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟.
= 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 0 𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 2 𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 2 𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 3 𝑑𝑜𝑓
+ 0 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 0 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 0 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 1 𝑑𝑜𝑓 + 𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑓
𝐸= 𝐸=
1 1 1 1 1
𝐸 = 3 . 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸 = 5 . 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸 = 6 . 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 5. 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 6 . 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑓 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 2 2 2 2
3 5 𝑈 = 3𝑅𝑇 7 𝑈 = (3 + 𝑓)𝑅𝑇
𝑈 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑈 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑈 = 𝑅𝑇
2 2 2
𝑑𝑈 3 5 𝑐𝑣 = 3𝑅 7 𝑐𝑣 = (3 + 𝑓)𝑅
𝑐𝑣 = = 𝑅 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅
𝑑𝑇 2 2 2
5 7 𝑐𝑝 = 4𝑅 9 𝑐𝑝 = (4 + 𝑓)𝑅
𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑅
2 2 2
5 7 4 9 (4 + 𝑓)
𝛾 = = 1.67 𝛾 = = 1.4 𝛾 = = 1.33 𝛾 = = 1.28 𝛾=
3 5 3 7 (3 + 𝑓)
2 2 2 2 2
∗ 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑈 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑈 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑈 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑈 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑈
3 3 3 3 3
 𝐸, 𝐾𝐵  per molecule, 𝑈, 𝑅  per mole, Mayer’s relation 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅 (per mole)
 ∗ Because only linear momentum (translational part) of molecules contribute to the pressure on the
2 2
walls, not the rotational or vibrational modes. 𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇 3 𝑈, for 1 mole, 𝑃𝑉 = 3 𝑈
 𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 × 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑈𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
 For solids only vibration mode (Spring ball model) considered and for gases translational and
rotational modes considered.
 If temperature T is same only KE of the molecule will be same for all gases. But the internal energy
U will be different for different gases depending upon mono, di or tri atomic molecule.

135
Predicting 𝑪𝒗 for solids using Law of 𝒄𝒑 in terms of 𝜸, 𝑹:
Equipartition of energy: 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅
solids so 0 translational, 0 rotational, 3 dof 𝑐𝑝 𝑐𝑣 𝑅
vibrational mode, − =
𝑐𝑝 𝑐𝑝 𝑐𝑝
𝐸 = 3𝐾𝐵 𝑇 1 𝑅
𝑈 = 3𝑅 𝑇 1− =
𝛾 𝑐𝑝
𝑐𝑣 = 3𝑅 𝛾
for water assuming like solid, 3 atoms in a water 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑅
molecule so, 𝛾−1
𝑐𝑣 = 9𝑅 𝒄𝒗 in terms of 𝜸, 𝑹:
𝑐𝑣 = 9 × 8.314 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅
For water, 𝑐𝑝 𝑐𝑣 𝑅
− =
𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 18 𝑔 𝑐𝑣 𝑐𝑣 𝑐𝑣
𝑅
𝛾−1=
9 × 8.314 𝑐𝑣
𝐶𝑣 = = 4.15 𝐽 𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 𝑅
18 𝑐𝑣 =
which is very close to the experimental value, 𝛾−1
4.2 𝐽 𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
For gas mixtures:
𝜇1 𝑐𝑝1 + 𝜇2 𝑐𝑝2
𝑐𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
Molar mass of gas mixture, 𝜇1 + 𝜇2
𝜇1 𝑚1 + 𝜇2 𝑚2 𝜇1 𝑐𝑣1 + 𝜇2 𝑐𝑣2
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝜇1 + 𝜇2 𝜇1 + 𝜇2

In air, N2 4/5 parts and O2 is 1/5 parts 𝑐𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑥

4 1 𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
. 28 + . 32 𝑐𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑥
𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 5 5 = 28.8 𝑔
4 1 𝜇1 𝑐𝑝1 + 𝜇2 𝑐𝑝2
+
5 5 𝜇 +𝜇
For air ρ = 1.29𝑘𝑔 𝑚 , −3
= 𝜇 𝑐 1 + 𝜇2 𝑐
1 𝑣1 2 𝑣2
γ = 1.4 𝑁2 , 𝑂2 both diatomic 𝜇1 + 𝜇2
no. of moles conserved, 𝛾1 𝛾2
𝜇1 𝛾 − 𝑅 + 𝜇2 𝛾 −
𝜇 = 𝜇1 + 𝜇2 1 1 2 1𝑅
=
𝑅 𝑅
Mixing of gases, final temperature of mixture, 𝜇1 𝛾 − 1 + 𝜇2 𝛾 − 1
1 2
Energy before = Energy after
𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜇1 𝛾1 (𝛾2 − 1) + 𝜇2 𝛾2 (𝛾1 − 1)
3 3 3 𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝜇1 𝑅𝑇1 + 𝜇2 𝑅𝑇2 = 𝑅 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 (𝜇1 + 𝜇2 ) 𝜇1 (𝛾2 − 1) + 𝜇2 (𝛾1 − 1)
2 2 2
3 3 When gases mix, if V is same for each constituent
𝑅(𝜇1 𝑇1 + 𝜇2 𝑇2 ) = 𝑅(𝜇1 + 𝜇2 ) 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥
2 2 gases and the final volume is also V then the
𝜇1 𝑇1 + 𝜇2 𝑇2 pressures are partial pressures.
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝜇1 + 𝜇2 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + …
Saturation Vapour Pressure: Law of atmospheres for gradually varying
Maximum pressure possible by water vapour at a density:
given temperature, beyond which it will condense, so 𝑚𝑔(ℎ2 −ℎ1 )
−
𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
no pressure increases further. It does not follow gas 2 1
laws. 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 are number density at heights ℎ1 , ℎ2
If pressure is 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 . If volume is halved
then the pressure will be 2𝑃 + 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 .

136
No. of molecules vs. Temperature:

As the gas is heated with a opening in the container,

the molecules leak out. The pressure and the volume
remains the same for the gas remaining in the
container.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇
1
𝜇∝
𝑇
As T increases, v increases, so rate of diffusion
increases, so more molecules escape out.

137
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P14 Oscillations
Displacement, 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙),
𝜙 is the initial phase angle.

2𝜋
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝜈
𝑇

𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 or 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
Velocity, 𝑣 = 𝐴𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
= 𝐴𝜔√1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
= 𝐴𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡)
𝑣 = 𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝑦 2
At extreme position, 𝑦 = 𝐴, so 𝑣 = 0.
At mean position, 𝑦 = 0, so 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝜔
Maximum velocity will be at the mean position.
𝑑𝑦
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡 Suppose velocity is given by,
𝑣 = 𝐴𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 or 𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑣 2 = 144 − 9𝑥 2
𝑣 2 = 9(16 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑣 2 = 32 (42 − 𝑥 2 )
So 𝐴 = 4, 𝜔 = 3

Rearranging the above,

𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑦 2 )
𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 𝐴2 − 𝜔2 𝑦 2
𝑣2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝐴2 𝜔 2 𝐴2
This is of the general form of ellipse. So the 𝑣, 𝑦 plot
velocity vs. displacement will be elliptical in shape.
Acceleration, Characteristic equation of SHM:
Simple Harmonic Motion.
𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ − 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝜔2

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑎= = ( )= 2 𝐹 = −𝑚𝜔2 𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 or 𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 In differential equation form,
𝑑2𝑦
+ 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑎 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜔=√ =√
𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

138
 SHM as Circular Motion:
When a circular motion is projected on the x axis as shown, an oscillatory SHM will be
observed on the screen. Radius of circle = A amplitude of SHM

Direction of rotation: CCW

Direction of rotation: CW

Note:
When time t=0, initial position starting from Mean position gives sine curve and starting from Extreme
position gives cosine curve.
As the direction of rotation changes, the sine curve flips, 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝜃) = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, whereas the cosine curve
remains same. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃.
Examples for Initial Phase Angle:

For CCW is +ve, CW is –ve.

