A Recent Review of NILM Framework:
2022 IEEE Intl Conf on Dependable, Autonomic and Secure Computing, Intl Conf on Pervasive Intelligence and Computing, Intl Conf on Cloud and Big Data Computing, Intl Conf on Cyber Science and Technology Congress (DASC/PiCom/CBDCom/CyberSciTech) | 978-1-6654-6297-6/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/DASC/PiCom/CBDCom/Cy55231.2022.9927902
Development and Challenges
Maheesha Dhashantha Silva Qi Liu
School of Electronic and Information School of Electronic and Information
Engineering Engineering
Nanjing University of Information Nanjing University of Information
Science and Technology Science and Technology
Nanjing, China Nanjing, China
maheewin@gmail.com qi.liu@nuist.edu.cn
Abstract— Development of sustainable energy management
solution is a promising research area with the energy crisis in
the world. Many studies have been conducted to implement an
electricity management solution which serves the load
monitoring at consumer level. Accordingly, Non-intrusive load
monitoring (NILM) provides affordable solution with one single
smart meter for data acquisition than Intrusive load monitoring
(ILM) which challenges the implementation because of the
hardware installation. Therefore, NILM plays a salient role in
energy management sector to implement a cost-efficient,
optimize, scalable and reliable solution. However, conducted
research works are incapable of applying to the real
environment due to the practical issues. This review paper
mainly focused on identifying the conducted literatures in
electricity management with NILM approaches. Therefore,
stages in the NILM framework are explained with the
approaches used in the current literature. This paper compares
the required conditions to implement a NILM solution in both
residential and commercial building in terms of data acquisition
and appliance level detection. Finally, open challenges are
discussed to formulate future research directions.
Keywords— Digital Environment Home Energy System,
Miscellaneous Electrical Load Appliances, Non-Intrusive Load
Monitoring.
I. INTRODUCTION (HEADING 1)
The demand of electrical energy management (EEM) is a
great challenge that need to be addressed with a universal
approach. Availability, accessibility, cost effective[1],
efficiency[2] and sustainability are encouraged in the
development of energy production. However, studies have
found that[3] control-optimized methods achieved higher
energy rates than estimate-predict methods. Therefore, there
is a high demand for a real-time energy management solution
with monitoring features.
The typical power grid has been modernized into
sustainable, secure, reliable, automated and intelligent shape
with the use of Internet of Things (IoT) integration in the
EEM. The “Smart grid” paradigm was developed to generate,
transmit and distribute electrical energy integrating Cyber
Physical Systems (CPSs) and IoT. It provides bidirectional
flow of electricity and information between utility and
consumers. The “Micro Grid” was developed as an essential
component of the Smart Grid and it provides the electricity
through a mixture of both renewable and non-renewable
energy sources. The Micro Grid was recommended for rural
electrification in SSA[4]. Due to the lack of ICT infrastructure
for electrification project and unavailability of internet
services for communication and monitoring of system health,
MG configurations have been limited.
978-1-6654-6297-6/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIV OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA. Downloaded on October 26,2023 at 06:39:30 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Oscar Famous Darteh
School of Electronic and Information
Engineering
Nanjing University of Information
Science and Technology
Nanjing, China
dartfamous@gmail.com
The world bank reported that the electric power
transmission and distribution loss has been decreased and
8.251% was lost from the output in 2014 in the world. It is
noted that electricity lost is increasing in rural countries. The
percentage was reported in Bulgaria as 9% in 2014[5].
To achieve energy saving, real time electricity and gas
monitoring and management system had been introduced by
DEHEMS project in UK and Bulgarian homes[6]. It
encourages consumers to explore and monitor the own energy
consumption and save the energy. Further, Different sensing
technologies such as Zigbee and OCR are used to detect
individual and overall energy consumption. Therefore, the
installation of the DEHEMS appliances will be expensive.
Monitoring energy usage by the consumer is very difficult to
continue. As a solution for this problem, Load monitoring is
introduced with three different approaches: Intrusive, Semi-
Intrusive and Non-Intrusive. ILM monitors energy
consumption via smart meters that are attached to each
appliance. Semi-intrusive utilizes a subset of smart meters to
capture a subset of the electric energy usage and infers the rest.
NILM enables to make use of a single smart meter to capture
the aggregated electric energy signal. Accuracy of the ILM is
higher and the scalability is less. However, NILM is the
preferred approach for real-time solutions, because it has
reduced the cost for several smart meters and minimize the
energy monitoring on the user.
This paper provides a comprehensive review of the NILM
framework with the development and open the challenges for
the future research works. The main contributions of this
review paper are, identify different approaches used in
electricity management with NILM and highlight the
challenges of the conducted research works on NILM to
identify future research directions. The remaining sections of
this paper are organized as follows. In section II: The
framework of NILM and the NILM workflow with the steps
are explained. Furthermore, research works conducted with
different NILM approaches are discussed and their
performance are compared. In section III: The NILM
framework for electricity load monitoring are explained and
recent projects were conducted with NILM to acquire the
higher efficiency in Load Monitoring. In section IV: Open
challenges and issues in the implementation are outlined and
it further explain why the conducted research works cannot
be applied in the real environment. Hence the research gaps
are highlighted for further research. Finally, section V
concludes the review.
