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NotesNs by Understand
UPSC
Polity September 2023 ·
I
1. 106th CAA 2023 1.1. MoU signed to establish 'India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor’
- to provide for one-third reservation to women in Lok Sabha, State Assemblies (including Delhi) - between India, US, Saudi Arabia, EU, UAE, France, Germany, and Italy
->Provisions: New articles added A-239AA (Delhi) ,A-330(SC & ST Seats), A-332(Assemblies) -railroad, ship-to-rail networks (road and sea) and road transport routes
- >15 year sunset clause + Periodic rotation after subsequent delimitation 2 A 334A) - Also vision for Hydrogen energy pipeline, digital connectivity & electricity
-

+reservation of 1/3rd seats across all Lok Sabha seats (not state wise) - this is part of Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII
+ WEF Global gender gap (India -127) -+ 8
% + 127ON Ggg
announced in 2021 during G7 summit UK+ seen as counter to (BRI))
Need for this legislature :: Under representation (14%) + overcome entry barriers
Significance of Project:: shift of global order towards Eurasia, Trade facilitation
in patriarchal nature of parties + Gender sensitisation + 73rd & 74th CAA succcess
-
economic unity, Diplomatic Collaboration, Secure Supply Chain
Concerns :: restricts voter’s choices + inequality +Non-Homogenous group +issues
like criminalisation t,rotation not after every election +Rajya sabha & state Councils Challenges:: Complex geopolitics of region(Israel-S.Arabia),lack of commitment
not included (though recommended by Geeta Mukherjee Committee (1996)) regarding financial cost, Challenge with multi-modal routes, security threats
-

2. SIMULTANEOUS ELECTIONS ( R N KOVIND Committee).

.
India's interest in Middle east :Diaspora , Energy Security, Geopolitical interests
55 countries ; 60% RE assets ; 30 % minerals , inthica : I-A forum Summit , India Tech & Eco Co-op program As-At Growth

1.2.↑Afrian Union : Significance for India->Championing cause of global south, to

&
-
,

- to synchronize LS, State elections, Local Body elections such that voters Corrido

in a constituency vote on same day(doesn't mean voting across country on same day)
foster multipolar world and a more equitable international order, support from
For Arguments : Impact on Governance, Massive expenditure , Prolonged deployment AU for Permanent Membership of UNSC, Resource diversification
of security personnel, disrupt normal public life Laste/Religion/Polarise
Challenges:: Constitutional , Logistical ,Impact to voter behaviour, political accountability 1.3.Global Biofuel Alliance ::launched by India along with leaders of UAE, USA,
Recommendations: Law Commission (170th report) + Parliamentary St Comm 79threport . .
Singapore, Bangladesh, Italy, Brazil, Argentina, Mauritius.
1. NITI Aayog (Discussion Paper, 2017): Conduct 2-phase simultaneous election - Members: seven G-20 nations, 12 Global org , 12 non-G-20 nations
3.Role of AI in elections - Predictive model , Real time analysis , Personalisation, - need to diversify sustainable fuel from 4 concentrated markets (USA Brazil
Biofuel India & India & global South
Indonesia Europe) constitute 80% of total.
Concern:Manipulation . erosion of trust, Cyber security Vulnerability, Accuracy & Quality of analysis
4. Personality Rights (PR) 2. What is Global south? Atboth + arget -

-
scholarships
Satellite Mission

-Countries often characterized as developing, less developed, or underdeveloped

- Right of a person to protect his/her personality under the right to privacy or property
and primarily located in Southern Hemisphere
- However not expressly mentioned in any statute in India or in international law.
Two components of PR::- - concept traced back to Brandt Report(1980)->divided North & South countries
based on technological advancement, GDP, and standard of living (Brandt Line)
1.Right to publicity (governed by statutes like Trade Marks Act & Copyright Act, 1957) -
5S : Samman , Sanwad , Samyog , Shanti ,
Samriddhi .