139
PE, KE TE: Average PE, Average KE:
1 1 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 [ ]
2 2 2
1 1 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 [ ]
2 2 2

1
∫ 2 𝑘𝑦 2
𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑃𝐸 =
𝑇
1 1 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡
= ∫ 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 [ ] . 𝑑𝑡
In this case considered, the PE is a sine squared 𝑇 2 2
1 1
curve and KE is a cosine squared curve. = . 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
𝑇𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 2 2
1 1
= 𝑘𝑦 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2 1
2 2 ∫ 2 𝑚𝑣 2
1 1 𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝐾𝐸 =
= 𝑚𝜔 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡
2 2 𝑇
2 2 1 1 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡
1 = ∫ 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 [ ] . 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔 𝐴 2 2 𝑇 2 2
2 1 1
Energy of oscillating body,TE is a constant. = . 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
2 2
𝑇𝐸 = 2𝜋 2 𝑚𝜈 2 𝐴2
𝑇𝐸 ∝ 𝜈 2 𝐴2 PE, KE, TE vs. Displacement position:
Intensity,
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐼= = ∝ 𝜈 2 𝐴2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Another method:
𝑇𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸
1 1
= 𝑘𝑦 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
1
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑦 2
2 Extreme position: 𝐾𝐸 = 0, 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇𝐸
1
+ 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑦 2 ) Mean position: 𝑃𝐸 = 0, 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇𝐸
2
1
𝑇𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 From potential energy concepts we know that,
2 𝑑𝑈
𝐹=−
𝑑𝑥
Time and location for different KE values:
𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇𝐸 3 3 1 1 𝐾𝐸 = 0
𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇𝐸 𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇𝐸
4 4 2 2
1 1 1 1
𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 = 0
2 2 2 2
1 3 1 1 1
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 = . 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 = . 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
2 4 2 2 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑡= 𝑡= 𝑡=
𝑡=0 12 8 4
1 1 1 1 1
𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑦 2 ) = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑦 2 ) = 0
2 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 1
= . 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 = . 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
4 2 2 2
𝐴 𝐴 𝑦=𝐴
𝑦=0 𝑦= 𝑦=
Mean position 2 √2 Extreme position.
Half of the maximum 𝑇𝐸
Here 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸 = 2
displacement.

140
Damped Oscillations: Forced Oscillations:

A mass attached to a spring undergoing damped External periodic force,

oscillations due to the air medium which acts as the 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐹𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
damping medium. 𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Spring force, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑠 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑑 + 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥⃗ −𝑘𝑥⃗(𝑡) − 𝑏𝑣⃗(𝑡) + 𝐹⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎⃗(𝑡)
𝑘 is the spring constant. 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Damping force, 𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑑 = −𝑏𝑣⃗ Solving this differential equation,
b is damping constant. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐹𝑜
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴′ =
𝐹𝑠 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑑 = 𝑚𝑎⃗ √𝑚2 (𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑑2 )2 + 𝜔𝑑2 𝑏 2
−𝑘𝑥⃗(𝑡) − 𝑏𝑣⃗(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎⃗(𝑡) 𝑣𝑜
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 tan 𝜙 = −
𝜔𝑑 𝑥𝑜
𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Solving this differential equation, Special cases:
𝑏
− 𝑡 ′ i) when no damping, are very less damping 𝑏 =
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙)
2𝑚
0
Amplitude is not a const. but a function of time, ii) when driving frequency matches the natural
exponentially decreasing seen in the above graph. frequency, 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔, maximum amplitude
𝑘 𝑏 2 occurs called Resonance.
𝜔′ = √ −( )
𝑚 2𝑚
Special case:
where there is no damping medium, 𝑏 = 0, so
𝑘
𝜔=√
𝑚
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 𝐴
the system will be undamped oscillation.
Mechanical Total Energy,
2
1 𝑏
𝑇𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴 𝑒 −2𝑚𝑡 )
2
Average life of damped oscillations:
The time taken for the initial amplitude to drop to a
1
factor of 𝑒, which is 36.8% or a drop of 63.2% is
taken as the average life 𝜏. After this time the
amplitude is considered insignificant.
This is similar to
radioactive decay
curve.

1 𝑁0
𝜏= 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑁=
𝜆 𝑒

141
Horizontal Spring: Vertical Spring: Inclined Spring:

𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
At equilibrium position, At equilibrium position,
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘ℎ 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 𝑘ℎ
𝑘 At extended position, At extended position,
𝑎=− 𝑥 𝑚𝑎 = −(𝑘(ℎ + 𝑥) − 𝑚𝑔) 𝑚𝑎 = −(𝑘(ℎ + 𝑥) − 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ)
𝑚 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑦 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑦 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑦
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝜔=√ 𝜔=√ 𝜔=√
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
Note that this is independent of
gravity.
Series spring: Parallel spring: Two masses:
1 Imagine each mass is effectively
𝑘𝛼 𝑙
𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 working only with half length of
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 −𝑘𝑥 = −𝑘1 𝑥 + −𝑘2 𝑥 the spring. 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓. = 2𝑘
= +
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
1 1 1
= + Or
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2
Reduced mass,
1 1 1
= +
𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑚1 𝑚2
Mass of the Spring: Energy stored in the vertical GPE to KE to EPE:
Usually the mass of the spring is spring: Gravitational
negligible compared to the From the equilibrium position, potential energy
attached mass 𝑚. If the spring Work done = Energy stored in to Kinetic
mass M is significant then, spring Energy to
𝑀 1 Elastic potential
𝑚𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑚 + 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 2 energy.
3 2
1 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 = 𝐸𝑃𝐸
𝑚𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 2 1
2
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑘𝐴2
2
Typed Problem: Long spring cut into two pieces:
For the same spring of length 𝑙, if When a long spring is cut into two
two different forces 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 cause pieces, their spring constant will
extensions of 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , and 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 are be, since
the final lengths then, 1 𝑘1 𝑙2
𝑘∝ ⇒ =
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) 𝑙 𝑘2 𝑙1
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑘([𝑙2 − 𝑙] − [𝑙1 − 𝑙]) 𝑘1 𝑙1 + 𝑙2
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑘(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 ) =
𝑘 𝑙1

