Energy Group 2 Written Report 2

Republic of the Philippines
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

(University of the City of Manila)
Muralla Street, Intramuros Manila 1002, Philippines
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ELECTIVE 1

(MEC 0327-2)
Energy Engineering and Management
Members:
Alviz, Arianne James T.
Bagui, Marcelino L.
Bergonia, Christian Harri D.
Bragais, Francis B.
Dingle, Bianca Nicole
Garma, Aila C.
Merencillo, Patrick J.
Nerpio, Luke Louie Q.
Respall, Lucien III D.
Traifalgar, Euric T.
Submitted to:
Engr. Arnel Q. Lucas
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Micro-hydro-electric Power . . . . .
II. Solar Energy and Wind Energy Utilization . . .
III. Energy Management in Buildings . . . . .
IV. Nuclear Energy Resources . . . . . .

Micro-Hydro-Electric Power
Microhydropower Systems
A small scale system that converts the energy of flowing water, typically from mountains
and heighted rivers into usable electricity. It harnesses hydropower which is a non-polluting and
naturally-occuring energy source, constantly being replenished by nature itself.
Hydropower
● One of the oldest and largest renewable energy sources
● Generates electricity through the natural flow of moving water
● Accounts to 28.7% of total US renewable energy generation (6.2% in total energy)
● Makes up 4.5% of the energy used in the Philippines (2021)
○ Solar: 0.7%
○ Wind: 0.6%
● Comes in different sizes based on energy capacity
○ Large Hydropower - 30 MW
○ Small Hydropower - 100kW to 10MW
○ Micro Hydropower - Up to 100 kW
Types of Hydropower Facilities

● Impoundment
○ most common type of hydroelectric power plants
○ utilizes a dam to store water from the river
○ water released from the dam flows through a turbine and provides rotation for
energy conversion
○ water may be released for various reasons
■ flood control
■ fish passage
■ environmental needs
■ water quality needs
● Diversion
○ also called "run-of-river" facility
○ channels a portion of a river through a canal and/or a penstock
○ does not require the use of a dam
● Pump Storage
○ PSH - Pump Storage Hydropower
○ works like a giant battery
○ able to store electricity from other power sources (eg. solar, wind, and nuclear)
for later use
○ stores energy by pumping water from a lower to a higher elevation reservoir

■ low electricity demand
● pumps water from a lower to an upper reservoir
● stores electricity by using energy from other sources
■ high electricity demand
● releases water from the upper to the lower reservoir
● the flow turns the turbine and generates electricity
Advantages of Micro Hydropower

● Simple and renewable
● Minimal flow requirements for electricity generation
○ only needs a small amount of flow (a few liters per minute)
○ a 1-meter drop would suffice for function
● Can deliver electricity within a 1-km radius
● Produces a continuous and predictable supply of energy
● Low impact on surrounding ecology
● Low distribution and running cost
○ no fuel
○ low maintenance
● Long-lasting
○ Typically lasts for 50+ years without new major investments to the machinery
Disadvantages of Micro Hydropower

● Requires certain site conditions in order to work
○ distance from power source to the stream location
○ stream size
■ flow rate, output, and drop
○ system components
■ inverter
■ batteries
■ controller
■ transmission lines
■ pipelines
● Size and flow of small streams may restrict future site expansion
● Electricity generation is highly dependent on constant stream of water
○ stream sites may fluctuate seasonally
● Requires advanced planning and research
● Construction requires environmental considerations
Hydropower in the Philippines

As of 2019, there are 15 large dams in operation in the Philippines, with a total water
storage volume of 8.67 x 109 m3. The total generated energy from the country's renewable
energy plants sum up to 23,183GW, which is equivalent to 24.6% of total energy generation. Its
3 grids have a total installed capacity of about 22 728 MW, comprising 3627 MW of hydropower.
● Total Installed Capacity
○ also called rated capacity
○ maximum capacity that a system is designed to run at
○ example
■ a solar plant with an installed capacity of 24 megawatts with optimal sun
exposure for one hour will produce 24 megawatt hours of electricity
■ a 5 x 660 MW thermal plant means there are 5 units with 660 MW
capacity, totalling to 3300 MW
■ Angat Hydropower Plant in Luzon has a capacity of 218 MW and supplies
Manila with 90% of its fresh water
● Philippines’ 3 Grids (Transmission Systems)
○ Luzon grid
○ Visayas grid
○ Mindanao grid
Hydro Electric Energy Potential
An MHP energy potential depends on the amount of water flow and drop of slope height. Hydro
Power Systems harness energy from the flow of water and its vertical drop which is also
referred as the head. Head is a measurement of the height of a static water column to the point
where the water leaves the turbine. This is usually expressed in meters. The higher the water
level or hydraulic head, the more energy that the water at a specific location has
How Micro-Hydropower Plant Works?

The Micro Hydro Power works by diverting water from a river or irrigation through an
intake construction. From there, water is passed along the channel to a forebay and into a
penstock pipe attached to the turbine. After passing through the turbine the water is released
back towards the river or irrigation. The rotating turbine is attached to a generator shaft to
produce electricity.
The Intake: Screening Out Debris

First, the generation of electricity starts in the diversion
and intake. Diversion keeps the water continuously
covering the hydro intake. Larger-scale systems require
more complex diversion such as dams. The intake is
where the screening out of debris takes place to ensure
an unimpeded flow of water into the system.Intakes are
available in a range of styles or may be fabricated
on-site.
The Penstock Pipe: Generating Pressure

The penstock pipe functions as the channel through
which water travels from the intake to the turbine. In
most cases, the location of diversion and intakes of
MHP can be found on the elevated heights. And as
the fluid flows down through the penstock, it converts
its potential energy to kinetic and pressure energy. As
a result, the fluid gains pressure as it descends. This
process is important to maximize energy for extraction.
The Turbine: Energy Conversion

The penstock is to the turbine. The turbine takes prominence
in the energy conversion process, leveraging the
high-pressure water from the penstock to produce rotational
force. This mechanical equipment works when the
pressurized water hits propeller blades causing rotational
movement. Turbine works in unity draft tube in minimizing
energy losses and enhancing the overall performance of the
system.
There are two types of turbine; the impulse and reaction.
Impulse Turbines are most commonly used for high-head micro hydro systems. They rely on
the velocity of water to move the turbine wheel. These units are generally the simplest of all
common turbine designs There are three common impulse runners; the crossflow turbine, the
pelton wheel, and the turgo turbine.
The Crossflow Turbine - A crossflow turbine is

drum-shaped,with the blades fixed radially along the
outer edge. The turbine is open in the center, resembling
a “squirrel cage” blower.The water is guided onto the
blades of the turbine by an inlet guide vane, ensuring that
the water hits the blades at the proper angle to maximize
efficiency. The water flows over the blades creating a
torque on these blades. After hitting the blades, the sheet
of water moves through the turbine and hits the blades
once more as it leaves, producing more torque. The first impact the water has with the blades
produces more power than the second hit. This turbine is usually used for heads below 40
metres.
The Pelton Wheel - A pelton wheel is a disc with paddles or cups attached
to the outside edges. In this type of turbine, high speed jets of water
emerge from the nozzles that surround the turbine. These nozzles are
arranged so the water jet will hit the buckets at the splitter, the center of the
bucket where the water jet is divided into two streams. The two separate
streams then flow along the inner curve of the bucket and leave in the opposite direction that it
came in. This change in momentum of the water creates an impulse on the blades of the
turbine, generating torque and rotation in the turbine.This is designed for sites with high heads
where there is a reservoir located at some height above the turbine.
The Turgo Wheel - The Turgo wheel is a variation of the

