Chapter One

Introduction to Computer
Computer
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions
stored
in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to
specified
rules, produce information (output), and store the information for future use1.
Functionalities of a computer2
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
Computer Components
Any kind of computers consists of HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE.
Hardware:
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a
computer system. Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of
a computer such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard
drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard
and chips), etc. all of which are physical objects that can be touched. 3
Input Devices
Input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment to provide
data and control signals to an information processing system such as a computer or
other information appliance. Input device Translate data from form that humans
understand to one that the computer can work with. Most common are keyboard
and mouse
Example of Input Devices:-
2. Mouse (pointing
1. Keyboard 3. Microphone
device)
4. Touch screen 5. Scanner 6. Webcam
7. Touchpads 8. MIDI keyboard 9.
10.Graphics Tablets 11.Cameras 12.Pen Input
13.Video Capture
14.Microphone 15.Trackballs
Hardware
16.Barcode reader 17.Digital camera 18.Joystick
20.Electronic
19.Gamepad 21.
Whiteboard
Note: The most common use keyboard is the QWERTY keyboard. Generally
standard Keyboard
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has 104 keys.
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Central Processing Unit (CPU)
A CPU is brain of a computer. It is responsible for all functions and processes.
Regarding computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer
system.
The CPU is comprised of three main parts :
* Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical operations.
Arithmetic calculations like as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Logical operation like compare numbers, letters, or special characters
* Control Unit (CU): controls and co-ordinates computer components.
1. Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.
2. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
3. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory.
4. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
5. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct
the hardware to perform the requested operation.
* Registers :Stores the data that is to be executed next, "very fast storage area".
Primary Memory:-
1. RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) is a memory scheme within the
computer
system responsible for storing data on a temporary basis, so that it can be promptly
accessed by the processor as and when needed. It is volatile in nature, which means
that data will be erased once supply to the storage device is turned off. RAM stores
data randomly and the processor accesses these data randomly from the RAM
storage. RAM is considered "random access" because you can access any memory
cell directly if you know the row and column that intersect at that cell.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is a permanent form of storage. ROM stays
active regardless of whether power supply to it is turned on or off. ROM devices
do not allow data stored on them to be modified.
Secondary Memory:-
Stores data and programs permanently :its retained after the power is turned off
1. Hard drive (HD): A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a "disk drive," "hard
drive," or "hard
disk drive," that store and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data
on an
electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces.
2. Optical Disk: an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser light as
part of the process
of reading or writing data to or from optical discs. Some drives can only read from

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discs, but recent
drives are commonly both readers and recorders, also called burners or writers.
Compact discs,
DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are common types of optical media which can be read
and recorded by
such drives. Optical drive is the generic name; drives are usually described as
"CD" "DVD", or
"Bluray", followed by "drive", "writer", etc. There are three main types of optical
media: CD,
DVD, and Blu-ray disc. CDs can store up to 700 megabytes (MB) of data and
DVDs can store up
to 8.4 GB of data. Blu-ray discs, which are the newest type of optical media, can
store up to 50
GB of data. This storage capacity is a clear advantage over the floppy disk storage
media (a
magnetic media), which only has a capacity of 1.44 MB.
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3. Flash Disk
A storage module made of flash memory chips. A Flash disks have no mechanical
platters or access
arms, but the term "disk" is used because the data are accessed as if they were on a
hard drive. The
disk storage structure is emulated.
Output devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to
communicate
the results of data processing carried out by an information processing system
(such
as a computer) which converts the electronically generated information into
humanreadable form.
Example on Output Devices:
2. LCD Projection
1. Monitor
Panels
4. Computer Output
3. Printers (all types)
Microfilm (COM)
5. Plotters 6. Speaker(s)
7. Projector
Note Basic types of monitors are a.Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). B. Liquid Crystal
Displays (LCD).

