MECHANICAL SCIENCE II

Dynamics and Hydraulics

MECH 220
LO1 Dynamics

Performance Criteria:

A. Velocity as a vector quantity

B. Velocity-Time graphs
C. Relative velocity
D. Average velocity
E. Acceleration
F. Parallelogram method of obtaining resultant velocity.
G. Triangular method of obtaining resultant velocity.
H. Friction in horizontal plane.
LO2 Hydraulics

Performance Criteria:

A. Energies stored in a moving liquid

1. Potential energy
2. Pressure energy
3. Kinetic energy
B. Head of a Liquid
C. Energy components in moving liquids
D. Volumetric Flow of liquid
E. Mass Flow of liquid
Assessment & evaluation of grades:

Homework - 15%
Quizzes - 15%
In-Class Tests - 30%
Final Examination - 40%

Total 100%.
LO1 Dynamics - A. Velocity as a vector quantity

Dynamics is the study of moving objects whether they are large like a
boat or small like a cylinder

Example:
A cars speed could be 36 kilometres per hour,
• To truly define motion the rate that the object is moving must be known
along with its direction of travel,
Solution:
Car velocity would be 36 kilometres per hour in a northerly direction.
LO1 Dynamics - A. Velocity as a vector quantity

Solution:
Car velocity would be 36 kilometres per hour in a northerly direction.
LO1 Dynamics - A. Velocity as a vector quantity

Two-dimensional motion is more complex than one-dimensional motion

Example: a baseball could be moving both

horizontally and vertically at the same time
Solution:
the velocities can point in diagonal directions
• velocity (V)
LO1 Dynamics - A. Velocity as a vector quantity

Vectors have magnitude (size) and direction.

They can be represented in graphical or numerical form.

For example, the velocity of an arrow

travelling at 5m/s at 30 degrees from the
horizontal would be shown graphically as:

Note that the length of the vector is 5

units, with 1 unit representing 1m/s. And
numerically the vector is presented as: 5 𝑚⁄𝑠 < 30°
LO1 Dynamics - A. Velocity as a vector quantity

When dealing with vectors the standard

convention is to measure the angle of
inclination from the horizontal with a
positive angle sloping upwards and a
negative angle downwards:
A. Velocity as a vector quantity – (Plot velocity graphs)

Example:
Plot the following vectors 7<20ᵒ and 3<-45ᵒ using x & y axes
Solution:

7 < 20°

3 < −45°
Performance Criteria: Plotting vectors

Plot the following vectors using the x and y axes

a. 5<40°
b. 6<-35°
c. 2<-120°
d. 4<100°
C. Relative velocity

Relative velocity is a concept used in physics to describe the velocity of an

object or an observer with respect to another object or reference frame.

• It's essentially the velocity of one object as observed from the

perspective of another object
• Relative velocity is calculated by subtracting the velocity of the
reference frame or object from the velocity of the object being
observed.
C. Relative velocity (Adding vectors)

Vectors can be added both graphically and numerically.

Graphical Addition
Graphically the vectors are drawn in a combination where one vector is drawn
not from the origin but from the end of the previous vector.
Numerical Addition
When adding vectors numerically they must both be converted to Cartesian
form. Once this has been done the x components are added together and
then the y components are added together.
C. Relative velocity (Adding vectors Graphically)

Example: Solution:
Add 3<45° to 2<30° graphically
C. Relative velocity (Graphical Subtraction)

Subtracting vectors is very similar to adding vectors with the only difference
being that one or more of the vectors is a negative
How can a negative vector be plotted. The
process is the same as a positive vector other
than the direction is reversed.

Solution:
So, for example the vector −3 < 45°
would be plotted as:
C. Relative velocity (Adding vectors Graphically)
Solution:
Example:
Calculate the result of the vector
sum 5<30° +(-4<45°) graphically
Performance Criteria: Adding vectors Graphically

Assignment-2

a) Add 4<45° to 2<20°

b) Add 3<55° to 2<-20°
c) Add 2<75° to -2<20°
d) Add 4<-45° to 2<20°
Combining multiple vectors (Graphically)
Solution:
Example: Calculate the result of
3<60°+4<-75°+7<135°
Combining multiple vectors (Graphically)
Solution:
Example: Calculate the result of
-3<60°+4<-75°+7<135°
Performance Criteria: Combining multiple vectors (Graphically)