Pelton wheel. The main difference between a Pelton turbine
and a Turgo turbine is that Turgo turbines use single cups
instead of double cups on the wheel, and these cups are
more shallow. The turgo turbine operates at higher flow rate
with a medium range of head.
Reaction Turbines are highly efficient and depend on pressure rather than velocity to produce
energy. This directly uses water pressure to move the blades instead of relying on conversion of
water pressure to kinetic energy. This means that reaction turbines need to be submerged in
water. The fluid velocity and the reduction in water pressure creates a reaction on the turbine
blades causing them to move. These turbines are often used at large-scale hydropower sites.
The Francis Turbine - frequently used in hydro electric plants. The

water enters this turbine radially meaning that it enters the turbine
perpendicular to the axis of rotation. As the water crosses the
specially curved
blades of the runner, the water is deflected sideways slightly. The process of water being
deflected through the runner blades results in a force that pushes the blades in the opposite
direction as the water is deflected. This reaction force (like Newton's third law) is what causes
power to be transferred from the water to the turbine's shaft, maintaining rotation. Typically, this
turbine is used for medium head applications.
Propeller Turbine - The propeller turbine resembles a boat

propeller, usually running in a tube, and operates on a
similar principle. As with the Francis, the water contacts all
of the blades constantly, and it is thus imperative that the
propeller receive a high and continuous flow. Designed for
high flow rate application. Used in applications where high
head and low flow rate are desired.
Pump-as-Turbine (PAT) - Centrifugal pumps can be

operated like a hydro turbine by running them in reverse.
Pumps are often combined with a motor via a direct drive
and used as a generator set. A “pump-as-turbine,” or
PAT, is an inexpensive alternative for small hydropower
systems.
Typical Efficiency of Turbines

Comparison Between Impulse and Reaction Turbine
Existing Hydro Power Plant
Ifugao Ambangal Mini Hydro Power Plant
The Ifugao Ambangal

mini-hydro Power Plant is the first
mini-hydro plant in Ifugao with an
installed capacity of 200 kW. This
was commissioned last 2010,
initiated by the Tokyo Elective
Power Company (TEPCO).
This project provides

15-18% of clean, renewable
electricity that improves residents’
livelihood by supporting their rice
farming practices provided by the
average of 1,200 MWh that was
generated from the plant. Due to
this, it assists in the restoration and conservation of the Rice Terrace Conservation. An
additional eleven (11) conservation projects have been implemented since its inauguration.
Location: Ifugao
Status: Commissioned in 2010
Project Leader: Tokyo Elective Power Company (TEPCO)
Description:
● First mini hydro plant in the province of Ifugao with an installed capacity of 200 kW
● Provides clean, renewable electricity that improves residents’ livelihood by supporting
their rice farming practices.
● This helps to establish the Rice Terrace Conservation Fund that uses funds from power
sales to restore and conserve the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras, a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
● Innovative creation of a Replicated in 2015 by the Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) and the Department of Energy of the Philippines in Asipulo, Ifugao
● An estimated 600 tons of CO2 emissions are avoided per year.
Benefits:
Environment:
● Eleven (11) conservation projects have been implemented since its inauguration.
Community:
● Provides 180 local jobs.
● Raise the level of income in the community with six (6) permanent jobs.
● 15-18% of the electricity that the province needs was provided by the average of
1,200 MWh that was generated from the plant.
● Improved farming practices.
● Enhanced irrigation system.
Caliraya Hydroelectric Power Plant
Location: Lumban, Laguna

(within the Sierra Madre
Mountain Range of the
Philippines)
Status: Commissioned in 1942
and completed in 2002
Project Leader: CBK Power
Company Limited
Description:
● First ever powerplant
built by the National
Power Corporation
(NPC).
● Guarantees a 22MW net capacity
Plant Components:
● Intake Structure - conveys water through a circular, reinforced concrete conduit with a
diameter of 2.5 meters.
● Surge Tank - diameter of 6.1 meters, rises 32.9 meters above its foundation.
● Penstock - 741 meter long with a diameter ranging from 2.0 to 2.3 meters conveys water
to the powerhouse.
● Powerhouse - contains two (2) Francis vertical turbines, coupled with synchronous
generators with a total capacity of 22.6 MW.
● Generators - These generators connect to the main and transfer buses in the substation
via SF6 gas-type circuit breakers rated at 1,250A. These feeders supply power through
two 3-phase power transformers, each rated at 22,000 kVA, with a voltage of 13.2 KV /
115 KV.
● Caliraya Reservoir: Located approximately 60 aerial kilometers east-southeast of Manila,
the Caliraya Reservoir serves as the water source for both the Kalayaan and Caliraya
Power Plants. It was formed by damming the Caliraya River and covers a catchment
area of 129 square kilometers, including the 37-square-kilometer reservoir itself
Solar Energy and Wind Energy Utilization
SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS
Solar heating and cooling (SHC) systems are technologies that capture solar energy and use it
for heating or cooling residential and commercial buildings, as well as providing hot water.They
are able to convert solar radiation into thermal energy for space heating, hot water production,
and temperature control.
The benefits of using SHC systems are numerous, including reducing carbon dioxide emissions,
lowering energy costs, decreasing reliance on fossil fuels, and minimizing the impact on the
environment. These systems work by absorbing thermal energy from the sun and transferring it
into the desired space to maintain optimal temperatures.
SHC systems can be divided into two main categories: active systems and passive systems.
Active solar heating systems use solar collectors to capture solar energy and heat a transfer
fluid, typically air or liquid, which is then transported using pumps or fans to the desired location
for space heating or hot water production.
Example: photovoltaic panels (solar panels), solar thermal collector, etc.
Two types of Active Solar
· Direct- In direct systems, also known as air-based systems, air is heated by

passing through air collectors or air-based solar thermal collectors. The
heated air is then circulated using fans to either directly heat or ventilate the
living space, or to store it in a thermal storage system until it is required for
heating or cooling purposes.
Example: air heaters, solar walls, and air-based radiant floor heating.
· Indirect-also known as liquid-based systems, use a heat transfer fluid, often