/HR : Respond , Recognize Respect , Reform

,

2. Right to privacy (governed under A-21 & SC judgment in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy case) Group of 77 (G-77) :: est in 1964 + to articulate southern nations eco interests in
Relevant Cases (Int'l Rome Convention TRIPS WIRO-PPT)
: , ,
UN and promote south-south cooperation + Group also called G-77 plus china
-Titan Industries case (2012):Delhi HC ->PR include right to not intrude upon their private space - China not official member + Total member of Group 134 including India
- DeepaJayakumar case Madras HC-> PR cease to exist after death +can't be inherited by legal heirs.
- Sakshi Malik case: Bombay HC->using another's image, without consent is illegal H eir 3. ·
INDIA -ASEAN
5. SECRETARIAT OF THE PARLIAMENT Gsyesdone)
+ Heu J Case
. :

=
popularity
a

Popularity in
Net
rea-lity - 20th
·
ASEAN-India &18th East Asia Summit (EAS) in Jakarta, Indonesia.
- ASEAN estb in 1967 (Bangkok Declaration)+ Secretariat in Indonesia
A- 98 (for parliament) & A-187 (State legislature) - Member of EAS : ASEAN nation+ India, Australia, NZ, China , S. Korea
- Separate secretariat for LS & RS but Parliament make law to govern staff recruitment etc. +USA Russia, Japan Key Highlight of EAS

mu
- Chairman & speaker have ultimate power to govern their respective secretariat. Key Highlight of India-ASEAN Summit - Reviewed implementation of EAS
- House secretary(admis head) same rank as cabinet secretary but varies in precedence level. - multi-modal connectivity and economic Plan of Action (POA) 2018-2022
Limitations:: Absence of legislative framework, alleged of partisanship, Lack of independent cadre corridor linking South-East -Welcomed adoption of new EAS
Func secretarial assist record keeping research/publications salary payment servicing Par Comm advising presiding officer POA (2024-2028) -> Mainstreaming &
-
: , , , , . -,
Asia-India-West Asia-Europe
implementation of ASEAN Outlook on
-

6. Citizenship Awarded to 108 migrants (from Pak ) .

-review of the ASEAN- India Trade in Indo-Pacific (AOIP)

- For citizenship Registration & grant certificate of naturalization C under Citizenship Act 1955. S Goods Agreement (AITIGA) -Reinforces centrality of ASEAN and
- Citizenship by naturalization acquired:: ordinarily resident in India for 12 Years which include ASEAN-led mechanisms in EAM
twelve months immediately preceding the date of application ↓ Constitutional Art. 5 6 7 8 Significance of India- ASEAN relations
: , , ,

-Article 11:: Parliament can make any provision regarding the acquisition and termination of citizenship. 1.ASEAN is central to India's Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific Vision
7. Disqualification of MPs & MLAs (A-102 & A-191)
->RPA 1951 enables the High Court to declare an election void. (if imprisonment sentence is more than 4. helps in countering Terrorism, Extremism &Transnational Crimes
2 years then under Section 8,lawmaker disqualified for period of imprisonment and further six years.
8. PANEL OF VICE-CHAIRPERSONS
-Under Rules of Rajya Sabha, Chairman nominates from among members a panel of VCs.
-Any one of them can preside in the absence of Chairman/ Deputy Chairman (But not in case of vacant).
- In case of Vacant seat of Chairman/ DC -- President appoints a member to perform Chairman's duties.
9.Parliamentary Committee report :: ‘Prison conditions, Infrastructure and Reforms’
- National Average Occupancy Rate in prisons across India is 130.2%(77.1% being undertrials)
- Only 0.6% of budget is spent on vocational/ educational &1% on their welfare activities.
30 %
)
- Prisons and persons detained therein are enumerated in State list. Understaffed by
Budget'
2. bilateral trade of USD 131.5 billion in 2022-23
3.Development of Northeast (IMT Highway & Kaladan Project)
Concerns: Widening trade deficit, Competing regional agreements,
Delayed projects, lack of connectivity , China Factor
4. Abraham Accords
-collective agreement b/w US, UAE and Israel signed in 2020
-Egypt - first Arab State to sign peace deal with Israel (1979), then
Jordan signed in 1994 , Bahrain, Sudan & Morocco also signed
Concerns:Changing Geopolitical Alliances in West Asia, fundamental
causes of Palestinian conflict not addressed (recent Hamas attack),
China’s Saudi-Iran diplomacy, Internal opposition by some section
5. India - Saudi Arabia relations
23