Assignment-3

a) Calculate the result of -3<60°+4<75°+7<-135°

b) Calculate the result of 3<-60°+4<75°+7<135°
c) Calculate the result of 3<60°-4<75°+7<-135°
Right triangle trigonometry
Y

B B

A A C
C
X
B B

A A
C C
Cartesian form vectors are given in an x and y components

Example:
Convert the vector 9<35° to Cartesian form. Solution:
• Graphically,
• Numerically.
Cartesian form vectors are given in an x and y components

"Cartesian" coordinate system, describes

points in space using coordinates based on
perpendicular axes;

So, the solution to the previous example

would be:

To distinguish between the x and y

component the x coordinate in preceded by
an ί and the y coordinate is preceded by a j.
Cartesian form vectors are given in an x and y components

Example:
Convert the vector 3ί+4j to polar form.
a. Graphically,
b. Numerically. Solution:
Adding vectors (Numerically Addition)
Solution:
Example:
Add 3<45° to 2<30° numerically
Adding vectors (Numerically Addition)
Example:
Calculate the result of the vector sum numerically, 5<30° +(-4<45°)
Solution:
Performance Criteria: Cartesian form vectors are given in an x and y components;

Quiz-1

a) Draw the following vector and determine their

horizontal and vertical components both
graphically and numerically: 8 < −60°
b) Convert the vector 4<35° to Cartesian form
c) Convert the vector 4ί+5j to polar form
d) Add 4<45° to 3<30° numerically, show your
answer in a polar form.
Combining multiple vectors (Numerically)
Solution:
Example: Calculate the result of
3<60°+4<-75°+7<135°
Combining multiple vectors (Numerically)
Solution:
Example: Calculate the result of
3<60°+4<-75°+7<135°
Combining multiple vectors (Numerically)
Solution:
Example: If a projectile is fired vertically,
what is the projectiles horizontal velocity
component.
LO 1 C. Relative velocity
Solution:
Example: A projectile is fired at 12m/s at
an angle of 20° to the horizontal. If the
wind is blowing at 2m/s at an angle of
180°, calculate the velocity of the
projectile relative to a stationary observer.
LO 1 C. Relative velocity
Solution:
Example: A ship is travelling at
12knots on a course of 105°
(measured from North). A 1.5
knot tidal stream acts on the
vessel at 315°, calculate the
vessels velocity over the ground.
Performance Criteria: Relative velocity

a). A projectile is fired at 8m/s at an angle of 20° to the horizontal. If

the wind is blowing at 2m/s at an angle of 180°, calculate
numerically the velocity of the projectile relative to a stationary
observer.
b). A ship is travelling at 10knots on a course of 100° (measured
from North). A 1.5 knot tidal stream acts on the vessel at 315°,
calculate numerically the vessels velocity over the ground.
D. Average velocity

Average velocity is a measure of the overall displacement of an object over

a specific time interval.

It's calculated by dividing the total displacement by the total time taken.

Mathematically, the formula for average velocity is:

D. Average velocity

Example: A cyclist went up a mountain at 1 mph and came down at 9 mph.

Calculate average velocity of the cyclist.

Solution:
E. What is acceleration, and how is it defined in dynamics

Acceleration is a fundamental concept in dynamics that describes the rate of

change of velocity with respect to time;

In simpler terms, acceleration measures how quickly an object's velocity

changes over time, either increasing (positive acceleration), decreasing
(negative acceleration or deceleration), or changing direction.

Acceleration is typically measured in units of meters per second

squared (m/s²) in the International System of Units (SI).
E. What is acceleration, and how is it defined in dynamics

Examples of acceleration in everyday life include:

• The acceleration of a car when speeding up or slowing down.
• The acceleration experienced by objects falling due to gravity.
• The acceleration of a roller coaster as it moves along its track.
• The acceleration of a person when jumping or changing direction
while running.
E. What is acceleration, and how is it defined in dynamics

What is the difference between linear acceleration and angular

acceleration?