water, antifreeze, or a mixture of both, to absorb solar energy in solar
collectors. Pumps circulate the heated fluid through a heat exchanger, where
the heat is transferred to the building’s heating system or hot water supply
Example: solar water heaters, hydronic solar space heating, etc.
Passive solar- unlike active solar, passive solar relies on natural heat absorption and
distribution by windows, walls, and floors without the need for active mechanical components.
Passive solar heating takes advantage of the sun’s warmth to heat a building through
strategically placed windows, thermal mass elements, and insulation. As sunlight enters the
building, it is absorbed by surfaces with high thermal mass, such as concrete or brick floors and
walls, that retain and slowly release the heat over time. They rely on natural processes, such as
convection and radiation, to transfer heat.
Passive solar cooling, on the other hand, refers to the use of shading devices, natural
ventilation, and earth cooling techniques to lower indoor temperatures. Proper building design
ensures adequate shading and ventilation, as well as thermal mass to absorb the cool night air
and maintain comfortable temperatures during the day.
Example: daylighting, thick and insulated walls, ceilings with external ventilation
Photovoltaic Method
The method of obtaining electricity from sunlight is referred to as the Photovoltaic method. The
most important component of the Photovoltaic method is the Photovoltaic cells or PV cells. It is
made out of semiconductor materials such as silicon, that can absorb photons from the sun and
create an electron flow. When electrons are excited by photons, they produce a flow of
electricity known as a direct current.
1. The PV cells absorb sunlight
2. Electrons will begin flowing, creating electric current
3. The wires will capture all the electrical current (direct current) from all the
cells of the solar panel
4. Converting DC energy to AC
SOLAR CONCENTRATION
Its operation is based on the use of reflective surfaces, typically formed by a series of mirrors
arranged in an aligned arrangement. The main purpose of these solar concentrators is to
capture the greatest amount of solar radiation possible and direct it towards a small receiver.
In the context of larger-scale solar thermal energy, this concentrated solar radiation is used to
heat a thermal fluid, such as water or oil, to generate steam. The resulting steam drives steam
turbines, thus transforming solar radiation into mechanical energy to power an electrical
generator or perform physical work.
In summary, solar heating and cooling systems use a combination of active and passive
techniques to harness the power of the sun for both heating and cooling purposes. By utilizing
these environmentally friendly technologies, homeowners and businesses can reduce their
dependence on fossil fuels, lower their energy costs, and minimize their carbon footprint.
Introduction to wind energy
Wind energy is a form of renewable energy, typically powered by the movement of wind across
enormous fan-shaped structures called wind turbines. Once built, these turbines create no
climate-warming greenhouse gas emissions, making this a “carbon-free” energy source that can
provide electricity without making climate change worse. Wind was definitely being utilized as a
way to move boats on Egypt's Nile River around the year 5,000 BC. By 200 BC people in China
were using the wind to power simple water pumps, and windmills with hand-woven blades were
used to grind grain in the Middle East.
Building the turbines however causes some greenhouse gas emissions, but even after factoring
that, wind energy only produces about 1% the greenhouse gas emissions of a coal fired power
plant.
Wind Characteristics
· Mean wind speed − This estimates the annual wind yield though it does not give the
distributions.
· Wind speed distribution − Understanding the wind speed variations and the spread is
necessary when choosing a site.
· Turbulence − This is the chaotic movement of wind in unpredictable patterns. Turbulence

results from continuously changing properties of wind motion that impact on energy
production and fatigue on blades.
· Long term fluctuation − Irregular wind causes unpredictable energy supply. Before a wind
turbine is set, the area should be studied for a constant wind flux.
· Distribution of wind direction − This is more significant in positioning of the blades

especially for horizontal axis types.
· Wind shear − Shear is change in wind direction, speed or the height at which the maximum
velocity occurs.
Types of wind energy
There are three major types of wind energy.
· Utility-scale wind- encompasses wind turbines that range in size from 100 kilowatts to
several megawatts, where electricity is supplied to the power grid and distributed to the end
user by electric utilities or power operators.
· Offshore Wind- Wind turbines that are erected in large bodies of water. These are
generally larger than onshore turbines, and because the larger the turbine the greater the
efficiency, they are able to generate more power.
· Small Scale or Distributed Wind Energy- These are wind turbines that are smaller in
physical size and are used to meet the energy demands of a specific site or local area.
Advantages
· It is a green energy and is renewable.
· It is the third largest source of carbon free electricity next to hydropower and nuclear
power.
· Wind energy is cheap
Disadvantages
· Wind energy is dependent on how much wind is blowing
· It needs large space
· Transportation of stored energy
· Location
Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS)
Definition of a Wind Energy Conversion

System (WECS)
A Wind Energy Conversion System

(WECS) is a sophisticated mechanism
designed to capture and convert wind
energy into a more usable form, typically
electricity. This transformation allows for
the generation of power that can be
harnessed to meet the energy needs of
homes, businesses, and various other
applications.
Functions of WECS:
The primary function of a WECS is to tap into the kinetic energy of wind and convert it into a
more practical and versatile form. This is achieved through the utilization of either wind turbines
or windmills, each serving distinct purposes.
1. Wind Turbines for Electricity Generation:
Wind turbines are a common and highly

effective means of converting wind energy
into electricity. These turbines typically
consist of blades mounted on a rotor, which
spins when exposed to wind. The rotational
motion is then converted into electrical power
through a generator. This electricity can be
integrated into existing power grids or stored
for later use, contributing to a sustainable
and renewable energy infrastructure.
2. Windmills for Water Pumping:

Another application of WECS involves the use of windmills to pump water. In this system, the
kinetic energy of the wind is employed to drive a mechanical pump, lifting water from lower
elevations to higher ones. This traditional approach is especially valuable in areas where water
needs to be transported for irrigation or other agricultural purposes.
WECS Classification
Wind energy conversion systems are

classified according to the type of rotational
axis about which the turbine rotor blades
rotate. The four main classifications of WECS
are rotational axis, turbine, power control, and
rotational speed control. If you're
Rotational Axis
There are two types of rotational axes: horizontal and vertical.
1. A horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) is the

most commonly used type. The rotor blades are
mounted on a horizontal shaft perpendicular to
the ground.
· Blades are mounted on a

horizontal shaft perpendicular to the
ground.
· Most commonly used due to its

efficiency and widespread
applicability.
Advantages of Horizontal Axis Machines
· The generator and gearbox can

be placed on the ground
· The structure is usually simpler.

· You do not need a yaw (pointing) mechanism to turn the rotor against the
wind.
· These are easier for hobbyists to build – little detailed knowledge of

aerodynamics is needed for simple designs.
Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) facilitate ground-level placement for the generator
and gearbox, simplifying maintenance and accessibility. Their typically simpler in
structure and the elimination of the need for a yaw mechanism make HAWTs suitable for
straightforward construction by hobbyists with minimal aerodynamic knowledge.
Disadvantages of Horizontal Axis Machines
· Many important parts require maintenance and are high off the ground.
· A yaw mechanism must be in place to turn the turbine into the wind.
Maintenance challenges arise as key components are elevated, requiring specialized

equipment and skills. The necessity for a yaw mechanism to turn the turbine into the
wind adds complexity to the design and operation of horizontal axis machines.
2. A vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) has its rotor blades mounted on a vertical shaft
parallel to the ground. VAWT is less common than HAWT because it is more expensive
and complicated to build and is not as efficient in converting wind energy into electricity.
· Blades are mounted on a

vertical shaft parallel to the
ground.
· Less common due to higher

construction complexity and
lower efficiency compared to
HAWT.
Advantages of Vertical Axis Machines
· The generator and gearbox can be placed on the ground
· The structure is usually simpler.
· You do not need a yaw (pointing) mechanism to turn the rotor against the
wind.
· These are easier for hobbyists to build – little detailed knowledge of