 II. THE FRAMEWORK OF NILM
A. Non Intrusive Load Monitoring
The NILM concept was invented by Hart in 1984[7]. The
initial non-Intrusive appliances load monitoring concept
approached to simplify the hardware components in the power
grid with complex software components which provide
detailed statistics of load consumption of appliances. It tested
for appliances with ON/OFF states initially. Thereafter, NILM
has become a topic of conversation in the load research field
and large volume of research publications have done. NILM
is the preferred approach for load monitoring and Power
failure analysis. Further, it can be used to analyze the energy
consumption or energy characteristics of appliances as a result
electricity bill can be reduced and energy consumption can be
monitored[8]. In conclusion, NILM provides a cost-effective
simple hardware solution compared to the traditional
approach since one single smart meter is used to capture the
aggregated load of appliances.
B. NILM Framework
NILM focuses on a computational criterion to identify the
appliance load signature using the aggregated power collected
using a single smart meter. The aggregated power (P(t))
measured by a smart meter at a given time can be defined as
follows:
(1)
Where Xi (t) is 1 when the power of the ith appliance is ON, Xi
(t) is 0 when the power of the ith appliance is OFF, Pi(t) is the
power consumption of the ith appliance and Pnoise(t) is denoted
by the power measurement because of the noise at a given time
t.
Fig. 1 shows the typical framework of the NILM which
includes data acquisition and data processing, event detection,
feature extraction and load decomposition[9].
Fig. 1. Typical NILM Framework
NILM process start from the data acquisition stage which
refers to collect load data of selected appliances. As most
smart meters only support the aggregate measurements,
changes of the aggregated electrical measurements were used.
Depend on the energy consumption pattern of appliances,
classification of the appliances can be as follows[10]:
• Type I: Appliance with ON/OFF states.
• Type II: Finite state machines (FSM) with a finite
number of operation states.
• Type III: Continuously varying devices with variable
power consumption
• Type IV:Appliances that stay ON for days or weeks
and with a constant power
The approaches applied in the data acquisition stage can
be classified into two categories such as event-based and
optimization-based (State-based). Event-based NILM
approaches are based on the on the state transitions (Power
ON or OFF) of the appliances on the collected aggregated load
data[11].Table II shows algorithms used in Event-based
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIV OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA. Downloaded on October 26,2023 at 06:39:30 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
NILM approaches to identify the appliance signature since all
appliances have unique energy pattern. On the contrary, In the
state-based approaches, the appliance is considered as a finite
state machine (Type II) and then the appliance signature is
identified on aggregated data based on the model trained[12].
Therefore, statistical methods are used to classify the
appliances hence the computational part is more complex in
the optimization-based NILM approaches.
TABLE I. ALGORITHMS USED IN THE EVENT-BASED APPROACH OF
THE LOAD ACQUISITION STAGE .
Algorithms used Features Used
A sliding window Variance and mean absolute deviation of
algorithm[11] the load data
Cumulative Sum Signal changes of the smaller power loads
algorithm[13] (linear and active loads, reactive loads of
appliances)
Hybrid event Detect the switching events of appliances
detection using the mean value of the electrical
algorithm[14] signal. Then use a derivative analysis and
filtering analysis to remove anomalies
(wrongly detected fluctuations).
cost Goodness of Detect events before and after. (Power
Fit method distribution is used)
Furthermore, different sampling frequencies can be used
for the data collection at the interface end by controlling the
time instant between states(ON and OFF state) with reference
to voltage-time cycle. Firstly, Low sampling rate (less than 1
Hz) are typically used for NILM, because aggregated data can
be collected by the smart meter without any modification.
Although, low sampling frequencies require low-cost
hardware, it is limited in applicability due to feature loss[15]
and computational cost for feature extraction on aggregated
data. In addition, Middle frequencies are suited for
identification of non-linear appliances[16] such as computers,
printers. Moreover, high frequencies (more than 10kHz) are
idle for Type I and II devices but less in applicability due to
the high cost and less noise.
Next, feature extraction stage refers to extract the load
electrical behavior of the appliance. Load feature of Type I
and IV appliances can be identified easily since the power
consumption is stable. But recognition of multi-state
appliances (Type II and III) is difficult since the disaggregated
data included the concurrent load features[15]. In overall,
Feature extraction can be divided into two main cases: steady-
state and transient-state. Transient-state identify features
during the transitional period between two steady-state
processes. On the other hand, steady-state extract features are
based on the fluctuations of power, voltage or current of the
aggregated load in the running state[9]. But the identification
of resistive load appliances is a challenge due to the similar
waveforms in most of the resistive load appliances. D. Jia et
al.[17] used reconstructed Voltage-Current(V-I) Images as
input data for the NILM framework. New features were
classified using Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
approach to identify the appliance. But the proposed method
worked for the electrical appliances with similar current
waveforms and sizes. On the other hand, T.T.H. Le et al.[18]
presented a method based on Hilbert Transform Long Short
Term Memory (HT-LSTM) to recognize appliances using
transient features of load data. The aggregated load data
collected in high frequency extracted transient features such
 as Instantaneous Amplitude, Instantaneous Phase and
Instantaneous Frequency by applying HT algorithm at the
training phase. Simultaneously, the transient segment data
was selected by capturing the event transition (count when the
user switch ON the device) and labelled it. However, the
training period was not stable at several period of times and
used the number of hidden layers as 1 for the learning phase.