Linear acceleration refers to changes in the velocity of an object moving

along a straight path, while angular acceleration describes changes in the
rate of rotation or angular velocity of an object around an axis.
• Linear acceleration is measured in units of distance per time squared
(e.g., m/s²), while angular acceleration is measured in units of radians
per second squared (rad/s²).
Comparison table
Linear Angular
Symbol / Symbol /
Quantity Equation Units Quantity Equation Units

Displacement 𝑠 metres, m Displacement 𝜃 radians

Metres per Radians per

Velocity 𝑣 second, m/s Velocity 𝜔 second, rad/s

Metres per Radians per second

Acceleration 𝑎 second Acceleration 𝛼
squared, m/s2 squared,rad/s2

Kilograms metres
Mass 𝑚 Kilograms, kg Inertia 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑘 squared, kgm2

Force 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Newtons Torque 𝑇 = 𝐼𝛼 Newton metres

Kilogram Kilogram metres

Momentum 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑣 metres per Momentum 𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔 squared radians per
second, kg./s second, kgm2rad/s

Work done 𝐸 = 𝐹𝑠 Joules, J Work done 𝐸 = 𝑇𝜃 Joules, J

1 1
Kinetic Energy 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 Joules, J Kinetic Energy 𝐸 = 𝐼𝜔 Joules, J
2 2
Power 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 Watts, W Power 𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔 Watts, W
E. What is acceleration, and how is it defined in dynamics

How is acceleration represented graphically, and what information can

be obtained from acceleration-time graphs?

Acceleration-time graphs typically plot acceleration on the vertical axis

and time on the horizontal axis.
• The slope of the graph represents the rate of change of acceleration
over time.
• Areas under the curve on acceleration-time graphs can provide
information about changes in velocity or displacement over specific
time intervals, as acceleration is directly related to changes in
velocity.
Figure: Acceleration-time graph
E. A velocity/time diagram

Velocity—time graphs are useful when studying dynamic systems as they

provide the instantaneous velocity and allow the displacement and
acceleration to be calculated.

These graphs have the time plotted on

the x-axis and the velocity plotted on
the y-axis as shown below:
E. A velocity/time diagram

A point to note is that the units used on each axed must correspond for the
following to be valid, usually the velocity is displayed in radians per second
and the time is in seconds.

The acceleration at any point is equal to

the gradient of the line at that point so
for the graph above between 0 and 10
seconds the acceleration can be
calculated as follows:
 E. A velocity/time diagram

Between 10 and 40 seconds there is no acceleration as the velocity is

constant and as such there is no gradient in the line. Between 40 and 45
seconds the acceleration is found by:

Note: The negative value shows that the

acceleration is negative and hence the object is
decelerating.
A velocity/time diagram

Example: Find the acceleration and the total

displacement for the following angular motion.
Solution:
E. A velocity/time diagram

The displacement covered is equal to the area

under the graph, so the total displacement is:

Example: calculate total displacement

E. A velocity/time diagram

The displacement covered is equal to the area

under the graph, so the total displacement is:
Performance Criteria: Average velocity, Acceleration, velocity time graph

1. A cyclist went up a mountain at 2 mph and came down at 9 mph.

Calculate average velocity of the cyclist.
Performance Criteria: Average velocity, Acceleration, velocity time graph

2. Find the acceleration and the total displacement for the following
angular motion.
Performance Criteria: Average velocity, Acceleration, velocity time graph

3. Calculate total displacement for following angular motion.

F. Parallelogram method of obtaining resultant velocity.

To find the resultant; you would make a parallelogram with the sides equal to the two
applied forces;

• The diagonal of this parallelogram will then

be equal to the resultant force.
• This is called the parallelogram of forces law.
G. Triangular method of obtaining resultant velocity.

The trigonometric fact that if v is a vector in forming an angle of θ with the positive x-
axis;

Then
• component x = v x sin
• Component y = v x cos
H. Friction in horizontal plane.

Friction in a horizontal plane refers to the resistance force that opposes the
motion of an object when it slides or moves along a surface in a horizontal
direction;
• This frictional force arises due to the interactions between
the surfaces of the object and the surface it's moving on;
H. Friction in horizontal plane.

The magnitude of the frictional force depends on

several factors:
Nature of Surfaces: The roughness or smoothness of the surfaces in
contact significantly affects the frictional force.
• Rough surfaces tend to have higher friction compared to smooth
surfaces.
H. Friction in horizontal plane.