7
Poor prisoner program
=>
- PM of India & Saudi Arabia Crown has first summit-level meeting of
in

10. Delhi Special Police Establishment (DSPE) Act 1946 Prison development
-
-
fund India-Saudi Arabia Strategic Partnership Council (ISASP)
- enacted to investigate cases of bribery by central govt employees.=Model Prison Manual - ISASP: formed in 2019+ : To establish high-level council to steer the
- CBI derives powers from this act Indo-Saudi relationship+ India is 4th country with which Riyadh formed
- SC:: its 2014 judgment, which declared Section 6A of DSPE Act as unconstitutional, will have a -implementation of $50-billion West Coast refinery project discussed
retrospective effect (6A -> CBI to obtain prior sanction from central government to investigate Asian premiums : OPEC countries charge (extra charges) from Asian
corruption cases against an officer of the rank of joint secretary and above.) countries while selling oil in comparison to Western countries.
6. International Organisation of Legal Metrology (OILM) Certificate
-OIML-Certificate system - for issuing, registering, and using OIML
International Relations certificates, and their associated test or reports for measuring instruments
- India has become an OIML certificate-issuing authority.
1. INDIA and G20
(first time at New Delhi, with the theme “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” or “One Earth, One Family, One Future”) 7. UN Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITL)
- International Forum for economic cooperation + founded in 1999 + annual meeting with rotating Presidency -India hosts inaugural UNCITRAL South Asia Conference
- Troika : Previous - Present - Next Presidency (Current : Indonesia- India- Brazil) + No permanent secretariat - established in 1966 + mandate for further harmonization and
- Two Parallel tracks : Sherpa & Finance unification of law of international trade + 70 member body
Key Outcomes - UNCITRAL is not a part of WTO
- WTO deals with trade policy issues whereas UNCITRAL deals with
1. MoU to establish India Middle East Europe Economic Corridor
laws applicable to private parties in international transactions and is
2. Inclusion of the African Union (group of 55 countries) as a permanent member
not involved with "state-to-state" issues
3. Launch of Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA) to increase consumption of biofuels.
4.Consensus on G20 framework for GDPIR (Global Digital Public Infrastructure Repository respectively) 8. L.69 grouping ::meeting hosted by India, called for reform of UNSC.
New Delhi Declaration:: India is a leading country in L.69
For India leader global south
: ,
-G20 Principles on Harnessing Data for Development footprint expansion
,
, 9. FIVE EYES ALLIANCE : intelligence-sharing arrangement between
economic opp -,

-.G20 2023 Financial Inclusion Action Plan (FIAP) OPI SDS

, US, UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand
-India priorities Green der ,