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c.light-emitting diode (LED).
Printer types: 1-Laser Printer. 2-Ink Jet Printer. 3-Dot Matrix Printer
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Software
Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and
instructions, often broken into two major categories: system software that provides
the basic nontask-specific functions of the computer, and application software
which is used by users to accomplish specific tasks.
Software Types
A. System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the
individual hardware components of a computer system so that other software and
the users of the system see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned
with the low-level details such as transferring data from memory to disk, or
rendering text onto a display. Generally, system software consists of an operating
system and some fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file managers,
display managers, text editors, user authentication (login) and management tools,
and networking and device control software.
B. Application software is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just
running
the computer system. Application software may consist of a single program, such
as an image viewer; a small collection of programs (often called a software
package) that work closely together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet or
text processing system; a larger collection (often called a software suite) of related
but independent programs and packages that have a common user interface or
shared data format, such as Microsoft Office, which consists of closely integrated
word processor, spreadsheet, database, etc.; or a software system, such as a
database management system, which is a collection of fundamental programs that
may provide some service to a variety of other independent applications.
Comparison Application Software and System Software
System Software Application Software
Computer software, or just
software is a
general term primarily used for
Application software, also known
digitally stored
as an
data such as computer programs
application or an "app", is
and other
computer software
kinds of information read and
designed to help the user to
written by
perform specific
computers. App comes under
tasks.
computer
software though it has a wide
scope now.
Example: 1) Microsoft Windows 1) Opera (Web Browser)

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 2) Microsoft Word (Word
Processing)
3) Microsoft Excel (Spreadsheet
2) Linux
software)
3) Unix
4) MySQL (Database Software)
4) Mac OSX
5) Microsoft PowerPoint
5) DOS
(Presentation Software)
6) Adobe Photoshop (Graphics
Software)
Generally, users do not interact
Users always interact with
with system
Interaction: application software
software as it works in the
while doing different activities.
background.
System software can run Application software cannot run
Dependency: independently of the without the
application software. presence of the system software.

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Unit of Measurements
Storage measurements: The basic unit used in computer data storage is called a bit
(binary digit). Computers use these little bits, which are composed of ones
and zeros, to do things and talk to other computers. All your files, for
instance, are kept in the computer as binary files and translated into words
and pictures by the software (which is also ones and zeros). This two
number system, is called a “binary number system” since it has only two
numbers in it. The decimal number system in contrast has ten unique digits,
zero through nine.
Computer Storage units
Bit BIT 0 or 1
Kilobyte KB 1024 bytes
Megabyte MB 1024 kilobytes
Gigabyte GB 1024 megabytes
Terabyte TB 1024 gigabytes
Size example
• 1 bit - answer to an yes/no question
• 1 byte - a number from 0 to 255.
• 90 bytes: enough to store a typical line of text from a book.
• 4 KB: about one page of text.
• 120 KB: the text of a typical pocket book.
• 3 MB - a three minute song (128k bitrate)
• 650-900 MB - an CD-ROM
• 1 GB -114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s
• 8-16 GB - size of a normal flash drive
Speed measurement: The speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is measured by

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Hertz (Hz), Which represent a CPU cycle. The speed of CPU is known as
Computer
Speed.
CPU SPEED
MEASURES
1 hertz or Hz 1 cycle per second
1 million cycles per
1 MHz
second or 1000 Hz
1 billion cycles per
1 GHz
second or 1000 MHz

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Computers classification***
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there
is
Considerable overlap:
• Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In
addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for entering
data, a monitor for displaying information, and a storage device for saving data.
• workstation : A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal
computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality
monitor.
• minicomputer : A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds
of
users simultaneously.
• mainframe : A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many
hundreds
or thousands of users simultaneously.
• supercomputer : An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of
millions
of instructions per second.
Laptop and Smartphone Computers
LAPTOP: A laptop is a battery or AC-powered personal computer that can be
easily
carried and used in a variety of locations. Many laptops are designed to
have all of the functionality of a desktop computer, whichmeans they can

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generally run the same software and open the same types of files. However,
some laptops, such as netbooks, sacrifice some functionality in order to be
even more portable.
Netbook: A netbook is a type of laptop that is designed to be even more portable.
Netbooks are often cheaper than laptops or desktops. They are generally less
powerful than other types of computers, but they provide enough power for
email and internet access, which is where the name "netbook" comes from.
Mobile Device: A mobile device is basically any handheld computer. It is
designed to
be extremely portable, often fitting in the palm of your hand or in your pocket.
Some mobile devices are more powerful, and they allow you to do many of
***http://www.acobas.net/teaching/survival/handouts/pcwebopedia.pdf