The magnitude of the frictional force depends on

several factors:
Normal Force: The normal force, which is the force exerted by the surface
on the object perpendicular to the contact surface, plays a crucial role.
• The frictional force is directly proportional to the normal force.
H. Friction in horizontal plane.

The magnitude of the frictional force depends on

several factors:

Coefficient of Friction: This is a dimensionless constant that represents

the ratio of the frictional force between two bodies to the force pressing
them together. It's denoted by the symbol μ.
There are two types of coefficients of friction:
• Static Friction Coefficient (μs),
• Kinetic Friction Coefficient (μk)
H. Friction in horizontal plane

Friction is the resistance an object encounters when moving over another

surface. Imagine trying to slide a book across a table with your finger;

Limiting Equilibrium:
• When you apply a very small force to the
book, it remains stationary (At this point,
the static frictional force (fs) is equal to
the force you’re exerting).
H. Friction in horizontal plane

If the static frictional force were less than your force, the book would slide
forward;

fs = ꭎs x Fn

Where:
ꭎs is the coefficient of friction
Fn is a Normal force and equal to the mass of the book times g.
H. Friction in horizontal plane
Example: A 15kg box rests on horizontal surface. What is the minimum horizontal force
that is required to cause the box to begin to slide if the coefficient of static friction is 0.35.

Solution:
 Assessment Criteria: Friction in horizontal plane

A 12kg box rests on horizontal surface. What is the minimum

horizontal force
that is required to cause the box to begin to slide if the coefficient of
static friction is 0.4.
LO2
A. Energies stored in a moving liquid - kinetic energy K

When a liquid is moving, it possesses kinetic energy due to its velocity. The kinetic
energy Ke of a moving liquid can be calculated using the formula:

Where:
• m is the mass of liquid
• v is the velocity of the liquid
• Unit - kgxm²/s², or Joule (J)
A. Energies stored in a moving liquid - potential energy PE

In addition to kinetic energy, the liquid may also possess potential energy if it is at
an elevated position in a gravitational field. The potential energy PE due to gravity
is given by the formula:

PE = m x g x h

Where:
• m is the mass of liquid
• g=9.8m/s² is the acceleration due to gravity
• h is the height above a reference point
• Unit-Joule (J)
A. Energies stored in a moving liquid

The pressure energy stored in a moving liquid is a form of potential energy resulting
from the pressure exerted by the liquid. This energy is often referred to as hydraulic
energy or pressure head. The formula to calculate the pressure energy stored in a
moving liquid is:

Ep=P x V

Where:
• Ep is the pressure energy stored in the liquid.
• P is the pressure exerted by the liquid.
• V is the volume of the liquid.
• Unit – Joule (J)
B. Head of a Liquid

Head Pressure

Unit: m / fit / inch Unit: Pa / bar / psi

Pressure= x g x head

Where:
• is the density of liquid (kg/m³)
• g=9.8m/s² is the acceleration due to gravity
B. Head of a Liquid

Pressure= x g x head
Example:
 B. Head of a Liquid (Pascal’s 2nd law)

Pascal's law says that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid will be

transmitted without a change in magnitude to every point of the fluid and to
the walls of the container;

• The pressure at any point in the fluid

is equal in all directions.
B. Head of a Liquid (Pascal’s 2nd law)

More:
• Water
• Mass
• Weight
• Force
B. Head of a Liquid (Pascal’s 2nd law)
Hydrostatic paradox
B. Head of a Liquid (Pascal’s 2nd law)
Example: Three tanks of equal volume 1000 litters each, in one of them there is
water, in the other is lube oil and in the third there is sludge.
Calculate the pressure in each tank.
Take g=9.8m/s²
and h=5m.
Solution:
Performance Criteria: Head of a Liquid
Task: Three tanks of equal volume 1000 litters each, in one of them
there is water, in the other is lube oil and in the third there is sludge.
Calculate the pressure in each tank.
Take
g=9.8m/s² and h=5m.
B. Head of a Liquid (Pascal’s 2nd law)
Example: A downward force of 100N is applied to the small piston with
a diameter of 50cm in the hydraulic lift system.
a. What is the upward force exerted by large piston with a diameter of 2m?

Solution:
B. Head of a Liquid (Pascal’s 2nd law)
Example: A downward force of 100N is applied to the small piston with
a diameter of 50cm in the hydraulic lift system.
b. What is the mechanical advantage of this hydraulic lift?