-Launched: Resource Efficiency Circular Economy Industry Coalition (RECEIC) Multilateral lust led der
,
women - intelligence agencies of these five countries share signal, military
-Jaipur Call for Action for enhancing MSMEs’ access to information and human intelligence among themselves
 ECONOMY 6. Food Inflation
All India Consumer Price Index (Composition)
1. GDP & issues in Calculation (Base year 2011-12) - Food and Beverages (45.9%), Pan, Tabacco & Intoxicants (2.4%), Clothing
- GoI uses Income method to calculate GDP + MoSPI calculates quarterly GVA & Footwear(6.5%), Fuel & Light (6.8%), Hosuing (10.1%), Miscellaneous
at constant prices (2011-12) [Real GDP] & current prices [Nominal GDP] Government Measures to manage food inflation
- Real GDP accounts inflation whereas Nominal GDP not consider
- Nominal GDP is more often higher than real GDP (not always)
red Ina
-> - Export restrictions, Stock limits, Buffer stocks, Food Security scheme
Concerns with the current food inflation management system
- GDP Deflator : ratio of Nominal GDP to Real GDP (shows increase in GDP -Loss of Farmers’ Income, Policy Bias, Indirect tax burden on farmers
happened on account of higher prices rather than an increase in output) ⑭ 7. Digitalisation of Agriculture
Challenges with current GDP calculation methodology -Integration of cutting-edge digital technologies into the farm production system
- Accuracy of Data, Accounting of Unorganised sector, Exclusion of activities in GDP Latest initiatives in digitisation of agriculture
GDP is not a very good marker to measure development 1.Unified Portal for Agricultural Statistics: advanced agricultural data management
- Many key goods not included (peace, happiness, Social, Environment) platform + to generate crop estimates
2. National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture :- to achieve rapid development in
- Inclusion of social Harm India through use of modern technologies in agriculture.
2. G20 TechSprint 2023 3. Kisan Rin Portal : comprehensive view of farmer data, loan disbursement etc
-Joint initiative of RBI & Bank for International Settlements (BIS) ->> Farm Mechanisation in india is 40% (US-95%, Brazil-75%, China -57%)
-promote innovative solutions aimed at improving cross-border payments 8. National Logistics Policy 2022
Common types of cross-border payment :SWIFT codes, PayPal, GooglePay, Bitcoin. -to promote seamless and integrated flow of goods across country
Significance of cross-border payments - Reduce cost of logistics in India to global benchmarks by 2030
1. Ease Remittances (CAGR of 8%)
-Improve Logistics Performance Index ranking (in top 25 countries by 2030)
2. Facilitating Travel and tourism (contributed around $ 178 billion to GDP.) Eight Action Plan for Comprehensive Logistics Action Plan
3. Accelerating foreign investment ( inflow of US$70.97 billion in FY 2023) 1. Integrated Digital Logistics System 2.Service Improvement Framework
4. Financial Inclusion, Diversification in business, Globalisation 3. Standardisation of Physical assets 4. EXIM Logistics
Constraints
- - Different Govt regulations, Lack of std financial data, technology platform
5. Logistics Human Resource Development 6.State Engagement
incapacity, security risks, High cost & delay in settlements 7.Sectoral Plan for efficient Logistics 8. Logistics Parks
-Currently, BHIM UPI QR has gained acceptance in Singapore, UAE, Mauritius, Nepal and Bhutan
Challenges in NLP
1.Fragmented Logistics sector: Unorganized players control 90% of market
3.Corporate Governance 2. Lack of skilled workforce: Only 4.7% are formally skilled.
- System of rules, practices, and processes by which a company is directed and controlled. 3. Limited alternatives to first & last mile connectivity
- Revised G20/OECD Principles of Corporate Governance endorsed at G20 Summit in Delhi 4.Lack of logistics standardisation
Core Principles of Corporate Governance EIIT RASY , India in Logistic sector (2022) 1.Total Value $259 billion 2.Cost :13-14% of GDP
Accountability ,Transparency, Independence, Integrity, Shareholder rights, Risk Management 3. World Banks's Logistics index - India Rank 38
Annual Business Responsibility and Sustainability (ABRS) 9. Inland Water Transport (IWT)-Freight movement on waterway share 2%
-aim to link financial results with environmental, social and governance framework -Only waterways declared as National Waterways come under purview of
-SEBI directed only top 1000 listed companies to publish it Central Government + Rest remain in purview of respective State Government
Institution Function Importance of Inland Water Transport
- Cost savings (Road (1.36 rs/Tkm),Railways (1.36) ,Waterways (1.36 ))
1. SEBI - responsible for monitoring and regulating corporate governance of listed companies - Environment friendly: 1. Least fuel consumption per tonne–km
2.Institute of Chartered Accountants of India - issuing guidelines and standards for financial data 2. CO2 emission is 50 per cent that of trucks.