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the same things you can do with a desktop or laptop computer. These include
tablet computers, e-readers, and smartphones.
Tablet Computers: Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be portable.
However, they provide a very different computing experience. The most
obvious difference is that tablet computers don't have keyboards or touchpads.
Instead, the entire screen is touch-sensitive, allowing you to type on a virtual
keyboard and use your finger as a mouse pointer. Tablet computers are mostly
designed for consuming media, and they are optimized for tasks like web
browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, and playing games. For many
people, a "regular" computer like a desktop or laptop is still needed in order
to use some programs. However, the convenience of a tablet computer means
that it may be ideal as a second computer.
Smartphones: A smartphone is a powerful mobile phone that is designed to run a
variety of applications in addition to phone service. They are basically small
tablet computers, and they can be used for web browsing, watching videos,
reading e-books, playing games and more.
Data, Information and Knowledge
Data: Facts and figures which relay something specific, but which are not
organized
in any way and which provide no further information regarding patterns, context,
etc.
So data means "unstructured facts and figures that have the least impact on the

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typical
manager."
Information: For data to become information, it must be contextualized,
categorized,
calculated and condensed. Information thus paints a bigger picture; it is data with
relevance and purpose. It may convey a trend in the environment, or perhaps
indicate
a pattern of sales for a given period of time. Essentially information is found "in
answers to questions that begin with such words as who, what, where, when, and
how
many".
Knowledge: Knowledge is closely linked to doing and implies know-how and
understanding. The knowledge possessed by each individual is a product of his
experience, and encompasses the norms by which he evaluates new inputs from his
surroundings.
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The content of the human mind can be classified into four categories:
1. Data: symbols
2. Information: data that are processed to be useful; provides answers to "who",
"what",
"where", and "when" questions
3. Knowledge: application of data and information; answers "how" questions
4. Wisdom: evaluated understanding.
We need to understand that processing data produced Information and process
Information produces Knowledge and so on
Characteristics of Computer
Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key
characteristics of a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics are
• Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
instructions
per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to
complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer.
For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands of
employees of an organization, weather forecasting that requires analysis of a
large amount of data related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various

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places, etc.
• Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the
computer
can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal
places.
• Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired
or
fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and
accuracy from the start till the end.
• Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the
computer and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can
be stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like
floppy disk and compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently.
• Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks
with the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter
document and in the next moment you may play music or print a document.
Computers have several limitations too. Computer can only perform tasks that
it has been programmed to do.
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Computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It executes
instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.
Computer Viruses*
Viruses: A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real programs. For
example, a virus might attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet program.
Each time the spreadsheet program runs, the virus runs, too, and it has the
chance to reproduce (by attaching to other programs) or wreak havoc.
•E-mail viruses: An e-mail virus travels as an attachment to e-mail messages, and
usually replicates itself by automatically mailing itself to dozens of people
in the victim's e-mail address book. Some e-mail viruses don't even require
a double-click -- they launch when you view the infected message in the
preview pane of your e-mail software [source: Johnson].
•Trojan horses: A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The program claims
to
do one thing (it may claim to be a game) but instead does damage when you
run it (it may erase your hard disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate

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automatically.
•Worms: A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer networks and
security
holes to replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another
machine that has a specific security hole. It copies itself to the new machine
using the security hole, and then starts replicating from there, as well.
What are some tips to avoid viruses and lessen their impact?*
Install anti-virus software from a reputable vendor. Update it and use it
regularly.
In addition to scanning for viruses on a regular basis, install an "on access"
scanner (included in most anti-virus software packages) and configure it to start
each time you start up your computer. This will protect your system by
checking for viruses each time you run an executable file.
Use a virus scan before you open any new programs or files that may contain
executable code. This includes packaged software that you buy from the store
as well as any program you might download from the Internet.
If you are a member of an online community or chat room, be very careful
about accepting files or clicking links that you find or that people send you
within the community.
Make sure you back up your data (documents, bookmark files, important email
messages, etc.) on disc so that in the event of a virus infection, you do not lose
valuable work.
*http://computer.howstuffworks.com/virus.htm

*http://www.us-cert.gov/publications/virus-basics

Parts of Computer
5 parts of a computer
Whether it's a gaming system or a home PC, the five main components that make up a typical,
present-day computer include:

 A motherboard
 A Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 A Graphics Processing Unit (GPU), also known as a video card
 Random Access Memory (RAM), also known as volatile memory

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  Storage: Solid State Drive (SSD) or Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

Sure, most computers have their own distinct design - and different brands of hardware
installed - but the components listed above are standard across all computers.