142
Vertical SHM of a platform: Movable pulley with spring:

When a loose block is kept on a platform which is Fixed pulley: is used to change force applied
undergoing vertical SHM due to a spring, 𝑚𝑔 of direction.
block is always acting downwards, while the pseudo Movable pulley:
force on the block keeps changing the direction as it i. Force is halved
is opposite to the force on the spring which is ii. Displacement at the effort point is doubled
determined by −𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 (as it is SHM the force is compared to mass.
opposite to the displacement from the mean (Law of conservation of energy valid, as force
position). decreases displacement increases to keep the work
Below the mean position the 𝑚𝑔 and 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 are done same)
acting downwards so both of them add up sticking Restoring force,
the block to the platform. 𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥
𝑚
While above the mean position 𝑚𝑔 and 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 are 𝑎 = − 𝑘 2𝑥
acting in opposite directions and when, 2
4𝑘
𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 > 𝐹𝑔 𝑎=− 𝑥
𝑚
𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 > 𝑚𝑔 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
then the block looses contact with the platform.
*Pseudo force is always opposite to the force F, not 4𝑘
𝜔=√
opposite to the motion direction (velocity) e.g. in 𝑚
braking situation motion is forward, braking force
backwards and pseudo force on the passenger is
forward.
Horizontal SHM of a platform: Unsymmetric Oscillation:

The loose block will oscillate along with the 𝑇1 𝑇2

platform to begin with. The frictional force between 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = +
2 2
the platform and the block keeps the block move 𝑇1 is the time period of oscillation on the left side
along with the platform. However as the acceleration and 𝑇2 for the right side.
of the platform increases, the pseudo acceleration on 𝑇
the block also increases. When the pseudo force on 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = + 2𝑡
2
the block is higher than the fricitional force, the 𝑇 – time period of original full oscillation
block will start sliding away from the platform. t – time taken for the mass to reach 5 cm
𝐹𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜 > 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐. 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑚𝑎 > 𝜇𝑁 5 = 10 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 > 𝜇𝑚𝑔
𝑘 2𝜋
𝜔=√ =
𝑚 𝑇
From 𝜔 and 𝑇, t can be found.

143
Ball attached to multiple springs: Wooden plank attached to multiple springs:

By sector formula,
𝑥1 = 𝑙1 θ
𝑥2 = 𝑙2 𝜃
𝐹1 = 𝑘1 𝑥1 = 𝑘1 𝑙1 θ
𝐹2 = 𝑘2 𝑥2 = 𝑘2 𝑙2 θ
Restoring torque,
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 = −(𝐹1 𝑙1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝐹2 𝑙2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝐼α = −(𝑘1 𝑙12 θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ + 𝑘2 𝑙22 θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ)
By cosine law,
𝐴𝑠 𝜃 → 0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 → 1
𝑙2 = √𝑙 2 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠(900 + 𝜃2 ) 𝑘1 𝑙12 + 𝑘2 𝑙22
𝛼=− 𝜃
𝐼
Extension, 𝛼 = −𝜔 𝜃 2
2 2 0
𝑙2 − 𝑙 = √𝑙 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠(90 + 𝜃2 − 𝑙 )
Ignoring higher order terms and binomial 𝑘 𝑙 2 + 𝑘2 𝑙22 𝑚𝑙22
𝜔 = √ 11 , 𝐼 =
approximation, 𝐼 3
2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
= 𝑙√1 + −𝑙
𝑙
𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
= 𝑙 (1 + )−𝑙
𝑙
= 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 = 𝑘2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 = 𝑘1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1
𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 = 𝑘3 𝑥
𝐹
Restoring force,
𝐹⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗3
𝐹2 + 𝐹
vertically upwards so,
𝐹1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1
= (𝑘1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1
= 𝑘1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1
usually 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 , 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 symmetric means restoring
force,
𝐹⃗ = 𝑘1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 × 2 + 𝑘3 𝑥
𝑚𝑎 = −(𝑘1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 × 2 + 𝑘3 )𝑥
(𝑘1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 × 2 + 𝑘3 )
𝑎=− 𝑥
𝑚
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
So 𝜔 can be found.

144
Simple pendulum: Simple pendulum using Spring constant concept:
Restoring torque, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑙 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 𝑘𝑙θ
2
𝑚𝑙 𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔𝜃𝑙 𝑚𝑔
𝑔 𝑘=
𝛼=− 𝜃 𝑙
𝑙 𝑘 𝑔
𝑔 𝜔=√ =√
𝜔=√ 𝑚 𝑙
𝑙
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= 𝑇=
𝜔 𝜔
𝑙 𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔 𝑔
Seconds pendulum is one which has T = 2s, on 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
If θ is large then, 𝑘 = 𝑙θ then θ < 1 implies
earth’s surface its length L=1m.
T is more than what is estimated in the above
approximation method.
Conical pendulum:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ =
𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ 𝑣 2
𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ =
𝑔 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
𝑔𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 θ
𝑣=√
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ

2𝜋𝑟 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑇= = 2𝜋√
𝑣 𝑔

Infinite Length pendulum: Bowl and Ball:

When the length of the pendulum is very large as
compared to the radius of earth, then the
gravitational force will act towards the center of the
earth as shown and not just vertical as in the simple
pendulum assumptions.
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 sin(𝜃 + 𝜙) 𝑙
𝑚𝑙 2 𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔(𝜃 + 𝜙)𝑙 Restoring torque,
𝑔 𝑙𝜃
𝛼 = − (𝜃 + ) 𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (𝑅 − 𝑟)
𝑙 𝑅 𝑚(𝑅 − 𝑟)2 𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔𝜃 (𝑅 − 𝑟)
𝑙𝜃 = 𝑅𝜙
1 1 𝑔
𝛼 = −𝑔 ( + ) 𝜃 𝜔=√
𝑙 𝑅 𝑅−𝑟
1 1 𝑅 − 𝑟 is similar to the length term 𝑙 in the pendulum.
𝜔 = √𝑔 ( + )
𝑙 𝑅

145
Pendulum with another Force:
Charged pendulum in Vertical Electric field: Charged pendulum in Horizontal Electric field:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹𝐸 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑞𝐸
𝑎=
𝑚 𝑞𝐸 2
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √𝑔2 + ( )
𝑚
𝑞𝐸
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔 −
𝑚
Pendulum inside an Accelerating lift: Pendulum inside an Accelerating vehicle:

𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝜔=√
𝑙

𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔 + 𝑎 … . . 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔 − 𝑎 … . . 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0 … . . 𝑖𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √𝑔2 + 𝑎2
Accelerating lift gives force to the lift, but the ball in If vehicle is accelerating around a circle then the
the lift experiences a pseudo force in the opposite centripetal acceleration is,
direction, 𝑚𝑎, that with the gravitational force gives, 𝑣2
𝑚𝑎 ± 𝑚𝑔. 𝑎=
A satellite is a free falling scenario, so, 𝑅
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0, 𝜔 = 0, 𝑇 = ∞
Pendulum immersed in a liquid: Pendulum in a box sliding in an inclined plane:

𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓
By Archimedes principle, buoyancy force or upward
thrust force is the weight of the liquid displaced by = √𝑔2 + 𝑔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 + 2𝑔 ⋅ 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 + 900 )
the body. 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √𝑔2 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 α)
𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝑉𝑔 = 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝜔=√
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔 (1 − ) 𝑙
𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗

146
Floating cork: U-tube:

𝑦
When the cork is given a tap on the top, it oscillates
up and down. Restoring force is due to the extra Restoring force,
upward thrust force, 𝐹 = −𝑚𝑙 𝑔
𝐹 = −𝑚𝑙 𝑔 𝑚𝑎 = −𝜌𝑉𝑔
𝑚𝑎 = −𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝑉𝑔 𝜌 𝐴 2ℎ 𝑎 = −𝜌 𝐴 2𝑦 𝑔
𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝐴𝐿 𝑎 = −𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝐴𝑦 𝑔 𝑔
𝜔=√
ℎ
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝑔
𝜔=√
𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑙
Compression cylinder, Isothermal process Compression cylinder with piston mass m,
assumed: Adiabatic process assumed:
Horizontal or vertical, gravity ignored.
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃1 (𝐴𝑥𝑜 )𝛾 = 𝑃2 (𝐴(𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥))𝛾
𝛾
𝑥𝑜
𝑃2 = 𝑃1
(𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥)𝛾
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 (𝑉1 − 𝐴𝑦)
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃1 𝐴𝑦 Since 𝑥 ≪ 𝑥𝑜 by Binomial
𝛥𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = − 𝑃1 = approximation,
(𝑉1 − 𝐴𝑦) 𝑉 𝛾
𝑥𝑜
Here 𝑦 term is neglected in the denominator. 𝑃2 = 𝑃1
𝛾 𝑥 𝛾
Restoring force, 𝑥𝑜 [1 − 𝑥 ]
𝑜
𝑚𝑎 = −𝛥𝑃 𝐴 𝑥 −𝛾 𝛾𝑥
𝑃𝐴𝑦 = 𝑃1 [1 − ] = 𝑃1 [1 + ]
𝑚𝑎 = − 𝐴 𝑥𝑜 𝑥𝑜
𝑉 𝛾𝑥
∆𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝑃1
𝑃𝐴2 𝑥𝑜
𝜔=√ Restoring force,
𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝛾𝐴
𝑚𝑎 = −∆𝑃. 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑎 = − 𝑥
𝑥𝑜 𝑚
𝑃𝛾𝐴 𝑃𝛾𝐴2
𝜔=√ =√
𝑥𝑜 𝑚 𝑉𝑚
Torsional pendulum: Elastic wire:
Restoring torque,
𝐼𝛼 = −𝐶𝜃 𝐹𝑙
𝐶 𝑌=
𝛼= − 𝜃 𝐴𝛥𝑙
𝐼 𝑌𝐴
𝐹=− 𝛥𝑙
𝑙
𝐶 𝑌𝐴
𝜔=√ 𝑚𝑎 = − 𝛥𝑙
𝐼 𝑙
𝑌𝐴
𝜔=√
𝑙𝑚

147
+ Inertial Mass 𝒎𝒊 vs. Gravitational Mass 𝒎𝒈 : Tunnel through earth:
In a pendulum,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑎
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑚𝑖 𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑔 𝜃 4𝜋𝑅 3
𝑥 𝑀
= 3 𝜌
𝑚𝑖 𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑔 𝑀′ 4𝜋𝑟 3
𝑙
𝑚𝑔 𝑔 3 𝜌
𝑎=− 𝑥
𝑚𝑖 𝑙
𝑚𝑔 𝑔
𝜔=√
𝑚𝑖 𝑙
Refer to definition of inertial mass and gravitational 𝑚 is the mass of the oscillating body.
mass in 11P08 Gravitation.
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔′ cos 𝜃
′
𝑀 is the mass of the core, 𝑀 is the mass of earth,
𝑟 is the radius of the core, 𝑅 is the radius of earth.
𝐺𝑀′ 𝑦
𝑎= − 2
𝑟 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑟 3 𝑦
𝑎= −
𝑅3 𝑟 2𝑟
𝑔
𝑎= − 𝑦
𝑅
𝑔
𝜔=√
𝑅
Magnetic needle in external magnetic field: SHM of current carrying conductors kept
vertical:

𝜏= 𝑚𝑋𝐵
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝐵 sin 𝜃 Since opposite currents repel each other,
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝐵𝜃 at equilibrium,
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝐵 2𝑖1 𝑖2
𝜔=√ 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘
𝐼 𝑑
Restoring force,
2𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘
(𝑑 − 𝑦)
2𝑖1 𝑖2 1 𝑔𝑑 𝑔
𝑎 =𝑔−𝑘 =𝑔− =− 𝑦
(𝑑 − 𝑦) 𝑚 𝑑−𝑦 𝑑−𝑦
Since 𝑑 ≫ 𝑦,
𝑔
𝑎=− 𝑦
𝑑
𝑔
𝜔=√
𝑑

148
Liquid column oscillating inside the glass tube: Ball oscillating inside a liquid column of varying
density:
𝜌0
𝜌𝑙 = (𝛼 + 𝛽ℎ)
2
At equilibrium,
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑙 𝑔
𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑉 𝑔

𝜌0 𝑚
𝑚𝑔 = (𝛼 + 𝛽ℎ0 ) 𝑔
2 𝜌0
𝑥 = 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ1 𝛼 + 𝛽ℎ0 = 2
𝑦 = 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ2 When the ball is displaced by a small distance 𝑥,
𝑙 will be same on both sides, but 𝑥, and 𝑦 will be Restoring force,
different,
𝑚𝑎 = −(𝜌𝑙 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑜 +𝑥 𝑉 𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔)
𝑚𝑎 = − 𝑚𝑙 𝑔 𝜌0 𝑚
𝑚𝑎 = − 𝜌𝑣𝑔 𝑚𝑎 = − ( (𝛼 + 𝛽[ℎ0 + 𝑥]) 𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔)
2 𝜌0
𝑚𝑎 = − 𝜌 (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝐴 𝑔 𝛼 + 𝛽ℎ0 + 𝛽𝑥
𝜌𝐴𝑔 𝑚𝑎 = − ( − 1) 𝑚𝑔
𝑎=− 𝑙(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 ) 2
𝑚 𝑔𝛽
𝑎=− 𝑥
𝜌𝐴𝑔 2
𝜔=√ (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 ) So we proved that it is SHM.
𝑚
𝛼 − 2 𝑔𝛽 𝑔
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝜔 = √ = (𝛼 − 2)√
𝛽 2 2𝛽

149
Miscellaneous:
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜔𝑡 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡
1 Split it to see time period and constituent
𝑦 = (3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝜔𝑡) frequencies.
4
The above is periodic but not SHM (as the 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡)
characteristic equation will not be satisfied), but a 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 −𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜔𝑡
combination of two SHM. Period is LCM of 1
2π 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐴 [ (3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝜔𝑡)]
combined oscillations. LCM of ω and 3𝜔 is 𝜔 hence 4
𝐴 𝐴
it is the time period of the above oscillation. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝜔𝑡
Note that the 2nd term 3𝜔 will be having three times 4 4
higher frequency and three times lesser time period.
Understanding the effect of a, b ,c, d in sine curve: When frequency is doubled, the time period will be
halved.
Frequency,
ν2 = 2 ν1
Time period,
𝑇1
𝑇2 =
2