In overall, The NILM method with low frequency data for all
types of electrical appliances is questionable.
Next, load identification is the learning and inference stage of
the NILM framework. It refers to analyze the extracted
appliance signatures and group commonly recognized power
states and filter the electric energy consumption of the
appliance. The approaches applied in the load identification
stage can be divided into three categories: supervised, semi-
supervised and unsupervised. In supervised learning, different
approaches such as Decision tree (DT), k-NN (k-Nearest
Neighbor), Deep Neural Network (DNN) are usually used to
identify the appliance through a learning process. Sreevidhya
C. et al.[19] presented a NILM algorithm with k-NN and DT
to monitor Type I, II and IV appliances. Z. Fang et al.[20] used
the Bayesian non- parametric approach for appliance state
extraction, Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique
(SMOTE) for mitigate the abnormal classes in switching
events and LSTM for appliance classification. Ultimately, the
Bayesian model limit for the Type II and IV devices. A DNN
based NILM approach was presented by H. Cimen et al.[21]
to identify the consumption and load status of each appliance
in a residential microgrid. In general, Recurrent Neural
Network (RNN) model is used to analyze time series using a
memory-based architecture. But the main issue in the RNN is
that when the number of parameters increases, the learning
capacity will be decreased. To address that issue, LSTM and
Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) was proposed[22]. In other
words, the hidden state of the appliance was used to reduce the
number of gates and states. However, the selected appliances
for the research represented only type I and II. On the other
hand, Y.H. Lin et al.[23] presented an AI (Artificial
Intelligence) empowered NILM framework with k-Means
clustering algorithm to identify individual electrical
appliances monitored in a realistic residential environment.
But it supported for limited number of appliances
simultaneously. A supervised NILM framework which
supports for all type of appliances is questionable. Next,
unsupervised learning approaches suggest practical solutions
to learn the appliance properties without a training data set.
Hidden Markov Model (HMM) is common in the NILM
framework for unsupervised learning. Z. Wu et al.[24]
combined the factorial HMM with an adaptive density peak
clustering algorithm to identify the working status of each
appliance automatically. However, the proposed model is
limited for the small-scale application since the performance
were decreased when the number of appliances were
increased. E. Azizi et al.[25] presented an event-based
algorithm. Results showed that the proposed method is suited
for low frequency data set which is collected real time since it
decreases the computation time and increase the
reconstruction accuracy. T. Bernard et al.[26] examined
modified k-NN, Hierarchical clustering approach (HAC) and
a custom build device matching procedure to find the
applicability of unsupervised machine learning technique
based on the several frequency band combination. A.U.
Rehman et al.[27] proposed a computationally efficient hybrid
event detection algorithm to disaggregated load data which
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIV OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA. Downloaded on October 26,2023 at 06:39:30 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
consist of diverse load elements. However, there is a research
potential using unsupervised learning approach for large-scale
environment.
Most researches in this field are conducted based on the
publicly available data sets including REDD[28]
,BLUED[29], PLAID[30]. Initial version (1.0) of the REDD
data set includes power data (current/voltage) of 6 different
homes collected in several weeks. In contrast, BLUED data
set consist of voltage and current measurements of a single
home residence collected in a week. Therefore, publicly
available data set facilitates to test the real time applicability
of different NILM frameworks tested with own data set.
In electricity management, Monitor the electricity
consumption helps to save the electricity wastage by
consumers[31]. Furthermore, studies shows that different
objectives were taken into account when implementing energy
management solution such as minimize the electricity bill[32],
minimize the power transfer loss[33], Anomaly detection[34],
protect the privacy[35] and improve the customer
satisfaction[36]. This section highlighted the approaches,
technologies and models used in the typical NILM
framework. Moreover, conducted research works in this area
were discussed with the comparison between different
approaches. Next section will be explained the demand of
NILM framework in different sectors such as residential and
commercial.
III. THE NILM FRAMEWORK FOR ELECTRICITY MONITORING
The lack of generalized NILM framework for both
residential and commercial buildings is the main issue in the
energy management sector. The appliance signatures used in
residential and commercial buildings are different.
Furthermore, In the commercial buildings, Appliances are
operated during the peak hours, low-power and non-linear
nature Miscellaneous Electrical Loads (MELs) applications
are commonly used, and load signature of MEL devices are
overlapped with the appliance features which are extracted
during the steady-state using low-frequency sampling method.
In addition to that the assets and the financial status are
different over the countries in the world. For developing
countries, computer resources are not sufficient to implement
a NILM framework for energy management purpose.