 Important: A quick note before we dive into the details—I’m listing and talking about
the different components of a computer. This is by no means intended to be an invitation
to disassemble your computer, nor is it a set of instructions to do so. Without the proper
knowledge, you can severely damage your computer, and importantly, doing so is
unsafe.

1. Motherboard

What it is: All components of a computer communicate through a circuit board called the
motherboard, as was mentioned above.

What it does: Think of the motherboard as the glue that holds everything else together.

The motherboard’s video card and Central Processing Unit are contained in an integrated (built-
in) chipset, shown in the picture below:

This is where input/output devices such as a keyboard, mouse, and speakers get plugged in.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

What it is: The CPU is often called the "brain" of a computer, thanks to its direct plug connection
to the motherboard, and communication with all of the computer’s other components.

What it does: Whenever you write a line of code (in Python, Java, C++, or any other
programming language), it's broken down into assembly language—which is a language that the
processor can understand. It fetches, decodes, and executes these instructions.

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And that’s where the CPU comes in—all the processes a computer handles are taken care of by
the CPU.

3. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

What it is: It's not uncommon to hear gamers obsess over the next new graphics card, as these
graphic cards make it possible for computers to generate high-end visuals like those found in the
many different types of video games.

In addition to video games, though, good graphics cards also come in handy for those who rely
on images in order to execute their craft, like 3D modelers using resource-intensive software.

What it does: Graphics cards often communicate directly with the display monitor, meaning a
$1,000 graphics card won't be of much use if there isn't a high-end monitor connected to it.

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4. Random Access Memory (RAM)
What it is: RAM, also known as volatile memory, stores data regarding frequently accessed
programs and processes. (It's called volatile memory because it gets erased every time the
computer restarts.)

What it does: RAM helps programs and games start up and close quickly.

5. Storage

What it is: All computers need somewhere to store their data. Modern computers either use a
Hard Disk Drive (HDD) or Solid State Drive (SSD).

What it does: HDDs are made of an actual disk onto which data is stored. The disk is read by a
mechanical arm. (HDDs are cheaper than SSDs, but are slowly becoming more and more
obsolete.)

SSDs (think SIM cards) have no moving parts and are faster than a hard drive, because no time is
spent waiting for a mechanical arm to find data on a physical location on the disk.

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 Solid State Drive

Hard Disk Drive

Generation of Computer
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.

Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.

Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an

entire computer system.

There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in

detail along with their time period and characteristics

Generation & Description

1 First Generation

The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

2. Second Generation

The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

3. Third Generation

The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

4. Fourth Generation

The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

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5. Fifth Generation

The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

First Generation Computers

The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used

vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing

Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse

frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations were able to

afford it. In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards,
paper tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in this
generation used machine code as the programming language.

The main features of the first generation are:

 Vacuum tube technology

 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated a lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of AC
 Non-portable
 Consumed a lot of electricity

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 Some computers of this generation were:
 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

Second Generation Computers

The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were

used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster

than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores

were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary

storage devices.

In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN,

COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating

System

The main features of second generation are:

 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers

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  Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used

Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and
capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This
development made computers smaller in size, reliable, and efficient. In this generation remote
processing, time-sharing, multi-programming operating system were used. High-level languages
(FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1,

BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation

The main features of third generation are:

 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
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  Lesser maintenance
 Costly
 AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors an other
circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation, time sharing, real time networks, distributed operating system were used. All
the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.

The main features of fourth generation are:

 VLSI technology used

 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PCs
 Very small size

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  Pipeline processing
 No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers

The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor
chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science,
which interprets the means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the
high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.