Similarly from above graph note that,

𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 (𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑑 𝑇2 = 4𝑇
𝑎 increases the amplitude, 𝑏 increases the frequency, Then,
𝑐 shifts the curve in x axis, 𝑑 shifts the curve in y ν
axis. ν2 =
4
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 Oscillating in a field where potential energy is given
Combine to see resultant amplitude 𝑑𝑈
𝐹=−
𝑦 = 𝑦0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑦0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑦0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑈
𝑚𝑎 = −
𝐴 = 𝑦0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝑥
𝐵 = 𝑦0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 So acceleration and 𝜔 can be found here.
𝑦0 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2
𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐴
Periodic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑇) 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑙 − ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜔𝑛𝑇) ℎ = 𝑙 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
Find the minimum value of n.
Note that from KE PE curves we can say that the
time period for 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 term is 𝜋.
𝜔𝑛𝑇 = 𝜋
2𝜋
𝑛𝑇 = 𝜋
𝑇
1
𝑛=
2

150
Physical or Compound Pendulum: Thin rod:
Restoring torque: 𝑙
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2
𝑚𝑔𝑙
𝛼=− 𝜃 𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑚𝑔𝑙
𝐼 𝜔=√ =√
2𝐼 𝑚𝑙 2
2 3
𝐼𝐶𝑀 = 𝑚𝑘 2
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝐶𝑀 + 𝑚𝑙 2
3𝑔
𝐼0 = 𝑚𝑘 2 + 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜔=√
2𝑙

𝑔𝑙
𝜔=√ 2
𝐾 + 𝑙2
Ring oscillating in the plane of the paper: Ring oscillating in and out of the paper:

𝑀𝑅 2
𝑀𝐾 2 =
2
2
𝑅
𝐾2 =
2

𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 2𝑔
𝜔=√ =√ 2 =√
𝐾 2 = 𝑅2 𝐾2 +𝑙 2 𝑅 2 3𝑅
2 +𝑅
𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 𝑔
𝜔=√ =√ 2 =√ Another method: without using the formula,
𝐾2 +𝑙 2 𝑅 +𝑅 2 2𝑅
Restoring torque,
Another method: without using the formula, 𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Restoring torque, 𝑚𝑔𝑅
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝛼=− 𝜃
𝐼𝑜
𝑚𝑔𝑅
𝛼=− 𝜃 𝐼0 = 𝐼𝐶𝑀 + 𝑚𝑑 2
𝐼𝑜 𝑚𝑅 2
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝐶𝑀 + 𝑚𝑑 2 𝐼0 = + 𝑚𝑅 2
2
𝐼0 = 𝑚𝑅 2 + 𝑚𝑅 2
𝑔 2𝑔
𝜔=√ 𝜔=√
2𝑅 3𝑅

151
Disk oscillating in the plane of the paper: Disk oscillating in and out of the paper:

2
𝑀𝑅 2
𝑀𝐾 =
4
2
𝑅
𝐾2 =
4

2
𝑀𝑅 2 2 𝑅 2
𝑀𝐾 = ,𝐾 = 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 4𝑔
2 2 𝜔=√ =√ 2 =√
𝐾2 +𝑙 2 𝑅 2 5𝑅
𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 2𝑔 4 +𝑅
𝜔=√ 2 2
=√ 2 =√
𝐾 +𝑙 𝑅 2 3𝑅 Another method: without using the formula,
2 +𝑅 Restoring torque,
Another method: without using the formula, 𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Restoring torque, 𝑚𝑔𝑅
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝛼=− 𝜃
𝐼𝑜
𝑚𝑔𝑅 𝐼0 = 𝐼𝐶𝑀 + 𝑚𝑑 2
𝛼=− 𝜃
𝐼𝑜 𝑚𝑅 2
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝐶𝑀 + 𝑚𝑑 2 𝐼0 = + 𝑚𝑅 2
4
𝑚𝑅 2
𝐼0 = + 𝑚𝑅 2 4𝑔
2 𝜔=√
5𝑅
2𝑔
𝜔=√
3𝑅
Spherical Shell oscillating in the plane of the Solid Sphere oscillating in the plane of the paper or
paper or in and out of the paper (3D symmetry): in and out of the paper (3D symmetry):

2 2
𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2 𝑀𝐾 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2
3 5
2 2
𝐾 2 = 𝑅2 𝐾 2 = 𝑅2
3 5

𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 3𝑔
𝜔=√ 2 = = √ 𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑅 5𝑔
𝐾 + 𝑙 2 √2 𝑅 2 + 𝑅 2 5𝑅 𝜔=√ 2 2
=√
2 2
=√
3 𝐾 +𝑙 𝑅 + 𝑅2 7𝑅
Another method: without using the formula, 5
Another method: without using the formula,
Restoring torque,
Restoring torque,
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑚𝑔𝑅
𝛼=− 𝜃 𝑚𝑔𝑅
𝐼𝑜 𝛼=− 𝜃
𝐼𝑜
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝐶𝑀 + 𝑚𝑑 2
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝐶𝑀 + 𝑚𝑑 2
2
𝐼0 = 𝑚𝑅 2 + 𝑚𝑅 2 2
3 𝐼0 = 𝑚𝑅 2 + 𝑚𝑅 2
5
3𝑔
𝜔=√ 5𝑔
5𝑅 𝜔=√
7𝑅

152
+ Lissajous figures: Superposition of simultaneous SHM in X and Y directions of a pendulum:
Generalized Equation:
𝑥 2 𝑦 2 2𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
+ − = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙
𝑎12 𝑎22 𝑎1 𝑎2
Phase 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4
Difference 2 or any other value
𝜙
𝑥 Displ. 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑦 Displ. 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋) 𝜋 𝑦=
𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ) 𝜋
2
𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + )
4
Equation 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 Oblique Ellipse
= =− = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 meaning the major
𝑏 𝑏 2 2
𝑥 𝑦 minor axes do not
𝑦= 𝑥 𝑦=− 𝑥 + 2=1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 2 𝑏 coincide with X
Straight line, Straight line, Ellipse along X and Y as and Y
+ve slope -ve slope major and minor axes.
Graph

Resultant 𝑅= 𝑅= 𝑅= 𝑅 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Displ. √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 √𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡
𝑅
= √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
When 𝑅 = 𝑎√2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑅 = 𝑎√2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑅=𝑎 𝑅 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
amplitude is Special case is circle
same in
both X and
Y, 𝑎 = 𝑏

153
 Guru Academy and Labs, 11P15 Waves
Wave Equation: Frequency: No. of Angular Frequency:
waves per sec. No. of radians per sec.
1 2𝜋
𝜈= 𝜔=
𝑇 𝑇
Wave number: No. of Angular wave
waves per meter. number: No. of radians
per meter
Length of one wave 𝜆 1 2𝜋
𝑣= = 𝜈̅ = 𝑘=
time period of one wave 𝑇 𝜆 𝜆
𝑣 = 𝜈𝜆
Expression for Progressive wave: Speed of travelling wave:
When a particle is oscillating the displacement is 2𝜋
𝜔 𝜆
dependent only upon the time variable. There is only = 𝑇⁄2𝜋 = = 𝑣
one particle. 𝑘 𝑇
𝜆
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝜔
When a wave is progressing infinite no. of particles 𝑣=
𝑘
are oscillating at different locations 𝑥. So the 𝑑𝑦
displacement of particle involves both time and Note that is velocity of particle, which is different
𝑑𝑡
location. from velocity of wave.
2𝜋 2𝜋 Maximum particle velocity is 𝐴𝜔.
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑥 − 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜆 𝑇
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑥
= 𝐴 sin (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) = 𝐴 sin ( − 𝑡)
𝜆 𝑇 𝑣
Intensity:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐼= = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒. 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 4𝜋𝑟 2
1
𝐼 ∝
𝑟2

𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 𝜈 2
Intensity, proportional to amplitude square and
frequency square.