However, cloud based technologies and IoT helps to mitigate
that issue when implementing a NILM framework[15]. On the
other hand, many research works were conducted in
developed countries to save the electricity bill in residential
buildings. Therefore, this section explains the issues of
conducted research works which were aimed to monitor the
electricity in both residential and commercial buildings in
terms of data acquisition and event detection of NILM
framework.
A. Load Monitoring in Residential Buildings
Firstly, the appliance recognition, classification and
monitor the power consumption are taken into consideration
when implementing a NILM framework for residential
appliances. M.A. Devlin and B.P. Hayes[37] suggested a
NILM framework based on multi-layer feedforward neural
network that can identify home appliances and classify
household daily activities on aggregated load data. Proposed
approach supported to detect switching events of Type I
appliances with low-frequency sampling rate (0.0166 – 1 Hz).
On the other hand, S. Ghosh et al.[38] proposed a decisive
Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) optimization algorithm to pre-
 process unhealthy load conditions of aggregated data with the
encryption-based dashboard to control the loads. However,
the suggested solution requires more memory space
practically since the CPU performance can be reduced when
number of appliances are increased. H. Yue et al.[39]
implemented an unsupervised NILM algorithm to identify
appliances based on the active aggregated data. But it can be
produced incorrect results when there are different appliances
with same load signature. In overall, the future research works
can be done to implement a NILM framework which support
for all type of home appliances. Secondly, the multiple
operational times of appliances based on the demand is taken
into consideration when implementing a NILM framework for
residential buildings. A DNN based Time-Frequency (T-F)
mask model is presented by J. Song et al.[40] for the
disaggregation of flexible loads. However, the sufficiently
analyzed training load data of appliances are required to
implement the DSF feature. G.A. Raiker et al.[41] suggested
a Centre for renewable energy systems technology (CREST)
demand model that uses active occupancy of appliances based
on the probability depending on the time of the day. Factorial
HMM is chosen to disaggregate the load data. However, the
proposed framework is not tested in real time environment.
Therefore, Residential buildings required a cost-effective
solution while long-term complex solution is required by the
commercial buildings.
B. Load Monitoring in Commercial Buildings
The demand for an energy management system for non-
residential buildings has increased with the IoT. D.G. Perez et
al.[42] suggested a fully denoising Auto-Encoders (FCN-
dAE) based NILM model to learn the appliance in non-
residential buildings. The result showed that the framework
can be applied in the real environment. However, suggested
model did not support for adding new devices since it learned
the appliance signature through a training data set. To address
this issue, B.S.H. Chew et al.[43] proposed a NILM
framework industrial system. Importantly, suggested model
worked with the operating status of the newly added appliance
and created a training data set over the period using the time
distributed wrapper. However, the model could not be applied
with the type IV appliances. In conclusion, A scalable NILM
solution which supports for adding new devices are still
questionable.
C. Load Monitoring of MELs
In general, there are two types of devices in a workplace
such as short-lived (example: multi-functional devices,
printers, scanners) and long-lived devices (example: desktops,
laptops, switches, routers, etc). B. Kalluri et al.[44] proposed
a supervised middleware to manage MELs energy
consumption in office buildings. However, the proposed
middleware failed to identify the hidden appliance operations
in aggregated load signatures since it combined both short
lived and long-lived devices and classify using Symbolic
Aggregate Approximation- Vector Space Model (SAX-VSM)
based framework. Importantly, the conducted research works
which helps to identify load signatures of MELs were limited.
In addition to that MEL appliances are occupied with the
maximum electricity at present. Therefore, there is a potential
for NILM research works with the MELs appliances in
commercial buildings. This section provided issues of
developing a universal solution for load monitoring in both
residential and commercial buildings. Next section will
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIV OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA. Downloaded on October 26,2023 at 06:39:30 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
highlight the open challenges and issues when implementing
a NILM framework in different aspects.
IV. OPEN CHALLENGES AND ISSUES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION
A. Lack of Funds to Invest for NILM Framework
The lack of funds to develop an energy management
solution is the main issue in the EM field in the developing
countries. United Nations provide funds to implement a
sustainable reliable energy solution for economically
developing countries [44]. Moreover, Q. Liu et al.[4]
presented a Micro-Grid as a solution for rural electrification
in Sub Saharan Africa. However, the unnecessary interference
of the government, fraud and corruption interrupted to
implement a universal electricity plan in rural countries.
Further, the access for internet, computational tools and
technologies are limited due to the poverty. In conclusion, the
lack of funds is not the only reason for implementing a rural
electrification plan in developing countries.
B. Difficult to recognize new appliances
Appliance recognition is a main aspect when
implementing an energy management solution with NILM
approaches. However, recognition of new appliance is still
questionable due to several issues such as inability classify
appliances when the events are imposed during the acquisition
[45], produced vulnerabilities when the current characteristics
are similar in multiple appliances [46], inability to classify
appliances which works in same frequency level of loads[47].