AI includes:

 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life situations
 Natural language understanding and generation

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The main features of fifth generation are:

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook

Classification of Computers – Based on their Functionality

and Sizes:
Computers are categorized into four groups according to their external dimensions, internal
capabilities, and external uses.

Here is list of computers classified based on functionality:

 Supercomputer
 Mainframe computer
 Minicomputer
 Microcomputer

Supercomputer:

Among digital computers, supercomputers are the biggest, fastest, strongest, and priciest. The
first supercomputer was created in the 1960s for the American Department of Defense (USA).
Supercomputers use several processors to increase their speed, and many people can use them
simultaneously. Supercomputers are generally utilized for scientific purposes and large-scale,
complex calculations.

They are widely used in the aerospace, automotive, chemical, electronics, and petroleum
industries, as well as for weather forecasting and seismic analysis.

Example for supercomputer

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Jaguar, Nebulae, Roadrunner, Kraken, Tianhe-1

Mainframe Computer:

Mainframe computers, also known as mainframes, are the most commonly used type of digital
computer in large industries for controlling processes as well as in offices for maintaining
networks and providing access to shared resources. IBM is estimated to control two-thirds of the
mainframe market. They are far more suitable for intensive operation than supercomputers.
Many modern computers can multitask; however, they are typically limited to eight or fewer
processors.

Megaflops (millions of floating-point arithmetic operations per second) are used to measure
processor speed. Mainframe computer systems are powerful enough to support a hundred users
at remote terminals at the same time. It can support hundreds of users by keeping multiple
programs in primary memory and switching between them quickly. Multi-programming refers to
the ability to run multiple programs at the same time for multiple users.

Example for Mainframe computer

IBM-3000 series, IBM 4300, IBM 3090.

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Mini Computer:

Most minicomputers, like mainframes, are multiuser and general-purpose computers. The
primary distinction between mainframes and minicomputers is that minicomputers are slower
even when performing the same tasks as mainframes.

Example for Mini computer

PDP series

Micro Computer:

The most common type of computer, widely used in homes, schools, banks, and offices, among
other places. It is a low-cost digital computer with a single microprocessor, storage unit, and
input/output device. Microcomputers are typically designed for individual use only.

They were originally referred to as microcomputers because they were so small in size compared
to supercomputers and mainframes. They are commonly used in homes, offices, and for personal
use, so they are also referred to as personal computers.

Example for Micro computer

Desktop computers and portable computers like a laptop, personal digital assistant (PDA)

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Desktop Computer:

A desktop computer, also known as a PC (Personal computer), is the most common type of
microcomputer. It have CPU (Central Processing Unit), a keyboard and a mouse for input, and a
monitor or display unit for output. The CPU is made up of a microprocessor, main memory,
secondary storage unit such as a hard drive or optical drive, and a power supply unit all housed
in a single cabinet.

Example for Desktop computer

Apple, Dell, Hp, Lenovo.

Portable Computer:

Portable computers, such as laptops and PDAs, have surpassed desktop computers in popularity.
The best feature of this portable computer is that it is lightweight and portable. Laptops have all
of the same components as desktop computers, but they are more compact and smaller in size.

A palm-sized portable digital assistant (PDA) is another type of portable computer. As a result, it
is also known as a palmtop computer. PDAs are used to keep track of appointments, take
important notes, set reminders, perform mathematical calculations, play games, and even surf the
internet and send emails. In 1993, Apple released the Newton, the first personal digital assistant.

Example for Portable computer

Palm Pilot, Handspring Visor, HP Jordana, Compaq Aero, Franklyn eBook man

Classification of Computers – Based Data Handling:

The computer is further classified into three types based on its ability to handle data or how it
processes incoming data differently. They are

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  Digital computer
 Analog computer
 Hybrid computer

Digital Computer:

A digital computer deals with the data that can be stored in binary format i.e. in the form of 0s
and 1s. This computer stores data or information as voltage pulses that either indicate 0 or 1.
Before being stored in a computer’s memory, all types of data, including text documents, music
files, and graphic images, are transformed into binary format. It is a machine that manipulates
discrete data and executes logical and mathematical operations.

