(Forces & Motion)

Definitions

1. A scalar is a quantity which has size but no direction.

2. A vector is a quantity which has both size and direction.
3. Distance is the total length of travel irrespective to the direction of motion.
4. Displacement is the distance moved in a particular direction.
5. Speed is the distance moved per unit time.
6. Velocity is the displacement moved per unit time.
7. Instantaneous speed is the speed at a particular moment.
8. Acceleration is the change in velocity with time.
9. Positive acceleration means that the speed is increasing.
10. Negative acceleration means that the speed is decreasing.
11. The average speed is the total distance travelled divided by total time taken.
12. Terminal velocity is the constant/greatest speed achieved by an object freely
falling through a gas or liquid.
13. Thinking distance is the distance a car travels after the driver has seen a hazard
but before the driver applies the brakes.
14. The braking distance is the distance travelled by the car after the driver has
started braking and the car decelerating to rest.
15. Overall stopping distance is the sum of the thinking distance and the braking
distance.
16. Friction is the contact force that slows down moving things. Friction can also
prevent stationary things from starting to move when other forces act on them.
17. Tension is the name given to a force that acts through a stretched rope.
18. Unbalanced force is the force that is not balanced by a force in the opposite
direction.
19. Balanced force is that the forces acting on the object are balanced and the
resultant force is zero.
20. Acceleration of free fall is the acceleration of freely falling body.
21. Mass is the quantity of matter in a body.
22. Weight is the force exerted on all objects by gravity.
23. A force is a push or pull exerted by one object on another.
24. Gravitational field is a region in which the mass of an object experiences a force
due to gravitational attraction.
25. Gravitational field strength is defined as gravitational force per unit mass.
26. One newton is the force needed to make a mass of one kilogram accelerate at
one metre per second squared.
27. Plastic is the shape of an object changed when the force is removed.
28. Elastic is the shape of an object does not change when the force is removed.
29. Elastic deformation --- An object deforms elastically if it returns to its original
shape after forces that have stretched the object are removed.
30. Inelastic deformation --- An object deforms inelastically if it does not return to
its original shape after forces that have stretched the object are removed.

31. The limit of proportionality is the point beyond which Hooke’s law no
longer applies.
32. Extension is the increased length of an object.
32. Momentum is the product of mass and velocity of a body.
33. Centre of gravity is the point where the whole weight of an object appears
to act.
34. Stability is the ability of an object to go back to its original position.
35. The moment of a force is a measure of the turning effect of the force about
a particular point.
 CIE Extra
36. Dynamic friction is the frictional force acting on a body moving at a
constant speed.
37. Static friction is the maximum value of frictional force which occurs just
as a body state to move.
(Dynamic friction is less than static friction)
38. The downward pull from the Earth is called a gravitational force.
39. The force which acts towards the centre and keeps a body moving in a
circular path is called the centripetal force.

Laws
Newton’s first law of motion (Inertia)
An object will continue in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless an external force acts upon it.

Newton’s second law of motion

Force is directly proportional to mass and acceleration.

Newton’s third law of motion

To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.

The law of conservation of momentum

When two or more objects act on each other, their total momentum remains
constant, provided no external forces are acting.

The principle of moments

When an object is in equilibrium, the sum of the anticlockwise moments about
any point is equal to the sum of the clockwise moments about that point.

Hooke’s Law
The extension is directly proportional to the stretching force.
 Some facts to remember

1. If no external force is acting on it, an object will

- if stationary, remain stationary
- if moving, keep moving at a steady speed in a straight line
2. Main features of gravitational force –
- All masses attract each other
- The greater the masses, the stronger the force
- The closer the masses, the stronger the force
3. Centripetal force can be increased if
- the mass of the object is increased
- the speed of the object is increased
- the radius of the circle is reduced
4. Conditions for equilibrium
- The sum of the forces in one direction must equal the sum of the forces
in the opposite direction
-the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of
the anticlockwise moments about that point.
 Formulae
s v = average speed
v=
t s = distance moved
t = time taken

s v = average velocity
v=
t s= increase in displacement
t = time taken

v-u a = acceleration
a=
t v-u =change in velocity
t = time taken

v 2 = u2 +2as v = final speed

u = initial speed
a = acceleration
s = distance moved

F=m a F = resultant force

m = mass
a = acceleration

w=m g w = weight
m = mass
g = gravitational field
strength

Thinking distance = speed × reaction time

p=m v p = momentum
m = mass
v = velocity
 mv-mu F = force
F=
t mv-mu = change in
momentum
t = time taken

Impulse = F × t = mv – mu

Moment = F ×d F = force
d = perpendicular distance
from pivot

F=kx F = force
k = spring constant
x = extension

According to the law of conservation of momentum,

Total momentum before = Total Momentum after

According to principle of moment,

Sum of anticlockwise moments = sum of clockwise

moments
Quantity SI unit
length scalar metre ‘m’
mass scalar kilogram ‘kg’
time scalar second ‘s’
volume scalar cubic metre ‘m3’
distance scalar metre ‘m’
displacement vector metre ‘m’
speed scalar metre per second ‘m/s’
velocity vector metre per second ‘m/s’
acceleration vector metre per second
squared ‘m/s2’
force vector newton ‘N’
weight vector newton ‘N’
mass scalar kilogram ‘kg’
moment vector newton metre ‘Nm’
Gravitational field vector newton per kilogram
strength (N/kg)
Acceleration of free vector metre per second (m/s)
fall
momentum vector kilogram metre per
second ‘kgm/s’