C. No Universal Framework which supports all types of
appliances
NILM framework with all appliances are left open due to
the operating status. For example: G. Zhou et al.[48] presented
a neural network model based on dilated convolution for load
disaggregation. Due to the poor performance on multistate
appliances, the model could not be applied in general. On the
other hand, J. Yuan[36] proposed an EM method based on the
feature extraction of the electrical signal waveform. Proposed
unsupervised model support for all types of electrical
appliances collected at a high frequency rate. However, High
frequency data are expensive and provide accurate results.
Contrarily, Low frequency data are inexpensive but need to be
pre-processed before the event detection stage. In the existing
literature, many research works done to disaggregate the load
data to identify appliances. However, The research works
were limited to Type I and II appliances[22] [49]and
performed unsuccessfully on multistate appliances[48]. As
well as A.U. Rehman et al[50] evaluated 10 different
classifiers such as Support Vector Machine (SVM), Logistic
Regression (LR), DT, Random Forest (RF), k-NN, Gaussian
Process (GP), Multi-Layer Perception (MLP), Naïve Bayes
(NB), Quadratic Discriminant Analysis (QDA) and Stochastic
Gradient Descent (SGD) to identify an universal ML model.
However, the results shows that there is not a ML model
which fits for all. In conclusion, A universal cost-effective
(based on low frequency load data) framework which support
to all electrical appliances are left opened.
D. Research Works are Limited to the Computer Lab
Generalizability is the key issue in the NILM
investigations. Modelled frameworks tested with public data
sets but did not provide accurate results within the real
environment. For example: G. Cui[51] proposed a method to
estimate the electricity consumption based on DNN via
background filtering. But the proposed method provided
 accurate results with the appliances that the working duration
was less than the ideal duration. In conclusion, there is a
possibility to obtain more accurate results within the real
environment by the combination of both supervised and
unsupervised models.
E. No Public Dataset fir MELs Appliances
MELs appliances consume the largest electrical load in
commercial buildings. Understanding the load signature of the
MELs appliances are a promising topic. However, the
research work is limited due to the lack of public data set for
MELs appliances. On the other hand, Electrical load behavior
of the MELs appliances is different: appliances such as
desktop computer, laptops demonstrate steady and long-lived
characteristics. Contrarily appliances such as printer, scanner
demonstrate relatively short-lived. However, publicly
available data sets such as BLUED, PLAID includes limited
types of MELs appliances.
F. Privacy and Security Issues
Privacy and security issues apply in the demand side
management stage of the NILM framework. Many research
works assume that the consumer is in the original cluster.
When developing the NILM method with cloud computing,
different layer such as network layer, transport layer, session
layer will be involved. Therefore, a new secured middle layer
can be implemented to avoid the privacy threats. This section
highlighted open challenges and issues in the NILM research
area as future research directions.
V. CONCLUSION
This paper discussed the stages of NILM framework using
the current literature. The approaches used in each stage were
explained with drawbacks as well. Further, Challenges and
issues when implementing a NILM solution were discussed.
In conclusion, following points can be highlighted when
implementing a NILM solution as future research directions:
The solution can be implemented to detect the appliance
malfunction from the usual load figure. Many NILM
frameworks were developed to identify existing appliances of
the power grid. Therefore, identification of appliance load
signatures which are added to the framework in real-time
remain questionable. Appliance detection is done in current
literature using event detection or state detection. However, it
is required to identify the appliances which have similar load
characteristics independently. On the other hand, publicly
available datasets or frameworks which are implemented in
developed countries, cannot be applied for developing
countries. There is also a universal research gap to extract and
classify all types of appliances. Combination of different types
of classifiers can be used to reduce the computational errors
and minimize the complexity. Finally, appliance level
monitoring facility can be implemented with a user-friendly
interface which ensure the privacy of the data. Up to date,
Current literature produced accurate and efficient solutions for
energy management purpose but unable to apply practically.
Therefore, future research can be aimed to solve above
mentioned issues with real-time applicability.
REFERENCES
[1] Y. Chebotarova, A. Perekrest, and V. Ogar, “Comparative Analysis
of Efficiency Energy Saving Solutions Implemented in the
Buildings,” in 2019 IEEE International Conference on Modern
Electrical and Energy Systems (MEES), Kremenchuk, Ukraine,
Sep. 2019, pp. 434–437. doi: 10.1109/MEES.2019.8896691.
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIV OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA. Downloaded on October 26,2023 at 06:39:30 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
[2] O. Ayan and B. Turkay, “IoT-Based Energy Efficiency in Smart
Homes by Smart Lighting Solutions,” in 2020 21st International
Symposium on Electrical Apparatus & Technologies (SIELA),
Bourgas, Bulgaria, Jun. 2020, pp. 1–5. doi:
10.1109/SIELA49118.2020.9167065.
[3] A. M. Al-Ghaili, H. Kasim, N. M. Al-Hada, B. N. Jorgensen, M.
Othman, and J. Wang, “Energy Management Systems and
Strategies in Buildings Sector: A Scoping Review,” IEEE Access,
vol. 9, pp. 63790–63813, 2021, doi:
10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3075485.