Analog Computer:

An Analog computer is used to process the analog data. Analog data is data that is constantly
changing or varying. They are used to measure continuously varying aspects of physical
quantities such as electrical current, voltages, hydraulic pressure, and other electrical and
mechanical properties. Analog computer does not measure discrete values. They are employed in
scientific and industrial applications.

Hybrid Computer:

A hybrid computer is a combination of both a digital computer system and an analog. The hybrid
computer has the capacity to handle both analog and digital input. While the digital half of the
system manages the numerical and logical operation, the analog portion of the system handle the
continuously varying aspects of complex mathematical computation. The system’s controller is
also a part of the digital component.

Hybrid computers are used in medical science to measure the heartbeat of the patient, also used
in controlling industrial processes and scientific applications.

Classification of Computers – Based on Purpose:

Computers are broadly classified into two types based on its purpose:

 General-purpose computer
 Specific-purpose computer

General Purpose Computer:

A general-purpose computer is built to do a variety of common tasks. Computers of this type
have the ability to store multiple programs. They can be applied in the workplace, in science, in
education, and even at home. Such computers are adaptable, but they are also less effective and
move more slowly.

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Specific Purpose Computer:
A single specific task can be handled by a specific-purpose computer, which is designed to
execute a certain task. They aren’t made to manage several programs. They were therefore not
adaptable. Since they are made to handle a specific task, they are more efficient and faster than
general-purpose computers. These computers are utilized for things like airline reservations, air
traffic control, and satellite tracking.

Introduction to Windows
In this topic, we will learn about the Introduction to Windows. Microsoft Windows is a
multitasking operating system developed by Microsoft Corporation, which uses Graphical User
Interface to interact with users. Microsoft was initially named “Traf-O-Data” in 1972, was
renamed “Micro-soft” in November 1975, and then “Microsoft” on November 26, 1976.
Microsoft entered the marketplace in August 1981 by releasing version 1.0 of the operating
system Microsoft DOS (MS-DOS), a 16-bit command-line operating system. Bill Gates and Paul
Allen founded Microsoft, and the Windows operating system has been its primary product.

In this Introduction to Windows, we will also clear you about the latest OS release of Windows,
“Windows 10”, launched in 2015.

In a nutshell, below is how Microsoft Windows evolved:

 Windows 1.0 – Nov 1985

 Windows 2.0 – Dec 1987
 Windows 3.0 – May 1990
 Windows 95 – Aug 1995
 Windows 98 – June 1998
 Windows ME – Sep 2000
 Windows XP – Oct 2001
 Windows Vista – Nov 2006
 Windows 7 – July 2009
 Windows 8.0 – Oct 2012
 Windows 8.1 – Oct 2013
 Windows 10 – July 2015
 Windows 11 – October 2021

Main Components of Windows

After learning about the Introduction to Windows, we are now going to study the main
components of Windows. The main components of the Windows Operating System are the
following:

 Configuration and maintenance

 User interface

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  Applications and utilities
 Windows Server components
 File systems
 Core components
 Services
 DirectX
 Networking
 Scripting and command-line
 Kernel
 NET Framework
 Security
 Deprecated components and apps
 APIs

 When coming to GUI components, we have the following as the main components:
 1. Desktop

 It is the first screen you will see once the windows start. Here you will see “My
Computer”, “My Documents”, “Start Menu”, “Recycle Bin”, and the shortcuts of any
applications that you might have created.
 2. Taskbar

 At the bottom, you will see a row known as the taskbar. It has the currently running
applications; you can pin applications you frequently use using the option Pin to
Taskbar”.
 3. Start Menu

 This is located in the bottom left corner of Windows OS GUI. This is where the user can
 search for any setting and any application for their use. Users can uninstall or repair
applications from the control panel. The user can do a lot of activities just by searching
through the start menu.
 4. My Computer

 Double-clicking the “My Computer” menu will let you navigate between your different
computer drives and the control panel tools. You can see and manage the contents that
are inside your drive.
 5. Recycle Bin

 Deleting an item from any of your drives using the “delete” button or simply clicking
right-clicking and selecting the “delete” option is not deleted completely. Instead, it is
moved to the “Recycle Bin” folder of Windows. You can recover your content if you
have deleted it by mistake, or if you choose to delete the items from here, it will get

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 deleted permanently. Should you wish to delete the item in the first go itself without
moving it to recycle bin, you can use the key “Shift+Del”

 Windows Search: We can have multiple files and contents located on our system, and
sometimes we may run out of memory about the exact location of our file. Windows
Search is a function included with Windows that allows users to search their entire
computer.