3. Institute of Company Secretaries of India - issuing secretarial standards primarily in terms of -Strategic importance : connectivity to North-Eastern Region
“Board of Directors Meetings” and “General meetings". -Tourism and Recreation - Reduces accidents
OECD (Organisation for Economic cooperation and Development) Issues associated with the development of IWT
- foster prosperity, equality and well being + 38 member but India not. -Unviability of projects: 111 notified national waterways, only 23 operational
4. Regulation of Crypto Assets -Low level of investment compared to road and rail modes
-Currently regulated under Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) 2002 -Clearance at Cross Structures/bridges
- Currently Cryptocurrency effectively legal (SC decision in 2020) Steps taken for Inland Water Transport
- These classified as Virtual Crypto Assets in Budget 2022 + Income Tax 30% & 1% TDS - Development of National Waterways(111 waterways -5 existing & 106 new))
Implication & Policy Response of Crypto Assets -Ro-Ro (Roll-on-Roll-off ) and Ro-Pax (Roll-on/Roll-off with passenger) Ferry
- Macro economic Stability + Safeguard Monetary Sovereignty+ Enforcement of FATF -IWT under Maritime India Vision 2030 -IWT under Blue Economy Vision 2047
standards + Financial & market Integrity + Address Fiscal risks & address tax evasion - World’s longest river cruise- ‘MV Ganga Vilas’
Global Regulation of Crypto Assets Inland Waterways Authority of India
- Markets in Crypto-Assets Regulation (MiCA) by EU- Ist Cross-jurisdictional crypto regulatory -Setup in 1986 under IW Authority Act 1985
- IMF-FSB Synthesis Paper on Crypto Assets endorsed by G-20 in recent summit Function:- 1. Conduct surveys, techno-eco feasibility 2. Dev &
5. TRAI presented paper on “Digital Inclusion in the Era of Emerging Technologies Regulation of NW 3. Assist & Advice govt on Inland water Transport
- to explore opportunity & challenges + How to make it more inclusive (Particularly MSME) 10. ‘PM Vishwakarma’ Scheme
- Emerging technologies:- Advanced & futuristic technologies like AI, 6G, Machine Learning etc - Envisages to provide end-to-end holistic support to traditional
Importance of Digital Inclusion in Emerging Technology artisans and craftspeople in scaling up of their conventional
-Future of Jobs Report 2023 by WEF- Data analysts & scientists jobs expected 30-35% increase. products and services (Central Sector Scheme)
- For MSME : Reduce manual efforts, Increase efficiency, easy access to finance , Increase reach -Duration: FY 2023-24 to FY 2027-28.
Challenges faced by MSMEs: Poor affordability of internet; building trust with online consumers, -Nodal Ministry: Ministry of MSME (18 Traditional Trades)
managing logistics; lack of knowledge and expertise to leverage digital technologies -Benefits under Scheme shall be restricted to 1 member of family.
Initiatives undertaken in India for MSMEs -Beneficiary not availed loans under similar credit-based schemes
CHAMPIONS(Creation and Harmonious Application of Modern Processes for Increasing Output Other such initiatives for Artisans
and National Strength) scheme: To promote use of modern technologies in MSMEs 1. National Handicraft Development Programme by Mo Textiles
Udyam Registration Portal: To register MSMEs business+ access various government schemes 2. Comprehensive Handicrafts Cluster Development Scheme
MSME Sampark: Digital platform connecting job seekers with recruiters (CHCDS) by Mo Textiles 3.PEHCHAN scheme by Ministry of Textiles
Open Network for Digital Commerce(ONDC):MSME to use digital commerce for business operations. 11. 4TH G20 Sustainable Finance Working Group Meeting
Challenges of Digital Inclusion in Emerging Technology - to mobilise sustainable finance to help ensure global growth and
stability, and promote the transition towards greener, more resilient,
-High costs of adopting (cheapest internet-enabled smartphone is 35.91% of avg monthly income) and inclusive societies and economies.
-Gender disparity (In 2021, 49% men & 26% women own Smartphone) + Cyber attacks +illteracy
12. ‘Off-Budget Borrowings (OBB)
Initiatives taken wrt Digital Inclusion in Emerging Technologies
-refer to borrowings that are not reflected in budget, even though
budgetary resources will have to be used for their repayment.
- OBB is not part of the calculation of fiscal indicators
-OBBs taken not by government directly but by another public
1. Universal Service Obligation Fund 1. National Policy on Electronics 2019 1.Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta institution on its direction
(under Indian Telegraph Act 1885 ) (producing 1 billion mobile handsets by 2025) Abhiyan: -aims to digitally literate 60 million
- to provide support for affordable access to
Article 293 (3) : States to take consent of Centre before raising
people (14-60 years age) from rural areas
telecom network to remote and rural areas 2. Design Linked Incentive Scheme any loan if they have any outstanding loan to Centre or loans
2. National Optical Fibre Network, aimed to 2.Digital Skilling Programme where Centre is the guarantor