aerodynamics is needed for simple designs.
Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) offer ground-level placement for the generator and
gearbox, simplifying maintenance. Their simpler structure and elimination of the need for
a yaw mechanism make them accessible for hobbyists with basic knowledge of
aerodynamics. VAWTs provide a straightforward design, promoting ease of construction
and potential cost savings.
Disadvantages of Vertical Axis Machines
· These structures are low to the ground, where wind speeds are lowest.
· The overall efficiency is much lower than horizontal axis machines.
· Most vertical axis machines are not self-starting.
· Many vertical axis machines require guy wires which greatly increase the
structural footprint.
· Maintenance is usually more difficult.
VAWTs face challenges such as lower efficiency due to their proximity to lower wind
speeds near the ground. Many VAWTs are non-self-starting, relying on external
assistance for rotation initiation, affecting reliability. The use of guy wires for structural
support increases the footprint, limiting installation options, and maintenance can be
more challenging due to the lower positioning and configuration of VAWTs.
Turbine
Turbines can also be classified by their electrical output. The size of the wind farm is determined
by its production power. The current turbine system technology may be categorized into three
groups based on the following:
1. Low Power turbines:
· Output: Maximum output of approximately 30 kW.
· Usage: Deployed in remote areas to meet individual home electrical needs

and for charging batteries.
· Application: Commonly employed in emergencies to reduce reliance on

primary power sources.
· These are turbine systems with a maximum output of 30 kW on average.

These devices are used in distant areas to meet home electrical needs and
charge batteries. They're also employed in emergencies to lessen reliance on
primary power sources.
2. Medium Power turbines:
· Output: Ranges from 30 to 300 kW.
· Usage: Primarily utilized for supplying electricity to houses in small

communities.
· Integration: Often used in conjunction with other renewable energy sources

or integrated into power storage systems.
○ This category includes turbines with 30 to 300 kW outputs. They are, however,
primarily utilized to provide electricity to houses in small communities. They are
used with other renewable energy sources or power storage systems.
3. High Power turbines:
○ Output: Generate a substantial amount of power.
○ Integration: Integrated into large-scale wind farms.
○ Connection: Connected to power systems for widespread transmission of
electricity across
○ These are systems in which a considerable amount of power is produced. These
are integrated into large-scale wind farms connected to the power systems that
transmit electricity across towns.
Power Control
The wind energy converted by the turbine must be managed appropriately to maintain a
constant output of power. The two main ways to control power are active and reactive power
control.
1. Active power control

· Common Type: Widely used for power control.
· Regulation Method: Involves adjusting the amount of wind passing through

turbine blades.
· Mechanism: Utilizes a pitch control mechanism.
· Operation: Regulates the angle of the blades to control the amount of wind
captured.
· Objective: Ensures a consistent and desired level of active power output.
· The most common type of power control, and involves regulating the amount
of wind that goes through the turbine blades. This is accomplished by using a
pitch control mechanism, which regulates the angle of the blades.
2. Reactive power control

○ Less Common Type: Not as frequently employed as active power control.
○ Regulation Method: Involves adjusting the amount of electricity generated by the
turbine.
○ Mechanism: Utilizes a generator to convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
○ Operation: Controls the generation of electrical energy to manage reactive power.
○ Objective: Maintains a balance between active and reactive power for optimal
system performance.
○ Less common, and it involves regulating the amount of electricity generated by
the turbine. This is done using a generator, which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
Rotational Speed Control Criteria
The wind speed controls the speed of the turbine blades. The higher the wind speed, the faster
the blades will spin. Two main ways to control the turbine's rotational speed are fixed speed and
variable speed WECS.
1. Fixed speed WECS are the most common type, and they use a device called a governor
to control the speed of the turbine. The governor is a mechanical device that is attached
to the turbine blades. It prevents the blades from spinning too fast, damaging the turbine.
· Common Type: Widely used in wind energy systems.
· Control Device: Governor - a mechanical device attached to turbine

blades.
· Function: Prevents blades from spinning too fast, protecting the

turbine from damage.
· Characteristic: The turbine operates at a constant speed regardless of

varying wind conditions.
2. Variable speed WECS are less common, using an inverter device to control the turbine's
speed. The inverter is an electronic device that converts direct current (DC) into
alternating current (AC). It also regulates the speed of the turbine blades.
· Less Common Type: Not as prevalent as fixed speed systems.
· Control Device: Inverter - an electronic device converting DC to AC.
· Function: Regulates turbine speed dynamically in response to

changing wind speeds.
· Characteristic: Allows for adjustable turbine speeds, optimizing

efficiency under different wind conditions.
Brief introduction of wind power generation
The device required for wind power generation is called a wind turbine. A wind turbine is a
device that converts wind energy into electrical energy. The principle is the wind drives the
impeller to rotate.The impeller drives the generator to rotate and cut the magnetic induction line.
Wind energy is converted into mechanical work, which drives the rotor to rotate and ultimately
generates electrical energy.
Components of WECS
A wind energy conversion system's major components are separated into two categories:
mechanical and electrical.
Mechanical Components
The mechanical components of a WECS include the rotor, the main shaft, the gearbox,
mechanical breaks, nacelle, pitch and yaw drives, and wind measuring equipment,
1. Rotor: It is the most important component of a WECS. It is a large wheel that has blades
attached to it. The rotor is what captures the wind and turns it into mechanical energy.
2. Main Shaft: The main shaft is the shaft attached to the rotor. It is made of steel or
aluminum and connected to the gearbox.
3. Gearbox: The gearbox is a device that increases the rotational speed of the rotor. It is
made of gears, and it is located in the nacelle.
4. Mechanical Breaks: Mechanical breaks are used to stop the rotor from spinning. They
are located in the nacelle and activated when the wind speed is too high.
5. Nacelle: The nacelle is the housing that contains all of the electrical and mechanical
components of the WECS. It is located at the top of the turbine, and it is made of steel or
aluminum.
6. Pitch and Yaw Drives: Pitch and yaw drives are used to adjust the angle of the blades.
They are located in the nacelle, and a computer operates them.
7. Wind Measuring Equipment: Wind measuring equipment is used to measure wind speed
and direction. It is located in the nacelle and consists of anemometers and wind vanes.
Electrical Components
The electrical components of a WESC include the generator, power converter, step-up
transformer, and wind farm collection points or points of common coupling.
1. Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It is located
in the nacelle and is connected to the main shaft.
2. Power Converter: The power converter is a
device that converts DC into AC. It is located
in the nacelle, connected to the generator.
Within the context of a wind turbine, the

process begins with the rotation of the turbine
blades capturing kinetic energy from the
wind. The kinetic energy from the blade's
rotor is converted into mechanical energy,
turning the generator. The generator
produces electricity.
3. Transformer: The wind turbine transformers act as a link between wind turbines and
distribution grid. It steps up the low output voltage from the generator to higher
distribution voltage level. However wind turbine transformers are considered to be one of
the sensitive and weak component in a wind farm.
4. Wind Farm Collection Points or Point of Common Coupling: In a wind farm scenario, the
collection points serve as a gathering point for the electricity generated by individual
turbines.
These are used to collect the electricity from the turbines. They are located at the
turbine's base, and they are connected to the power converter.
How It Works
How does a big slow turning blade create enough electricity?
One large wind turbine turns much slower, so we