154
Forward and Reverse moving wave: Speed of wave from wave form equations:
1
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) Forward moving wave, 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0, 𝑦=
1 + 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) propagation in +ve x 1
direction 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 2, 𝑦=
1 + (𝑥 − 1)2
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡) Reverse moving wave, What is the speed of wave?
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡) propagation in -ve x The wave forms, 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥 − 1) are one unit
direction apart, with 𝑓(𝑥 − 1) one unit towards the right. So
speed of wave is ½ ms-1

Understanding Initial phase angle: Phase difference between two waves:

𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝜙 is the initial phase. 𝑦1 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝑦2 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Second wave is towards the left, so the 𝜙 is taken as
positive.

𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋) = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

155
Speed of transverse waves in string: Speed of longitudinal waves in solids, gases:
Sonometer
𝐸 𝑌 𝐵
𝑣=√ =√ =√
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌
𝐸 is the modulus of elasticity, 𝑌 is Young’s modulus,
𝐵 is Bulk modulus.
𝐵 𝛾𝑃
𝑣=√ =√
𝜌 𝜌
𝑚
T tension, 𝜇 = linear density, mass per unit length.
𝑙
𝛾𝑃𝑉 𝛾𝑚𝑅𝑠 𝑇 𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑇 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 =√ =√ = √𝛾𝑅𝑠 𝑇 = √
𝑣= √ =√ 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝜇 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦
As T increases, 𝑣 increases. For every 1o C increase
This relation can be dimensionally verified. in temperature, the speed increases by 0.61 m/s.
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 As P increases, 𝜌 also increases, so 𝑣 remains
√ = √𝐿2 𝑇 −2 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 1 2
same.𝑃 = 3 ρ𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑀𝐿 −1

1 As humidity increases, the 𝑂2 and 𝑁2 molecules are

2 2
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 2 𝑚𝜔 𝐴 replaced with 𝐻2 𝑂 molecules, which decreases the
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥 .
𝜇𝑙𝜔2 𝐴2 1
= = 𝑣𝜇𝜔2 𝐴2 Gas 𝑂2 𝑁2 𝐻2 𝑂
2𝑡 2
Tension can also be calculated from the extension of 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 28g 32g 18g
the wire 𝑥
𝑇 = 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
Transverse waves in solids: Longitudinal waves in solids:
𝛥𝑙 𝑌
𝑇 𝑌𝐴 𝑌𝐴𝐿𝛥𝑙 𝑌𝛥𝑙 𝑣=√
𝑣 = √ = √ 𝑚𝑙 = √ =√ 𝜌
𝜇 𝑚𝐿 𝜌𝑙
𝑙
Transverse waves are possible only if there is rigidity
in the medium. So transverse waves are possible only
in solids and not in gases.
Newton’s formula for velocity of sound: Laplace correction for velocity of sound:
Sound waves travel as pressure differences in air, He assumed adiabatic process, as it is very fast
Isothermal constant temperature is assumed. process, no time for heat trasfer, so temperature
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. cannot be constant.
𝑃 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉 𝑑𝑃 = 0 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑑𝑃 𝑃 𝛾 𝑉 𝛾−1 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉 𝛾 𝑑𝑃 = 0
𝑃= − =𝐵
𝑑𝑉 𝑃 𝛾 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉 𝑑𝑃 = 0
𝑉 𝑑𝑃
𝛾𝑃 = − =𝐵
𝐵 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝑣=√ =√ 𝑉
𝜌 𝜌
𝐵 𝛾𝑃
𝑣=√ =√
𝜌 𝜌

156
Progressive wave: Trigonometric Formulas:
(Linear combination of Sine and Cosine waves) 𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 2 2
= 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛
= 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 2 2
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐷 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝜙 is initial phase. 2 2
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐷 = −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
𝐵 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
are the amplitudes of sine and cosine components.

Resultant amplitude and phase difference,

𝐵
𝑎 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐴
Super position or Interference: (same amplitude) + Super position of waves with different
𝑦1 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) amplitudes:
𝑦2 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑦1 = 𝑎1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜙 is phase difference. 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝜙 𝜙 𝑦 = 𝑎1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝑦 = 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + )
2 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝑦 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜙 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
Resultant amplitude is 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 )
𝜙 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
Phase difference of resultant w.r.t 1st wave is 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
2

Special cases: 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙

Inphase 𝜙 = 0 𝑦 = 2𝑎 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡), 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
Out of phase 𝜙 = 𝜋, 𝑦 = 0 𝜃 is the phase difference of the resultant wave,
𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙

𝐴 is the resultant amplitude,

𝐴 = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 √𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
Special cases:
Inphase 𝜙 = 0
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2
Out of phase 𝜙 = 𝜋
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎1 − 𝑎2
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2

157
Standing / stationary waves: Beats:
Incident and reflected waves, 𝑦1 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔1 𝑡
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑦2 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔2 𝑡
𝑦𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡) At a given location, so 𝑘𝑥 is same so it is ignored
here.

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑦𝑟
= 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
𝑦 = 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
This is for a location 𝑥, starting from a Node. Waves of slightly different frequencies when they
For a given location 𝑥, the amplitude is constant interfere we hear a rising and falling of sound which
is called as beats.
2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔2 𝑡
(𝜔1 − 𝜔2 )𝑡 (𝜔1 + 𝜔2 )𝑡
𝑦 = 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
The resultant wave shown is of higher frequency
(𝜔 +𝜔 )
given by 1 2 2 , the envelope shown which is heard
(𝜔 −𝜔 )
Starting from Anti Node, the wave equation is as beats will be of lower frequency given by 1 2 2 .
modified to accommodate the phase difference However note that the frequency of the beats will be
between a node and anti-node, twice that of the cosine curve. So,
𝜆 𝜈𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
𝑦 = 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 (𝑥 − ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 1
4 𝑇𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 =
Nodes N is where the displacement is minimum but 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
the pressure and density will be maximum. Anti
nodes AN is where displacement is maximum but the
pressure and density will be minimum.
Typed problem: Beats To find the maximum value locations cos should take
Frequency of A is 427 Hz. Frequency of beats is 5 maximum values. So
Hz. If frequency of B is increased, frequency of beats 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋 ( ) 𝑡 = ±1
is reduced to 3 Hz. What is the frequency of B? 2
Assuming 𝜈𝐴 < 𝜈𝐵 , 𝜋(𝜈1 − 𝜈2 ) 𝑡 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋 … …
𝜈𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 𝜈𝐵 − 𝜈𝐴 1 2 3
𝑡 = 0, , , , … ….
5 = 𝜈𝐵 − 427 𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
𝜈𝐵 = 432 𝐻𝑧.
If 𝜈𝐵 is increased, 𝜈𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 will Visit onlinetonegenerator.com and produce two wave
increase which is not the sounds of slightly different frequencies in two
situation given in the question. different browser windows say 400 Hz and 402 Hz.