Solution:
B. Head of a Liquid (Pascal’s 2nd law)
Example: A downward force of 100N is applied to the small piston with
a diameter of 50cm in the hydraulic lift system.
c. If the input force of 100N pushes the small piston down by 2m, how high will the large
piston rise?
Solution:
Performance Criteria: Head of a Liquid
Task: A downward force of 90N is applied to the small piston with
a diameter of 50cm in the hydraulic lift system.
a. What is the upward force exerted by large piston with a diameter
of 2m?
Performance Criteria: Head of a Liquid
Task: A downward force of 90N is applied to the small piston with
a diameter of 50cm in the hydraulic lift system.
a. b. What is the mechanical advantage of this hydraulic lift?
Performance Criteria: Head of a Liquid
Task: A downward force of 90N is applied to the small piston with
a diameter of 50cm in the hydraulic lift system.
c. If the input force of 90N pushes the small piston down by 2m,
how high will the large piston rise?
C. Energy components in moving liquids

The total energy stored in the moving liquid would be the sum of its kinetic energy and
potential energy, if applicable;

ET = K E + P E + Ep

Where:
KE is a kinetic energy stored in the liquid in motion
PE is a potential energy stored in the liquid motion and
Ep is the pressure energy stored in the liquid in motion
C. Energy components in moving liquids

Bernoulli's principle of conservation of the energy;

It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total

energy at any point of the fluid is constant.
• The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy or datum energy.

ET = K E + P E + Ep = constant
Bernoulli's principle of conservation of the energy
C. Energy components in moving liquids(Bernoulli’s theorem)
Example: Water flows through a horizontal pipe with a cross-section area of 4m² at a speed
of 5m/s with a pressure of 300,000 Pa at point A. At point B, the cross-sectional area is 2m².
a. What is the speed of water at point B?

Solution:
C. Energy components in moving liquids(Bernoulli’s theorem)
Example: Water flows through a horizontal pipe with a cross-section area of 4m² at a speed
of 5m/s with a pressure of 300,000 Pa at point A. At point B, the cross-sectional area is 2m².
b. Calculate the pressure at point B?

Solution:
D. Volumetric Flow of liquid

Volumetric flow rate, often denoted as Q, is a measure of the volume of

fluid that passes through a given cross-sectional area per unit of time.
• It's a crucial parameter in fluid dynamics and is commonly used in
engineering.
The formula for volumetric flow rate is:

Q=Axv

Where:
Q is the volumetric flow rate (volume per unit time),
A is the cross-sectional area through which the fluid is flowing, and
v is the velocity of the fluid
The units (m³/s), (L/s), (ft³/s)
D. Volumetric Flow of liquid

In summary, It's important to note that the volumetric flow rate remains
constant along a streamline in steady flow (where the velocity and other
properties at any given point in the fluid do not change with time).
• In cases of non-steady flow or where the flow pattern is not uniform,
the volumetric flow rate may vary with time and/or position within the
fluid.
E. Mass Flow of liquid

The mass flow rate of a liquid is a measure of the mass of fluid that passes
through a given cross-sectional area per unit of time.
It's a fundamental parameter in fluid dynamics and is often used in various
engineering and scientific applications.
The formula for volumetric flow rate is:

m= xAxv

Where:
m is the mass flow rate (mass per unit time),
is the density of the liquid,v is the velocity of the fluid,
A is the cross-sectional area through which the fluid is flowing, and
v is the velocity of the fluid
The units (kg/s), (g/s), (lb/s)
E. Mass Flow of liquid

It's important to understand that mass flow rate remains constant along a
streamline in steady flow (where the velocity and other properties at any
given point in the fluid do not change with time).
• In cases of non-steady flow or where the flow pattern is not uniform,
the mass flow rate may vary with time and/or position within the fluid.
Volume Flow Rate & Mass Flow Rate - solving the Problems
Example: Water flows through a circular pipe with a radius of 15cm at a rate of 1.5m/s
Into a storage tank. Calculate the mass flow rate.

Solution:
 Assessment Criteria: Mass Flow Rate - solving the Problems

Water flows through a circular pipe with a radius of 10cm at a rate

of 1.8m/s into a storage tank. Calculate the mass flow rate.