use gears to increase the speed of the rotor to
produce sufficient power and output frequency at the
generator.
Large wind turbines are designed to rotate at slower

speeds, necessitating the use of a gearing
mechanism to increase the rotational speed of the
rotor. This gearing system is essential for ensuring
that the generator produces power at a frequency
compatible with the electrical grid.
The input shaft of the turbine operates at low

speed but high torque. To efficiently generate
electricity, a gearbox is employed to convert this
low-speed, high-torque rotation into high-speed,
low-torque rotation. The rotational speed is controlled by adjusting the pitch of the turbine
blades.
For example, the input speed of the turbine might be

as low as 18 RPM, but the gearbox can increase this
to an output speed of 1,800 RPM. This speed is
necessary to control the output of the generator. To
stop the rotation, the turbine blades are initially used,
and then a hydraulic disc brake at the back of the
gearbox is employed. The brake is especially useful
since the low torque of the shaft makes it easier to
stop. This braking system is crucial for tasks such as
maintenance.
The wind turns the rotor of the turbine, which in turn rotates the main shaft. This main shaft is
connected to the gearbox, which amplifies the rotating speed of the rotor.
After the mechanical process, the generated power is converted from DC to AC by a power
converter.
Now that we have an understanding about the part and how a wind turbine work lets talk
about efficiency
What would happen if you took a wind turbine that takes all of the kinetic energy out of the air?
If you take a wind turbine and make it grab all the wind's energy. The turbine would keep
making electricity forever.
Wrong
Well, what's going to happen is the air around it is going to stop, and if the air around it stops,
then you can't have any new air entering the system because there's nowhere for it to go. And if
you don't have any new air entering the system and flowing over the blades, you have no
rotation and no electricity generated. So, you reach this really interesting thing where if you take
more than the allotted amount of kinetic energy out of the wind, you are going to create a
tangible detriment to the output of your wind turbine. Now, this limit is pretty well researched and
defined; it's actually 59.24 percent, it's called The Betz limit. There is no wind turbine, not just in
production but not even a theoretical wind turbine, can be more efficient than the Betz limit,
59.24 percent.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hf875eOVrVI VIDEO REF FOR BELOW
How many blades do we need? Each generates lift causing rotation, but also generates drag,
slowing them down. Using this wind turbine model, with one blade, it's slow, unstable, produces
low voltage, and easily stops – not a good design. With two blades, it self-starts, more stable,
and produces higher voltage. Three blades slightly higher voltage, harder to stop. Four blades,
slightly higher voltage. However, with five blades, the voltage starts to drop, and at six blades,
even lower voltage but very hard to stop. The three, four, and five-blade versions produce the
most energy. The three-blade version is stable and cost-effective, making it the obvious choice,
while two blades are common in medium-sized turbines for cost and stability.
So, breaking down the whole wind turbine blade thing – having more blades is like a game of
pros and cons. One blade? Super slow and shaky. Two blades? It starts by itself, stable, and
kicks up the voltage. But guess what, three blades top the chart – more energy, still stable, and
cheaper to build. It's like the sweet spot. Then, it gets a bit wonky with four and five blades –
voltage goes up a bit, but not as efficient. Six blades? Voltage drops, but it's a beast to stop. So,
three blades for the win, unless you're dealing with medium-sized turbines where two blades are
a cool compromise for cost and stability. Balancing act, right?
Problems arising Wind Turbines

Constant Noise:
● Issue: Complaints about wind turbine noise, potentially affecting mental health.
● The persistent hum of wind turbines has sparked complaints, with concerns arising about
its potential impact on mental health and well-being.
Mechanical Noise:
● Issue: Generated by moving parts like gearboxes and shafts.

● Turbine operations generate mechanical noise from moving parts such as gearboxes
and shafts, contributing to the array of sounds associated with wind energy.
Vibration-induced Sound:
● Issue: Unstable vibrations from turbine blades and structures.

● Unstable vibrations stemming from turbine blades and structures produce additional
noise, posing challenges related to both auditory disturbances and structural integrity.
Homesteader Stories:
● Issue: Historical accounts linking constant wind noise to mental distress.

● There are stories of homesteading settlers, driven insane by the constant west Texas
wind, running out of there homes and across the plains, never to be seen again!
Shadow Flicker:
· Issue: Intermittent shadows caused by rotating wind turbine blades.
· When the sun aligns with the rotating blades, it creates a flickering shadow effect on the
ground or nearby structures. The repetitive nature of this phenomenon can be visually
bothersome for residents, especially those living near the turbines.
Energy Management in Buildings
Intro
Buildings has become an integral part of the landscape in cities. The purposes of these
buildings can range from residential to commercial to institutional. And like every infrastructure,
these buildings rely on energy to function properly. The energy consumption in buildings
constitutes about 40% of the total energy consumption in the EU. Considering that 30% of that
energy is wasted, the need for smart systems to save some energy in buildings becomes more
vital.
Building Modeling for Energy Efficiency Applications
Building modeling for energy efficiency aims to minimize energy consumption while ensuring
comfort and functionality. It involves developing models to predict energy usage, optimize
control strategies, and identify areas for improvement. These models can be physics-based,
empirical, or hybrid, incorporating inputs such as building geometry, materials, occupancy
schedules, and weather data. Validation and verification are crucial to ensure accuracy.
Applications include energy auditing, design optimization, control optimization, and policy
analysis. Overall, building modeling for energy efficiency is essential for reducing energy
consumption and promoting sustainability in the built environment.
Classic vs Predictive Control Strategies
Classic Control Strategies:
Definition: Classic control strategies rely on feedback mechanisms to maintain system

stability and achieve desired performance. They typically involve proportional, integral,
and derivative (PID) controllers or other traditional control algorithms.
Operation: These strategies react to the current state of the system, making
adjustments based on measured feedback signals. They aim to maintain setpoints and
stabilize system behavior.
Advantages:
● Well-established and widely understood.
● Robust and reliable in stable operating conditions.
● Effective for systems with known dynamics and steady-state behavior.
Limitations:
● Limited ability to anticipate future changes or disturbances.
● Reactive in nature, leading to potential delays in response to system changes
● May struggle with non-linear, time-varying, or complex systems.
Predictive Control Strategies:
Definition: Predictive control strategies use mathematical models of the system to

predict future behavior and optimize control actions accordingly. They anticipate future
states and adjust control inputs to achieve desired performance while considering
constraints.
Operation: These strategies utilize dynamic models of the system to predict future
states and optimize control inputs over a specified prediction horizon. They incorporate
optimization algorithms to find the best control actions based on predicted outcomes.
Advantages:
● Forward-looking and proactive, enabling preemptive action to avoid undesirable states.
● Better suited for non-linear, time-varying, or complex systems.
● Can handle constraints and optimize control actions over a specified horizon.
Limitations:
● Reliance on accurate dynamic models, which may be challenging to develop or
identify.
● Computational complexity can be higher compared to classic control strategies.
● Vulnerable to model inaccuracies or uncertainties, which can affect performance.
In summary, classic control strategies offer simplicity, robustness, and reliability but
may lack foresight and adaptability to dynamic changes. On the other hand, predictive
control strategies provide proactive control by leveraging dynamic models and
optimization techniques but require accurate models and may be computationally
demanding. The choice between these two approaches depends on the specific
characteristics of the system, the level of uncertainty, and the desired performance
objectives.
Controller Selection for Building Energy Management
Building energy management interfaces with different boundary levels and control
loops. It all depends on the level of complexity to put into the mathematical formulation.
However, from a very high-level perspective, three different control hierarchies can be
introduced:
Power generation/distribution system: this includes a top-level view of the control