connect all Gram Panchayats - focuses on skilling, reskilling and upskilling
3.National Broadband Mission 2019 :- students via internships, apprenticeships,
Ways of OBB: National Savings Schemes Government Fully
create digital fibre map and employment to 1 crore students in Serviced Bond, Domestic /Foreign Market borrowings, etc
4. Digital India Programme: 3 key vision areas i.e. emerging technologies 13. RBI's Financial Inclusion (FI) Index
Digital Infrastructure -captures the extent of FI across country by including details of
Governance & Services on Demand. World Bank : 10% increase in fixed broadband penetration would banking, investments, insurance, postal as well as the pension sector
Digital Empowerment of Citizens increase GDP growth by 1.38% in developing economies -FI was 60.1% for March 2023
 14.India’s household savings have touched decadal lows of 5.1% in FY23
15.Monetary policy Transmission (MPT)
-process through which policy action of central bank is transmitted to meet
ultimate objectives of inflation and growth.
16. BASEL-III CAPITAL FRAMEWORK
- developed by Basel Committee to improve banking sector’s ability to absorb shocks
-mandates banks to maintain a CAR or Capital to Risk-weighted Assets (CRAR) at least 8%
-RBI introduced Basel-III capital framework for All India Financial Institutions (AIFI)
(Mandate applicable to AIFI:- Exim Bank, NABARD, NaBFID, NHB, SIDBI)
17. Liquidity deficit : Banks do not have sufficient funds for credit demands by customers.
- RBI controls liquidity in banking system through Liquidity Adjustment Facility.
Reasons Behind LD
-RBI mandated banks to set aside an additional 10% net demand and time liabilities
-Payments of advance tax and GST by businesses :- shift of liquidity away from banking sector.
- Selling of dollars by RBI, increase in credit demand due to the festive season
18. INDIAN POST PAYMENT BANK
- established under Mo Communication with 100% equity owned by GoI
-registered under the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 duly licensed by RBI
- More than 6 crore accounts opened in past 5 years
Payment Banks
- estb on recommendation of Nachiket Mor committee
-Accept : Demand deposit upto 1 Lac, Mobile payment also
- Not Accept: FD, Term Deposits, recurring deposit, NRI deposits
12. GRESHAM’S LAW
- in a fixed exchange rate system, “bad money drives out good”.
-comes into play when exchange rate between two currencies is fixed by
government at a certain ratio that is different from market exchange rate
13. OVERNIGHT INDEX SWAP (OIS)
an interest rate derivative contract in which two entities agree to swap/ exchange
a fixed interest rate payment (OIS rate) for a floating interest rate payment.
14.Debt Market :where fixed income securities of various types and features issued and traded
15.Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for automobile and auto components
-extended for another year to 2027-28 + Nodal Ministry: Ministry of heavy industries
-incentives on a quarterly basis +Minimum 50% domestic value addition.
16.Technical Textiles :- engineered textile materials and products used primarily for
their technical performance and functional properties
- broadly 12 different categories including Agrotech, Oekotech, Buildtech, Meditech, Geotech
17. REPORT ON EMERGINGTECHNOLOGY HUBS OF INDIA
- Technology industry is decentralising to 26 cities with representation from tier-2 and tier-3 towns (Earlier 7 Major)
Why are IT companies moving operations to emerging hubs?
1. Rising cost of operations in major hubs (60-80% increase in real-estate cost).
2. Better access to skilled talent pool at lower cost.
3. Rapid development of infrastructure, skill diversity, startup presence,
(Governmental initiatives such as smart cities, tech parks, and incubation centres)
4. Growing proliferation of start-ups and incubatorsin emerging hubs.
(39 percent of tech start-ups established in 2022 are from emerging hubs)
18. MSME
-MSME Classification
1. Mircro : Investment not more than 1cr & Annual Turnover not more than 5cr
2.Small : Investment not more than 10cr & Annual Turnover not more than 50cr
3. Medium: Investment not more than 50cr & Annual Turnover not more than 250cr
-> 27% of the MSMEs are engaged in manufacturing and 73% are in services
-> On Udyam Portal: Micro registered MSME -96%
19.INDIA IS RUNNING OUT OF PHOSPHORUS
-Phosphorus is one of the macronutrients essential for plant growth
- India :-world’s largest importer (Phosphate rocks are majorly produced only from
two States in India, namely Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh)
20. Asian Premium extra charge being collected by OPEC countries from Asian countries
when selling oil in comparison to Western countries (implies "North Atlantic Discount".)
21. Coal Industry
- Dedicated Coal Corridors : high-capacity railway corridor that is exclusively meant for transportation of
coal across country
- Rationalisation of Coal Linkage: to reduce the distance in transportation of coal from Coal Mines to consumers