[4] Q. Liu, K. Michael Kamoto, and X. Liu, “Microgrids-As-A-Service
for Rural Electrification in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Computers,
Materials & Continua, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 1249–1261, 2020, doi:
10.32604/cmc.2020.05598.
[5] “Access to electricity (% of population) | Data.”
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS (accessed
Apr. 29, 2022).
[6] Q. Liu, G. Cooper, N. Linge, H. Takruri, and R. Sowden,
“DEHEMS: creating a digital environment for large-scale energy
management at homes,” IEEE Trans. Consumer Electron., vol. 59,
no. 1, pp. 62–69, Feb. 2013, doi: 10.1109/TCE.2013.6490242.
[7] G. W. Hart, “Nonintrusive appliance load monitoring,” Proc. IEEE,
vol. 80, no. 12, pp. 1870–1891, Dec. 1992, doi: 10.1109/5.192069.
[8] Q. Liu, K. M. Kamoto, X. Liu, M. Sun, and N. Linge, “Low-
Complexity Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring Using Unsupervised
Learning and Generalized Appliance Models,” IEEE Trans.
Consumer Electron., vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 28–37, Feb. 2019, doi:
10.1109/TCE.2019.2891160.
[9] L. Zhang and L. Zhu, “Basic Summary of Non-intrusive Load
Monitoring,” in 2019 IEEE 10th International Conference on
Software Engineering and Service Science (ICSESS), Beijing,
China, Oct. 2019, pp. 1–5. doi:
10.1109/ICSESS47205.2019.9040726.
[10] “Non-Intrusive Loads Monitoring Techniques for House Energy
Management.” https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8764104
(accessed May 22, 2022).
[11] A. U. Rehman, T. T. Lie, B. Valles, and S. R. Tito, “Event-
Detection Algorithms for Low Sampling Nonintrusive Load
Monitoring Systems Based on Low Complexity Statistical
Features,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 751–759,
Mar. 2020, doi: 10.1109/TIM.2019.2904351.
[12] K. He, D. Jakovetic, B. Zhao, V. Stankovic, L. Stankovic, and S.
Cheng, “A Generic Optimisation-Based Approach for Improving
Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 10,
no. 6, pp. 6472–6480, Nov. 2019, doi: 10.1109/TSG.2019.2906012.
[13] S. Zhang, Z. Zhu, B. Yin, and X. Huang, “Event Detection Methods
for Nonintrusive Load Monitoring in Smart Metering: Using the
Improved CUSUM Algorithm,” in 2018 International Conference
on Sensing,Diagnostics, Prognostics, and Control (SDPC), Xi’an,
China, Aug. 2018, pp. 738–742. doi: 10.1109/SDPC.2018.8664943.
[14] M. Lu and Z. Li, “A Hybrid Event Detection Approach for Non-
Intrusive Load Monitoring,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 11, no.
1, pp. 528–540, Jan. 2020, doi: 10.1109/TSG.2019.2924862.
[15] K.-K. Kee, Y. S. Lim, J. Wong, and K. H. Chua, “Non-Intrusive
Load Monitoring (NILM) – A Recent Review with Cloud
Computing,” in 2019 IEEE International Conference on Smart
Instrumentation, Measurement and Application (ICSIMA), Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, Aug. 2019, pp. 1–6. doi:
10.1109/ICSIMA47653.2019.9057316.
[16] Z. Zheng, H. Chen, and X. Luo, “A Supervised Event-Based Non-
Intrusive Load Monitoring for Non-Linear Appliances,”
Sustainability, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 1001, Mar. 2018, doi:
10.3390/su10041001.
[17] D. Jia, Y. Li, Z. Du, J. Xu, and B. Yin, “Non-Intrusive Load
Identification Using Reconstructed Voltage–Current Images,” IEEE
Access, vol. 9, pp. 77349–77358, 2021, doi:
10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3082432.
[18] T.-T.-H. Le, S. Heo, and H. Kim, “Toward Load Identification
Based on the Hilbert Transform and Sequence to Sequence Long
Short-Term Memory,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 12, no. 4, pp.
3252–3264, Jul. 2021, doi: 10.1109/TSG.2021.3066570.
[19] S. C, M. Kumar, and I. K, “Design and Implementation of Non-
Intrusive Load Monitoring using Machine Learning Algorithm for
Appliance Monitoring,” in 2019 IEEE International Conference on
Intelligent Techniques in Control, Optimization and Signal
Processing (INCOS), Tamilnadu, India, Apr. 2019, pp. 1–6. doi:
10.1109/INCOS45849.2019.8951312.
 [20] Z. Fang, D. Zhao, C. Chen, Y. Li, and Y. Tian, “Non-Intrusive
Appliance Identification with Appliance-Specific Networks,” IEEE
Trans. on Ind. Applicat., pp. 1–1, 2020, doi:
10.1109/TIA.2020.2994279.
[21] H. Cimen, N. Cetinkaya, J. C. Vasquez, and J. M. Guerrero, “A
Microgrid Energy Management System Based on Non-Intrusive
Load Monitoring via Multitask Learning,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid,
vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 977–987, Mar. 2021, doi:
10.1109/TSG.2020.3027491.