hierarchy, where a building (as individual load) or a smart grid (as a set of loads) are
integrated with electrical and thermal generation systems (PV panels, wind turbines,
diesel generators, industrial heat pumps etc) for energy market optimization purposes.
The control system in this level is designed in a larger sampling time, usually in hour(s)
range.
Load level: This includes the control of an individual building (residential or commercial)
including all thermal and electrical devices such as heat pumps, water tanks, batteries,
local renewable, and the building’s thermal zones. The control system in this level is
designed in a medium sampling time, usually in a minute(s) level.
• Thermo/electrical equipment: This includes the bottom level of the control hierarchy,
where the inner control loops of the thermo/electrical devices are taken into account,
for example:
– control of the refrigerant cycle including fans, valves, and compressor

– control of the water flow rate within the heat pump condenser
– control of the heat exchangers
– control of battery energy flow
– control of air handling units and fan coils
Control hierarchy and levels of integration: the yellow(light) zone shows the part where
the system behaves dynamically.
Building Energy Management System

Energy systems play a crucial role in buildings and facilities, carrying significant associated
costs. They are pivotal for the success of businesses and services derived from these
structures. Efficient energy management becomes paramount to safeguard the core business,
facilitating precise and automated control over energy systems and supply. Energy management
systems, such as Building Energy Management Systems (BEMS), are computer-based tools
overseeing and regulating mechanical and electrical equipment in buildings. Commonly
integrated with Building Management Systems (BMS), which automate various building
services, including energy management, BEMS connect components to a central computer for
controlling different variables. This chapter explores Energy Management Systems (EMS) and
strategies for achieving energy monitoring, savings, and the realization of smart homes. Case
studies will be presented to analyze energy conservation and the reduction of electricity
expenses. The implementation of BMS and BEMS is deemed essential for complete
deployment and integration with smart grids.
The team is developing an ontology-based framework for energy management in buildings.

They've divided the functional architecture of a building energy management system into three
interconnected modules: the Building Management System (BMS), Benchmarking (BMK), and
Evaluation & Control (ENC) modules. The BMS module is tasked with measuring various
environmental parameters and real-time energy consumption in the building. The BMK module
provides essential context and causation information for building energy efficiency or
inefficiency, distinguishing normal and abnormal energy consumption in different scenarios. The
ENC module evaluates information from both the BMS and BMK modules, contextualizes it, and
determines the causes of energy inefficiency/abnormality along with mitigating control actions.
The methodology for designing appropriate ontology and inference rules for these modules is
also discussed.
Utilizing actual data from three different rooms in a commercial building in Singapore, the team
has developed a case study demonstrating the application and advantages of the proposed
framework. By addressing the appropriate causes of abnormal inefficiency, they achieved 5.7%,
11.8%, and 8.7% energy savings in Room 1, Room 2, and Room 3, respectively, while
minimizing inconvenience for the users.
Improving Energy Efficiency in HVAC Systems in Buildings

HVAC systems, encompassing heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning, constitute roughly half
of a building's energy consumption during its operational phase. The notable disproportion in
energy usage between HVAC systems and other utilities in buildings raises concerns, given its
substantial contribution to global warming and climate change. This paper conducts a thorough
examination of the current status and trends in energy consumption linked to HVAC systems.
The primary objective is to scrutinize energy efficiency practices aimed at enhancing the
consumption efficiency of HVAC systems within buildings, particularly in the context of
developing countries.
The study relied predominantly on secondary data by analysing the relevant body of literature
and proposing conceptual insights regarding best practices for improving the energy efficiency
of HVAC systems in buildings. The systematic review of the literature (SLR) was aided by the
PRISMA guiding principle. Content analysis technique was adopted to examine germane
scholarly articles and finally grouped them into themes.
Building upon the systematic literature review (SLR), the study categorized measures aimed at
bolstering the energy efficiency of HVAC systems in buildings. These measures were stratified
based on economic considerations, spanning from economically feasible options like fine-tuning
system operations, implementing zonal control systems, incorporating building-integrated
greenery systems, and passive solar designs. On a larger scale, substantial approaches were
explored, including the integration of HVAC smart technologies for energy management, albeit
with multi-year payback periods.
Moreover, the investigation revealed a spectrum of practices designed to enhance energy

efficiency in buildings. This spectrum encompasses integrating green systems directly into
buildings, presenting a holistic approach that goes beyond HVAC systems. Additionally, it
emphasized the importance of human-centered controls in HVAC systems, tailoring the
operation to meet human modalities. The recognition of such diverse strategies underscores the
nuanced nature of optimizing energy efficiency in the built environment, taking into account both
economic feasibility and human-centric considerations.For instance, within the realm of low-cost
measures identified through the systematic literature review, the implementation of zonal control
systems emerged as a practical example. By strategically dividing a building into different
zones, each equipped with its own thermostat and controls, occupants gain the ability to
customize the temperature settings based on their preferences. This not only optimizes comfort
but also contributes to energy efficiency by directing heating or cooling resources where they
are most needed.
On the other end of the spectrum, considering major approaches, the incorporation of HVAC
smart technologies serves as a noteworthy example. These technologies utilize advanced
sensors and algorithms to dynamically adjust heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning

operations based on real-time occupancy and environmental conditions. While such innovations
may involve a higher upfront cost, the potential for significant energy savings over the long term
positions them as strategic investments with a multi-year payback period.
Building Energy Management System through interaction with the distribution network –
3Smart EMS
The 3Smart EMS is the main result of the 3Smart project. The largest innovation of the project is
in vertical bi-directional synchronization which is executed through modules with simple
interfaces. Modules allow optimal operation of the building and grid and simple upgrade of
those modules on existing management systems
Example in a case study;

The proposed method is applied to a two-story building,which is used as a student
dormitory in the EKTENE-POL area in the city of Xanthi, Greece. Technicalinformation
and design documentation of the building,and real data on the total electricity and
thermal energyconsumptions for the operation of the building duringthe three years
2002–2004, were gathered during sev-eral site visits and audits. All available energy
consump-tion data were analyzed, and the current energysituation is presented in Figure
2. Losses to environ-ment are calculated as the difference between totalthermal energy
input and estimated thermal energyused. Based on these results, the Mean Annual
ELectricEnergy Consumption (MAELEC), the Mean AnnualTHermal Energy Consumption
(MATHEC), and theMean Annual TOtal Energy Consumption (MATOEC),considering the
total surface, are 24.9 kWh/m.
The reference system is the energy system of the build-ing composed of the electric and
thermal energy con-sumption network (Fig. 3). According to Karlsson[2006], it is
essential to find the components of thesystem, how they are connected, the boundary
and theconnection between the system and its surroundings. Inthis case,
the hypersystem to which the reference sys-tem belongs is the total building that
consists of thewater supply and drainage networks, the structural ele-ments of the
building (building shell) and the residentsof the building ( parallel systems). The
subsystems con-tained in the reference system are:
•the “Thermal energy producers” composed of theburner and the boiler