Assuming 𝜈𝐴 > 𝜈𝐵 , Human ears can detect a maximum of 7 Hz. of beats.

𝜈𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 𝜈𝐴 − 𝜈𝐵
5 = 427 − 𝜈𝐵
𝜈𝐵 = 422 𝐻𝑧.
If 𝜈𝐵 is increased, 𝜈𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠
will decrease as given in the
question. So this will be the correct answer.

158
Transverse standing waves in strings:
First harmonic or Fundamental frequency,
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈1 = = = 𝜈1
𝐿 = 𝜆1 /2 𝜆1 2𝐿
Second harmonic (first overtone),
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈2 = = = 2𝜈1
𝜆2 𝐿
𝐿 = 𝜆2 Third harmonic (second overtone),
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈3 = = = 3𝜈1
𝜆3 2𝐿/3

𝐿 = 3𝜆3 /2 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠 = 𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝜈1

𝜆 Odd and Even harmonics present.
Location of N from a reference node N = 𝑛 2,
n=0,1,2…
Longitudinal standing waves in Open pipes:
First harmonic or Fundamental frequency,
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈1 = = = 𝜈1
𝜆1 2𝐿
𝐿 = 𝜆1 /2
Second harmonic (first overtone),
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈2 = = = 2𝜈1
𝜆2 𝐿
𝐿 = 𝜆2 Third harmonic (second overtone),
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈3 = = = 3𝜈1
𝜆3 2𝐿/3

𝐿 = 3𝜆3 /2 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠 = 𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝜈1

𝜆 Odd and Even harmonics present.
Location of AN from a reference AN = 𝑛 2,
Difference between consecutive harmonics is 𝜈1 =
n=0,1,2… GCD or HCF of the harmonics.
Longitudinal standing waves in Closed pipes:
First harmonic or Fundamental frequency,
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈1 = = = 𝜈1
𝐿 = 𝜆1 /4 𝜆1 4𝐿
Third harmonic (first overtone),
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈2 = = = 3𝜈1
𝜆2 4𝐿/3
𝐿 = 3𝜆2 /4 Fifth harmonic (second overtone),
𝑣 𝑣
𝜈3 = = = 5𝜈1
𝜆3 4𝐿/5

𝐿 = 5𝜆3 /4 𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠 = 𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝜈1

Location of AN from a reference node N Only Odd harmonics present.
𝜆
= (2𝑛 + 1) 4, n=0,1,2… Difference between consecutive harmonics is 2𝜈1 =
two times the GCD or HCF of the harmonics.
Resonating Column with water as closed end: e is the End correction. Here the same tuning fork
used for both trials so frequency and wavelength will
be same.
𝜆
= 𝐿1 + 𝑒
4
3𝜆
= 𝐿2 + 𝑒
4
𝜆
= 𝐿2 −𝐿1
2

159
Doppler Effect: When Source is moving:
The wave pattern gets compressed meaning the
observed wavelength is reduced, so observed
frequency is increased.
𝑣𝑠 𝑇 + 𝜆′ = 𝜆
Doppler Effect: When Observer is moving:
The wave pattern does not get changed but the
relative velocity of the wave is changed w.r.t the
observer. So relative velocity of wave is,
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = 𝜆 𝜈 ′

𝜆′ = 𝜆 − 𝑣𝑠 𝑇 𝑣 ′
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = 𝜈
𝜈
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣𝑠
= − 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜
𝜈′ 𝜈 𝜈 𝜈′ = 𝜈 [ ]
𝑣
𝑣
𝜈′ = 𝜈 [ ]
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠
Observed frequency decreases in this case.
When both source and observer are moving: Sign convention of the velocities:
The wave pattern will change and the relative Velocity of wave 𝑣 is the reference and it is always
velocity of the wave w.r.t the observer is, positive. When 𝑣𝑠 , 𝑣𝑜 , 𝑣𝑤 are in the same direction as
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = 𝜆′ 𝜈 ′ 𝑣, then they are taken as +ve, otherwise –ve. 𝑣𝑤 is
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = (𝜆 − 𝑣𝑠 𝑇) 𝜈 ′ wind velocity.
𝑣 𝑣𝑠
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = ( − ) 𝜈 ′
𝜈 𝜈
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜
𝜈′ = 𝜈 [ ]
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠
Doppler Effect Generalized Equation: Doppler shift in frequency: For Red and Blue shift
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑤 − 𝑣𝑜 studies in astrophysics for light coming from far
𝜈′ = 𝜈 ( )
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑤 − 𝑣𝑠 away stars which are moving w.r.t us.
𝑣𝑤 is wind velocity. 𝑣
𝜈′ = 𝜈 [ ]
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠 −1
𝜈′ = 𝜈 [ ]
𝑣
𝑣𝑠
𝜈 ′ = 𝜈 (1 + )
𝑣
Δ𝜆 Δν 𝑣𝑠
= =
𝜆′ ν 𝑣
Typed Problem: Doppler Effect when two cars or Ambulance passing a person:
submarines are moving and one sends out sound
signals and receives it back after reflection from the
other vehicle. Split it in to two problems.

𝑣 − 𝑣𝐵
𝜈1 = 𝜈𝑜 ( )
𝑣 − 𝑣𝐴 As the ambulance is approaching an observer, the
Here A is source and B is observer. observed frequency is higher than the original
𝑣 − (−𝑣𝐴 ) 𝑣 + 𝑣𝐴 frequency, and it is a constant.
𝜈2 = 𝜈1 ( ) = 𝜈1 ( ) Similarly as the ambulance moves away from the
𝑣 − (−𝑣𝐵 ) 𝑣 + 𝑣𝐵
Here B is source and A is observer. observer, the observed frequency is lower than the
𝑣 − 𝑣𝐵 𝑣 + 𝑣𝐴 original frequency, and it is a constant.
𝜈2 = 𝜈𝑜 ( )( )
𝑣 − 𝑣𝐴 𝑣 + 𝑣𝐵

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Quincke’s tube: Octaves in musical instruments:

One octave higher means 2𝜈1 (1st overtone)