[22] K. Li, B. Yin, Z. Du, and Y. Sun, “A Nonintrusive Load
Identification Model Based on Time-Frequency Features Fusion,”
IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 1376–1387, 2021, doi:
10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3047147.
[23] Y.-H. Lin, S.-Y. Tsao, and Y.-H. Lin, “A Smart Home Energy
Management System as an Intelligent Electricity Energy Audit
Based on AI-empowered Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring,” in 2019
IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics - Taiwan
(ICCE-TW), YILAN, Taiwan, May 2019, pp. 1–2. doi:
10.1109/ICCE-TW46550.2019.8991689.
[24] Z. Wu, C. Wang, W. Peng, W. Liu, and H. Zhang, “Non-intrusive
load monitoring using factorial hidden markov model based on
adaptive density peak clustering,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 244,
p. 111025, Aug. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111025.
[25] E. Azizi, A. M. Shotorbani, M.-T. Hamidi-Beheshti, B.
Mohammadi-Ivatloo, and S. Bolouki, “Residential Household Non-
Intrusive Load Monitoring via Smart Event-based Optimization,”
IEEE Trans. Consumer Electron., vol. 66, no. 3, pp. 233–241, Aug.
2020, doi: 10.1109/TCE.2020.3008261.
[26] T. Bernard, M. Verbunt, G. vom Bogel, and T. Wellmann, “Non-
Intrusive Load Monitoring (NILM): Unsupervised Machine
Learning and Feature Fusion : Energy Management for Private and
Industrial Applications,” in 2018 International Conference on
Smart Grid and Clean Energy Technologies (ICSGCE), Kajang,
Malaysia, May 2018, pp. 174–180. doi:
10.1109/ICSGCE.2018.8556735.
[27] A. U. Rehman et al., “Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring: A
Computationally Efficient Hybrid Event Detection Algorithm,” in
2020 IEEE International Conference on Power and Energy
(PECon), Penang, Malaysia, Dec. 2020, pp. 304–308. doi:
10.1109/PECon48942.2020.9314442.
[28] “REDD.” http://redd.csail.mit.edu/ (accessed May 22, 2022).
[29] “[PDF] BLUED : A Fully Labeled Public Dataset for Event-Based
Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring Research | Semantic Scholar.”
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/BLUED-%3A-A-Fully-
Labeled-Public-Dataset-for-Load-Anderson-
Ocneanu/ed1b8fc3074ec5d7bb7cf83e233d3b130637706f (accessed
May 22, 2022).
[30] J. Gao, S. Giri, E. C. Kara, and M. Bergés, “PLAID: a public
dataset of high-resoultion electrical appliance measurements for
load identification research: demo abstract,” in Proceedings of the
1st ACM Conference on Embedded Systems for Energy-Efficient
Buildings, Memphis Tennessee, Nov. 2014, pp. 198–199. doi:
10.1145/2674061.2675032.
[31] S. Ghosh, A. Chatterjee, and D. Chatterjee, “A Smart IoT based
Non-Intrusive Appliances Identification Technique in a Residential
System,” in 2020 IEEE International Conference on Power
Electronics, Smart Grid and Renewable Energy (PESGRE2020),
Cochin, India, Jan. 2020, pp. 1–6. doi:
10.1109/PESGRE45664.2020.9070275.
[32] I. Lampropoulos, T. Alskaif, J. Blom, and W. van Sark, “A
framework for the provision of flexibility services at the
transmission and distribution levels through aggregator
companies,” Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks, vol. 17, p.
100187, Mar. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.segan.2018.100187.
[33] J. Leitao, P. Gil, B. Ribeiro, and A. Cardoso, “A Survey on Home
Energy Management,” IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 5699–5722, 2020,
doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2963502.
[34] E. Tabanelli, D. Brunelli, A. Acquaviva, and L. Benini, “Trimming
Feature Extraction and Inference for MCU-Based Edge NILM: A
Systematic Approach,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf., vol. 18, no. 2, pp.
943–952, Feb. 2022, doi: 10.1109/TII.2021.3078186.
[35] H. Wang, J. Zhang, C. Lu, and C. Wu, “Privacy Preserving in Non-
Intrusive Load Monitoring: A Differential Privacy Perspective,”
IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 2529–2543, May 2021,
doi: 10.1109/TSG.2020.3038757.
[36] Z. Zhou, Y. Xiang, H. Xu, Z. Yi, D. Shi, and Z. Wang, “A Novel
Transfer Learning-Based Intelligent Nonintrusive Load-Monitoring
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIV OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA. Downloaded on October 26,2023 at 06:39:30 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
With Limited Measurements,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 70,
pp. 1–8, 2021, doi: 10.1109/TIM.2020.3011335.
[37] M. A. Devlin and B. P. Hayes, “Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring
and Classification of Activities of Daily Living Using Residential
Smart Meter Data,” IEEE Trans. Consumer Electron., vol. 65, no.
3, pp. 339–348, Aug. 2019, doi: 10.1109/TCE.2019.2918922.