•the “Thermal energy consumers” composed of radiators and hot water for domestic use
•the “Hot water distribution networks” composedof piping, circulators and thermostats
•the “Electricity consumers” composed of thetypical electric appliances in each
apartment suchas white goods (e.g., electric stoves and refrigera-tors), TV sets, PCs,
lighting devices, and fans.Moreover, the boiler (when used for heatingwater for domestic
use during summer months),the burner and the circulators fall into this sub-system as
well, because they are powered byelectricity.
•the “Electricity distribution network” com-posed of cables and devices required to
transferelectricity from Public Power Corporation(PPC) network to the subsystem
“Electricity consumer’.
Reference:
Sayed, Khairy & A.Gabbar, Hossam. (2018). Building Energy Management Systems
(BEMS). 10.1002/9781119422099.ch2.
Lork, Clement & Choudhary, Vishal & UL Hassan, Naveed & Tushar, Wayes & Yuen, Chau
& Ng, Benny & Wang, Xinyu & Liu, Xiang. (2019). An Ontology-Based Framework for
Building Energy Management with IoT. Electronics. 8. 485. 10.3390/electronics8050485.
Nuclear Energy Resources
What is Nuclear Energy?
Nuclear Energy is energy in the nucleus,the core of an atom. These atoms are tiny units that
make up all matter in the universe,and energy is what holds the nucleus together. There is a
huge amount of energy in an atom's dense nucleus.In fact,the power that holds the nucleus
together is officially called the "strong force."
Nuclear energy can be used to create electricity, But it must be first released from the atom in
the process of nuclear fission; atoms are split to release that energy.
Why Uranium-235?
Uranium is the fuel most widely used to produce nuclear Energy. That is because uranium
atoms split apart relatively easily. Uranium is also a very common element found in rocks all
over the world.
However,the specific type of uranium used to produce nuclear energy called U-235 is rare.
U-235 is an isotope of Uranium atoms which has 92 protons and 143 neutrons. The
arrangement of particles within uranium -235 is somewhat unstable and the nucleus can
disintegrate. This process is what we call nuclear fission.
The Process of Nuclear Fission

1. Initiation: A neutron collides with the nucleus of a fissile atom, typically uranium-235 or
plutonium-239, causing it to become unstable.
2. Fission: The unstable nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei, releasing a significant amount of
energy. Along with the nuclei, several neutrons are also emitted.
3. Chain Reaction: The released neutrons may collide with other fissile nuclei, causing them to
undergo fission, and releasing more neutrons. This process repeats, creating a chain reaction.
4. Heat Generation: The energy released during fission is primarily in the form of heat. This
heat is used to produce steam from water in a nuclear reactor.
Nuclear Reactor
Parts and Processes Nuclear Reactors

This is pretty much ground zero for a nuclear reactor. The overarching
structure is called the containment vessel. With its layers of thick concrete
and steel, it's intended to protect against radiation leaking into the
environment. You can also see the reactor itself.
Now we're looking at the very core of the reactor, the coolant-filled vat where
the fuel and control rods are located. The fuel rods are drawn in red and the
control rods are blue. Moving the control rods regulates the rate of the
nuclear reaction (and the heat generated). Submerging the control rods
shuts down the power plant completely.
The blue pipe on the left pumps cold coolant into the reactor core while the
red pipe on the right draws hot coolant into the steam generator, the second
vessel you see here. The pumps that keep coolant flowing throughout the
system are critical to the safe functioning of a nuclear reactor.
The steam generator then sends the collected steam to the turbine by way of
a steam line (at top). At last, the steam drives a turbine.
In this picture, we get a good look at the turbine (above) and the cooling
water condenser (below). The condenser ultimately will send the newly
cooled liquid it produces back to the steam generator to maintain the core
temperatures needed there.
The cooling water condenser also sends coolant to the coolant tower.
The coolant tower does what its name implies -- decreases the temperature
of the liquid moving through it so it's ready to head back toward the
condenser or, in some models, be discharged into the environment. The
vapor that you see rising from a cooling tower is just ordinary water.
Radiation
Radiation is naturally present in our environment. It can come from the sun and from certain
rocks. Nuclear power plants also create radiation from the fuel they use and the process of
creating electricity. Radiation must be managed carefully as too much can hurt people and the
environment.
Radiation is trapped and contained in several ways:
• Inside small ceramic pellets that are inside long metal rods
• Inside a "reactor vessel" where the fission takes place
• Inside the "containment building" that covers the reactor vessel and which is three to five feet
thick!
Small amounts of radioactivity can be released into the environment but only under controlled
and monitored conditions.
Radioactive Materials
Radiation is naturally present in our environment and is created by fission – splitting the atom to
create electricity.
Although too much radiation is harmful, there are many useful ways to use radiation to help
people.
Uses in Industry
A large piece of equipment called an irradiator can be used to sterilize medical equipment and
even donated blood. The exposure to radiation kills germs and prevents the spread of disease.
Uses by Doctors and Veterinarians
Hospitals, doctors, dentists, and even veterinarians use radioactive materials. The materials
help diagnose and treat illnesses, such as cancer. They are also used to study diseases.
Uses by Scientists or Teachers
Some universities and colleges, high schools, and other academic and scientific institutions use
radioactive materials in laboratory experiments and research.
Security:
Security in the context of nuclear energy encompasses various aspects, including physical protection of
nuclear facilities, safeguards against nuclear proliferation, and measures to prevent unauthorized access to
nuclear materials.
1. Physical Security of Nuclear Facilities:
Ensuring the physical security of nuclear facilities is crucial to prevent unauthorized access and potential
acts of terrorism. Security measures include:
a. Access Controls:
● Strict access controls and background checks for personnel with access to sensitive areas.
● Use of biometric identification systems, access cards, and surveillance.
b. Perimeter Security:
● Fencing, barriers, and intrusion detection systems to secure the outer perimeter.
● Regular patrols and surveillance of the facility's surroundings.
c. Armed Guards:
● Trained and armed security personnel to deter and respond to security threats.
● Coordination with local law enforcement for additional support.
d. Emergency Response Plans:
● Well-defined emergency response plans to address various security scenarios.

● Regular drills and exercises to test the effectiveness of response measures.
2. Nuclear Material Security:
Preventing the theft or unauthorized use of nuclear materials is a critical aspect of nuclear security.
a. Material Accounting and Control:
● Rigorous accounting and tracking of nuclear materials throughout the fuel cycle.
● Implementation of international safeguards to monitor and verify material inventories.
b. Secure Transportation:
● Secure transportation protocols for the movement of nuclear materials.

● Use of armored vehicles, satellite tracking, and coordination with security forces during transport.
c. Container Security:
● Radiation detection systems to screen containers for the presence of nuclear materials.
● Inspection and verification of cargo at borders and entry points.
3. Nuclear Proliferation Prevention:

● Mitigating the risk of nuclear proliferation involves international cooperation, treaties, and
diplomatic efforts.
a. Non-Proliferation Treaties:
● Adherence to international agreements such as the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear

Weapons (NPT).
● Participation in regional and global non-proliferation initiatives.
b. Export Controls:
● Implementation of strict controls on the export of sensitive nuclear technologies.