Path Difference between two paths = SBR – SAR Two octaves higher means 3𝜈1 (2nd overtone)
1
Max sound intensity when Path Diff. = 𝑛𝜆 One octave lower means 2 𝜈1
𝜆 1
Min sound intensity when Path Diff. = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 Two octaves lower means 3 𝜈1
𝜆
Path difference 2 will cause maximum sound to bring
it to minimum sound due to destructive interference.
Attenuation: weakening of signals: Reverberation time, Acoustics:
Attenuation, Time taken for sound to fade away,
𝑃𝑖 𝐼𝑖 V
𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑇𝑅 ∝
𝑃𝑜 𝐼𝑜 S
Ratio of input power to output power or input Sabine’s law,
intensity to output intensity. 1.7𝑉
𝑇𝑅 =
𝑎𝑆
Sound level, V volume of room, S surface area of room, a
𝐼 absorbtion coefficient (ratio)
𝐿 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑑𝐵
𝐼0
reference level: 𝐼0 = 10−12 (𝑊𝑚−2 )

For smaller measurements instead of using the unit

meter we use centimeter. Similarly instead of using
bel, we use decibel dB. deci:10-1

Intensity,
𝑃0
𝐼=
2ρ𝑣
Tuning fork:
Filing: Removal of mass, inertia decreases, frequency Qualitative Quantitaive (measurable)
increases. Loudness Amplitude and Intensity
Loading: Addition of mass, inertia increases, Pitch Frequency
frequency decreases.
Quality Waveform difference
Miscellaneous: Open pipe or Closed pipe:
 For diffraction to happen, λ ≈ obstacle or Consecutive harmonics given as 420 Hz, 315 Hz. Is it
aperture size. a closed pipe or open pipe?
 At 40C, ρ𝐻2 𝑂 = 1000kgm-3 Difference between the consecutive harmonics = 105
 Frequency ν is characteristic of source of Hz.
sound and 𝑣 & λ are characteristics of GCD or HCF of 420 Hz, 315 Hz is 105 Hz.
medium. If the difference between the consecutive harmonics
 Reflection, Refraction, Interference, match with the GCD then it is an open pipe.
Diffraction are all wave phenomenons that are If the difference between the consecutive harmonics
exhibited by both transverse and longitudinal is twice the GCD then it is a closed pipe.
waves. Polarization alone is shown only by GCD-Greatest Common Divisor
transverse waves and not be longitudinal HCF-Highest Common Factor
waves.

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Refraction of sound: Supersonic jets:
Sonic refers to speed of sound ~330 ms-1 (~1200 km
hr-1). Passenger jets travel much below this speed say
800 km hr-1. Military jets fly two times three times or
even seven times the speed of sound which is
famously referred as Mach 2, Mach 3, Mach 7.

Sound travels faster in hot gas, this medium is

rarer. 𝜃 is the celcius temperature. Denser to rarer so
the refracted ray is moving away from the normal.
𝛾𝑅(273 + 𝜃1 ) The sound waves emanated from the jet gives rise to
√
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 a pattern as shown called shock waves or sonic boom.
=𝜇= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛾𝑅(273 + 𝜃2 ) Here 𝑣 is the speed of sound and 𝑣𝑠 is the speed of
√ source or the speed of the jet.
𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑣
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑣𝑠
Energy, Intensity, Amplitude: Typed Problem:
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
2
(1/2) 𝑚 22 𝜋 2 𝜈 2 𝐴2 𝑙
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑣𝜈 2 𝐴2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑙
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
Is true only when other quantities are constant during
comparison.
After one wavelength distance λ , the particles 𝑃1 and
𝑃2 will be in same phase.
𝐼𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2
=( ) If T = 4 ms time period,
𝐼𝑟 𝐴𝑟 t = 0 ms particle is at 1
𝐼𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2 t = 1 ms particle is at 2
≠( )
𝐼𝑡 𝐴𝑡 t = 2 ms particle is at 3
t = 3 ms particle is at 2
t = 4 ms particle is at 1
This is because velocity and density will change in a t = 5 ms particle is at 2 at mean position
different medium.
Difference in progressive wave and standing wave Minimum distance for Echo to be heard:
phase difference: Human brain’s capability to distinguish sounds as
two different sounds or waves is they should be 0.1 s
apart. Otherwise it will be recognised as same sound
by the brain.
For this reason in a room of small distance we do not
hear the original sound and reflected sound as two
In progressive wave, different waves.
the phase difference between A and B is 180o or 𝜋. 2d = 340 m/s x 0.1 s = 34 m. So, d = 17 m.
the phase difference between A and C is say 120o or A minimum distance of 17m is required for echo
2𝜋
. effect to be heard.
3
In standing wave, when all the points are moving
downwards in the first loop, then all the points are
moving upwards in the second loop. So the phase
difference between any two points in first loop and
second loop is 180o or 𝜋.

162
Differential equation of waves: All equations that satisfy this differential equation are
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡) waves.
∂𝑦 General form: 𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑡)
= 𝐴𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
∂𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑡)
∂2 𝑦 𝑦 = √(𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑡)
2
= −𝐴𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
∂𝑥 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑡)2
∂𝑦 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝐵(𝑎𝑥±𝑏𝑡)
= −𝐴ω 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
∂𝑡 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑡)
∂2 𝑦 y = A 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑡)2
2
= 𝐴ω2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − ω𝑡)
∂𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑡)
𝜕 2𝑦 2 The following are not waves:
𝜕𝑥 2 = − 𝑘 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 2 ± 𝑏𝑡 3 )
𝜕 2𝑦 ω2 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 2 ± 𝑏𝑡 2 )
𝜕𝑡 2
2
𝜕 𝑦 1 𝜕 2𝑦 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 2 ± 𝑏𝑡)
=− 2 2 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω 𝑡
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 𝜕𝑡 If a wave is sine or cosine it is called harmonic wave.
The above differential equation is the general form
for waves.
Phase difference between two particles is 𝛑/𝟑 find Wave equation with exponential term:
the distance between the particles? 2 2
𝑦 = 𝑒 −(𝑎𝑥 +𝑏𝑡 +2√𝑎𝑏 𝑥𝑡)
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(100𝜋𝑡 − 3𝑥) 2
𝑦 = 𝑒 −(√𝑎𝑥+√𝑏𝑡)
𝑦1 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(100𝜋𝑡 − 3𝑥1 )
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
𝑦2 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(100𝜋𝑡 − 3𝑥2 ) 𝜔
Phase difference, 𝑣=
𝜋 𝑘
(100𝜋𝑡 − 3𝑥1 ) − (100𝜋𝑡 − 3𝑥2 ) =
3
𝜋
3(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) =
3
𝜋
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 =
9
This is the distance between two particles in x
direction.
Typed problem: 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 is periodic but 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙𝟐 is not periodic. why?
𝑦1 = 𝐴0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑦2 = 4𝐴0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑦3 = 3√2 𝐴0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + ϕ)
Resultant amplitude is at 45o with the first wave’s
amplitude. Then find ϕ.
𝜋
𝑦2 = 4𝐴0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + )
2

𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 = 1
𝐴0 + 3√2 𝐴0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ϕ = 4𝐴0 + 3√2 𝐴0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ϕ
Solve to find ϕ.
Typed problem: Typed problem:

𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜔𝑡

𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = √2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) 2π 2π 2π
4 4 Time periods of individual waves is ω , 2ω , 4ω
𝜋
𝑦 = √2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + ) LCM for the time period of resultant of the
4
2π π 2π
𝑇 = 𝜔 , initial phase is 4 superposition of the three waves will be ω .

163