[38] S. Ghosh, D. Manna, A. Chatterjee, and D. Chatterjee, “Remote
Appliance Load Monitoring and Identification in a Modern
Residential System With Smart Meter Data,” IEEE Sensors J., vol.
21, no. 4, pp. 5082–5090, Feb. 2021, doi:
10.1109/JSEN.2020.3035057.
[39] H. Yue, K. Yan, J. Zhao, Y. Ren, X. Yan, and H. Zhao, “Estimating
Demand Response Flexibility of Smart Home Appliances via
NILM Algorithm,” in 2020 IEEE 4th Information Technology,
Networking, Electronic and Automation Control Conference
(ITNEC), Chongqing, China, Jun. 2020, pp. 394–398. doi:
10.1109/ITNEC48623.2020.9084961.
[40] J. Song, Y. Lee, and E. Hwang, “Time–Frequency Mask Estimation
Based on Deep Neural Network for Flexible Load Disaggregation
in Buildings,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 3242–
3251, Jul. 2021, doi: 10.1109/TSG.2021.3066547.
[41] G. A. Raiker et al., “Energy Disaggregation Using Energy Demand
Model and IoT-Based Control,” IEEE Trans. on Ind. Applicat., vol.
57, no. 2, pp. 1746–1754, Mar. 2021, doi:
10.1109/TIA.2020.3047016.
[42] D. Garcia-Perez, D. Perez-Lopez, I. Diaz-Blanco, A. Gonzalez-
Muniz, M. Dominguez-Gonzalez, and A. A. Cuadrado Vega,
“Fully-Convolutional Denoising Auto-Encoders for NILM in Large
Non-Residential Buildings,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 12, no.
3, pp. 2722–2731, May 2021, doi: 10.1109/TSG.2020.3047712.
[43] B. S. Hao Chew, Y. Xu, and D. H. Yuan, “Non Intrusive Load
Monitoring for Industrial Chiller Plant System - A Long Short
Term Memory Approach,” in 2019 9th International Conference on
Power and Energy Systems (ICPES), Perth, Australia, Dec. 2019,
pp. 1–5. doi: 10.1109/ICPES47639.2019.9105655.
[44] B. Kalluri, S. Kondepudi, T. Kwok Wai, K. Harn Wei, and A.
Kamilaris, “SMELs: A Data-Driven Middleware for Smart
Miscellaneous Electrical Load Management in Buildings,” in 2018
IEEE 16th Intl Conf on Dependable, Autonomic and Secure
Computing, 16th Intl Conf on Pervasive Intelligence and
Computing, 4th Intl Conf on Big Data Intelligence and Computing
and Cyber Science and Technology
Congress(DASC/PiCom/DataCom/CyberSciTech), Athens, Aug.
2018, pp. 159–165. doi:
10.1109/DASC/PiCom/DataCom/CyberSciTec.2018.00038.
[45] F. Ciancetta, G. Bucci, E. Fiorucci, S. Mari, and A. Fioravanti, “A
New Convolutional Neural Network-Based System for NILM
Applications,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 70, pp. 1–12,
2021, doi: 10.1109/TIM.2020.3035193.
[46] D. Saha, A. Bhattacharjee, D. Chowdhury, E. Hossain, and M. M.
Islam, “Comprehensive NILM Framework: Device Type
Classification and Device Activity Status Monitoring Using
Capsule Network,” IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 179995–180009, 2020,
doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3027664.
[47] J. Zhang, X. Chen, W. W. Y. Ng, C. S. Lai, and L. L. Lai, “New
Appliance Detection for Nonintrusive Load Monitoring,” IEEE
Trans. Ind. Inf., vol. 15, no. 8, pp. 4819–4829, Aug. 2019, doi:
10.1109/TII.2019.2916213.
[48] G. Zhou, Z. Li, M. Fu, Y. Feng, X. Wang, and C. Huang,
“Sequence-to-Sequence Load Disaggregation Using Multiscale
Residual Neural Network,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 70,
pp. 1–10, 2021, doi: 10.1109/TIM.2020.3034989.
[49] H. Rafiq, X. Shi, H. Zhang, H. Li, M. K. Ochani, and A. A. Shah,
“Generalizability Improvement of Deep Learning-Based Non-
Intrusive Load Monitoring System Using Data Augmentation,”
IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 3265–3277, Jul. 2021,
doi: 10.1109/TSG.2021.3082622.
[50] A. Ur Rehman, T. Tjing Lie, B. Vall, and S. Rahman Tito,
“Comparative Evaluation of Machine Learning Models and Input
Feature Space for Non-intrusive Load Monitoring,” Journal of
Modern Power Systems and Clean Energy, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 1161–
1171, 2021, doi: 10.35833/MPCE.2020.000741.
[51] G. Cui, B. Liu, W. Luan, and Y. Yu, “Estimation of Target
Appliance Electricity Consumption Using Background Filtering,”
IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 5920–5929, Nov. 2019,
doi: 10.1109/TSG.2019.2892841.
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIV OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA. Downloaded on October 26,2023 at 06:39:30 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.