● Participation in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) to regulate nuclear trade.
c. International Cooperation:
● Collaboration with international organizations, such as the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA), to strengthen nuclear security standards and practices.
4. Cybersecurity:
In the modern era, protecting nuclear facilities from cyber threats is essential.
a. Network Security:
● Robust cybersecurity measures to protect computer systems and networks.

● Regular assessments and audits to identify and address vulnerabilities.
b. Training and Awareness:
● Training personnel to recognize and respond to cyber threats.

● Promoting a culture of cybersecurity awareness among staff.
5. Public Communication and Transparency:
Maintaining public trust and confidence in nuclear energy requires transparent communication about
security measures.
a. Public Information Programs:
● Regular communication about security measures in place.

● Educating the public about the importance of nuclear security.
b. Community Engagement:
● Engaging with local communities to address concerns and share information.

● Establishing communication channels for timely updates.
Decommissioning:
Decommissioning is an integral part of the life cycle of a nuclear facility. It refers to the
systematic process of safely retiring and deconstructing nuclear installations, including reactors,
processing plants, and associated infrastructure. The objectives of decommissioning are to eliminate
potential radiological hazards, reduce environmental impact, and release the site for alternative uses.
Nuclear power plants are licensed by the NRC for 40 years. After that, they can ask to renew their
license to operate for more years, or they can shut down the plant. If a plant is going to be shut down, then
it must be "decommissioned." Decommissioning means taking steps to reduce the level of radiation so
that the land can be used for other things. This can be done in three ways. One way includes sealing off
the radioactive parts of the plant with concrete and steel, which allows the radiation to "decay" until the
land can be used for other purposes. The company must tell the NRC which method they are going to use.
The NRC has very strict rules for shutting down a plant. The NRC requires plants to finish the process
within 60 years of closing. It can be very expensive for power companies to decommission a plant. It may
cost $300 million or more! So the NRC requires plant owners to set aside money when the plant is still
operating to pay for the costs of shutting down in the future.
Radioactive Waste/Spent Fuel:
Radioactive Waste/Spent Fuel:
Spent fuel, also known as radioactive waste, is a byproduct generated during the operation of
nuclear reactors. When uranium fuel undergoes nuclear fission in a reactor, it produces energy and various
fission products. Some of these fission products remain radioactive and can pose potential hazards to
human health and the environment. This spent fuel is highly radioactive and needs to be managed and
stored carefully.
Spent Fuel in Nuclear Reactors:
In nuclear reactors, uranium fuel undergoes a controlled chain reaction, releasing a significant amount of
energy. During this process, uranium nuclei split into smaller fragments, producing heat and additional
nuclear byproducts. While some of these byproducts are stable and not radioactive, others remain highly
radioactive.
Formation of Radioactive Waste:
The term "spent fuel" refers to the fuel elements or assemblies that are no longer efficient for sustaining
the nuclear reaction. As the fuel undergoes fission, it transforms into a mixture of radioactive isotopes.
These isotopes can include cesium, strontium, iodine, and other radioactive elements.
Radioactive Characteristics:
The radioactivity of spent fuel diminishes over time, but it remains hazardous for an extended period. The
level of radioactivity depends on the specific isotopes present in the spent fuel. Some isotopes decay
quickly, while others have a much longer half-life, contributing to the long-term challenges associated
with managing and disposing of spent fuel.
Management of Spent Fuel:
After being removed from the reactor, spent fuel is typically stored in cooling pools at the nuclear power
plant. These pools provide both cooling and shisolarelding to reduce the heat and radiation emitted by the
spent fuel. As the fuel cools and decays, it may be transferred to dry storage, which involves placing it in
robust containers on-site.
Challenges and Long-Term Storage:
The management of spent fuel poses several challenges. One major challenge is the need for long-term
storage solutions. Given the extended lifespan of some radioactive isotopes, securing a safe storage
method for thousands of years is essential. Various countries are exploring deep geological repositories as
potential solutions, where the spent fuel would be stored in layers of stable rock deep underground.
Research into Advanced Fuel Cycles:

Ongoing research is focused on developing advanced fuel cycles that could potentially reduce the
long-term radiotoxicity of spent fuel. Concepts such as reprocessing and the use of fast neutron reactors
aim to extract additional energy from spent fuel and reduce the volume and longevity of radioactive
waste.

Energy Group 2 Written Report 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Energy Group 2 Written Report 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Republic of the Philippines

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ELECTIVE 1

Energy Engineering and Management

II. Solar Energy and Wind Energy Utilization . . .

III. Energy Management in Buildings . . . . .

IV. Nuclear Energy Resources . . . . . .

Types of Hydropower Facilities

○ stores energy by pumping water from a lower to a higher elevation reservoir

Advantages of Micro Hydropower

Disadvantages of Micro Hydropower

Hydropower in the Philippines

Hydro Electric Energy Potential

How Micro-Hydropower Plant Works?

The Intake: Screening Out Debris

The Penstock Pipe: Generating Pressure

process is important to maximize energy for extraction.

The Turbine: Energy Conversion

There are two types of turbine; the impulse and reaction.

The Crossflow Turbine - A crossflow turbine is

The Turgo Wheel - The Turgo wheel is a variation of the

The Francis Turbine - frequently used in hydro electric plants. The

Propeller Turbine - The propeller turbine resembles a boat

Pump-as-Turbine (PAT) - Centrifugal pumps can be

Typical Efficiency of Turbines

Comparison Between Impulse and Reaction Turbine

Existing Hydro Power Plant

Ifugao Ambangal Mini Hydro Power Plant

The Ifugao Ambangal

This project provides

Caliraya Hydroelectric Power Plant

Location: Lumban, Laguna

Solar Energy and Wind Energy Utilization

SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

Example: photovoltaic panels (solar panels), solar thermal collector, etc.

Two types of Active Solar

· Direct- In direct systems, also known as air-based systems, air is heated by

· Indirect-also known as liquid-based systems, use a heat transfer fluid, often

Example: solar water heaters, hydronic solar space heating, etc.

1. The PV cells absorb sunlight

2. Electrons will begin flowing, creating electric current

Introduction to wind energy

· Turbulence − This is the chaotic movement of wind in unpredictable patterns. Turbulence

· Distribution of wind direction − This is more significant in positioning of the blades

Types of wind energy

There are three major types of wind energy.

· It is a green energy and is renewable.

· Wind energy is cheap

· Wind energy is dependent on how much wind is blowing

· It needs large space

· Transportation of stored energy

Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS)

Definition of a Wind Energy Conversion

A Wind Energy Conversion System

1. Wind Turbines for Electricity Generation:

Wind turbines are a common and highly

2. Windmills for Water Pumping:

Wind energy conversion systems are

There are two types of rotational axes: horizontal and vertical.

1. A horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) is the

· Blades are mounted on a

· Most commonly used due to its

Advantages of Horizontal Axis Machines

· The generator and gearbox can