 Windows File Transfer: We may need to transfer in or transfer out the files and contents
from our machine to other devices such as other computers or mobiles, and tablets. We
can do this using an Easy Transfer Cable, CDs or DVDs, a USB flash drive, wireless
Bluetooth, a network folder, or an external hard disk.

 Windows Updates: Windows includes an automatic update feature to keep its operating
system safe and up-to-date.

 Windows taskbar: At the bottom-most part of your windows, you will see a row known
as the taskbar. It has the currently running applications; you can pin
 applications you frequently use using the option Pin to Taskbar”. The taskbar is the main
navigation tool for Windows.
 Remote Desktop Connection: This Windows feature allows you to connect to another
system and work remotely on another system.

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A program that is written to run under the MS operating system is the Windows Application.
Examples of applications that run on Windows OS are Microsoft Outlook, Internet Explorer,
Remote Desktop Condition, Snipping Tool, and numerous others.

These applications provide great functionality for users to do their day-to-day activities. Every
application developed for them to launch on Windows should be compatible with the Windows
operating system. That is why when you install software, you might see two or three download
options, download for Windows, download for Linux and download for iOS. If you are
interested in developing applications for Windows, you can start right here:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Windows

After going through all the components, Features and the broad Introduction to Windows, we
will explore the advantages and disadvantages of Windows.

Advantages

 Desktop as well as tablet-friendly OS.

 Switching between applications is very easy.
 Operating Windows does not require much technical knowledge.
 Windows OS is the dominant OS and enjoys over 90% of the Market share.
 MS OS has a great support community, and it also has the most significant number of
applications.
 Microsoft provides a robust set of Enterprise focused Operating Systems, Applications and
services, making it the most dominant player in the OS market.
 More gaming.

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Disadvantages

There are privacy and security concerns and incidents, and they are widespread. Linux OS is by
far the most secure OS ever built.

 Cost for an upgrade.

 Windows OS attracts many virus programs due to its significant market share and easy-
to-breach paradigm.
 Windows OS is not that much of touch-friendly.

Operating System-MS Windows

Windows is an operating system designed by Microsoft Corporation. The operating system is

what allows you to use a computer. Windows comes preloaded on most new personal computers
(PCs), which helps to make it the most popular operating system in the world.

Windows makes it possible to complete all types of everyday tasks on your computer. For
example, you can use Windows to browse the Internet, check your email, edit digital photos,
listen to music, play games, and do much more.

Microsoft released the first version of Windows in the mid-1980s. There have been many versions of
Windows since then, but the most recent ones include Windows 10 (released in 2015), Windows 8
(2012), Windows 7 (2009), Windows Vista (2007), and Windows XP (2001).

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What is Windows 10?

Windows 10 is the most recent version of the Microsoft Windows operating system. There have
been many different versions of Windows over the years, including Windows 8 (released in
2012), Windows 7 (2009), Windows Vista (2006), and Windows XP (2001). While older
versions of Windows mainly ran on desktop and laptop computers, Windows 10 is also designed
to run equally well on tablets.

An operating system manages all of the hardware and software on a computer. Without it, the
computer would be useless. To learn more about how operating systems work, check out
Understanding Operating Systems and Getting to Know the OS in our Computer Basics tutorial.

How is Windows 10 different from other versions?

Many users complained that Windows 8, the previous version of Windows, was confusing and
difficult to use. As a result, Windows 10 looks and feels similar to older versions. Still, it
includes a lot of new features and improvements. Watch the video below to learn more:

Start menu

Whereas Windows 8 uses the Start screen to launch applications, Windows 10 has reintroduced a
more traditional Start menu. It's also been expanded to make it easier to find important apps.

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