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PHYSICS PRACTICALS AT A GLANCE
2021-22
(CLASS XII)
Term I & II
Name of Student…………………………
Allen Form No……………………………
Batch………………………………………..
Contact No………………………………..
C
h apter
ontents
Syllabus
Physics Practical Booklet
TERM - I
01
1. Ohm’s Law (Specific Resistance) 03
2A. Meter Bridge (Resistance) 09
2B. Meter Bridge (Series Combination) 11
2C. Meter Bridge (Parallel Combination) 13
3A. Potentiometer (EMF Comparison) 16
3B. Potentiometer (Internal Resistance) 18
4. Half Deflection Method 21
5A. G to A Conversion 25
5B. G to V Conversion 27
6. AC Sonometer 30
TERM - II
Syllabus 35
1. Focal Length of Convex Lens 37
2A. Focal Length of Convex Mirror 40
2B. Focal Length of Concave Lens 42
3. Prism 44
4. Travelling Microscope 47
5. RI of liquid using convex lens & plane mirror 50
6. P-N Junction Diode 59

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ALLEN PHYSICS : EXPERIMENT 1
PRACTICAL SYLLABUS (2021-22)
Evaluation Scheme
Time Allowed: 1½ hours M. Marks: 15
Two experiments to be performed by students at time of examination 8 Marks
Practical record [experiments and activities] 2 Marks
Viva Voce on experiments and activities 5 Marks
Total 15 Marks
Term -I
TERM-I
Experiments
1. To determine resistivity of two/three 3B. To determine the internal resistance of
wires by plotting a graph for potential given primary cell using potentiometer.
difference versus current. 4. To determine resistance of a
2A. To find resistance of a given wire using galvanometer by half-deflection method
metre bridge and to find its figure of merit.
OR 5A. To convert the given galvanometer (of
2B. To verify the laws of combination known resistance and figure of merit)
(series) of resistances using a metre into a voltmeter of desired range and to
node06\(B0BA-BB)\Kota\Board Material\Physics\Practical (Phy At a Glance)\Practical File (Phy-XII)
bridge. verify the same.

OR OR
2C. To verify the laws of combination 5B. To convert the given galvanometer (of
(parallel) of resistances using a metre known resistance and figure of merit)
bridge. into an ammeter of desired range and to
3A. To compare the EMF of two given verify the same.
primary cells using potentiometer. 6. To find the frequency of AC mains with
OR a sonometer.
E
2 PHYSICS : EXPERIMENT ALLEN
Evaluation Scheme
Total 15 Marks
Term - II
TERM-II
Experiments
1. To find the focal length of a convex lens graph between angle of incidence and
by plotting graphs between u and v or angle of deviation.
between 1/u and 1/v. 4. To determine refractive index of a glass
2A. To find the focal length of a convex slab using a travelling microscope.
mirror, using a convex lens. 5. To find refractive index of a liquid by
OR using convex lens and plane mirror.
2B. To find the focal length of a concave 6. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for
lens, using a convex lens. a p-n junction in forward bias and
3. To determine angle of minimum
reverse bias.
deviation for a given prism by plotting a
E
EXPERIMENT – 1 – OHM’S LAW

OBJECT:
To determine resistivity of two/ three wires by plotting a graph of potential difference
versus current. (Verification of Ohm’s law)
APPARATUS:
Unknown resistance wire, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, plug key, battery, connecting wire,
meter scale and Screw gauge.
PRINCIPLE:
According to the Ohm’s law, “the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature,
dimensions, pressure) of the conductor remains the same.
VµI or V = IR
FORMULA:
V
R= ( in W )
I
The specific resistance or resistivity (r) of the material of the given wire is
æ RA ö æ RpD ö
2
r=ç ÷=ç ÷ W-m
è L ø è 4L ø
where R is the resistance of the wire of length L and A = , (D being the diameter) is the area
of cross-section.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
R
+ –
A
R = Resistance wire
B = Battery
V – K = Plug Key
+
I Rh = Rheostat
A = Ammeter
+ – V = Voltmeter
( )
B K Rh
E
OBSERVATIONS:
Range of Voltmeter = 0-3 V Least Count of Voltmeter = = 0.05 V
Range of Ammeter = 0-500 mA Least count of Ammeter = = 10 mA = 0.01 A
Length of first given wire (L1) = ________________ m

Diameter of first given wire (D1) = ________________ m
Length of second given wire (L2) = ________________ m
Diameter of second given wire (D2) = ________________ m
Note : - Remove zero error from instruments before taking observations.
OBSERVATION TABLE No. 1 : For first resistance wire

Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading V
S. No. R= ( in W)
I
No. of div. × L.C. (I) In amp No. of div. × L.C. (V) In volt
1
Rmean =..…(W)
E
OBSERVATION TABLE No. 2 : For Second resistance wire

Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading V
S. No. R= ( in W)
I
No. of div. × L.C. (I) In amp No. of div. × L.C. (V) In volt
1
Rmean =..…(W)
Measurement of diameter of wire of unknown resistance :

Pitch 1mm
Least count of the screw gauge = = = 0.01 mm
Total no. of divisions on the Circular Scale 100
Zero error of the screw gauge = 0 mm
Zero correction of the screw gauge = 0 mm
OBSERVATION TABLE: (For diameter D1 of wire)

M.S.R. C.S.D. C.S.R. Total reading
Mean
S. No. 'a' n b = n × L.C. D=a+b
(mm)
(mm) (div.) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
E
OBSERVATION TABLE: (For diameter D2 of wire)
M.S.R. C.S.D. C.S.R. Total reading Mean Diameter
S. No. 'a' n b = n × L.C. D=a+b (mm)
(mm) (div.) (mm) (mm) D2
1
2
3
CALCULATION:
1) R = = ………………….. W GRAPH:
2) R = = …………………. W
C
3) R = = …………………. W
4) R = = …………………. W
5) R = = …………………. W
6) R = = …………………. W A B
Rmean =……………………………….…W
Sum of all six values of R

R1 =
mean Totalno.of observations
R1 = _________ W
Similarly calculate the resistance R2 for second unknown given wire.
For resistivity of first unknown given wire.
æ R 1 A1 ö æ R 1 pD12 ö –8
r1 = ç ÷=ç ÷ = ................ = ................ × 10 W – m
è L 1 ø è 4L1 ø
Similarly calculate the resistivity r2 for second unknown given wire.
E
RESULT:
1. The first unknown resistance of the given wire is found to be R1 = ..............W (by graph)
2. The resistivity of the material of first given wire is r1 = ..............× 10–8 W –m
3. The second unknown resistance of the given wire is found to be R2 = ..............W
(by graph)
4. The resistivity of the material of second given wire is r2 = ..............× 10–8 W –m
PRECAUTIONS :
1. All the connection should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Ammeter is always connected in series in the circuit while voltmeter is parallel to the
resistor.
3. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of resistance.
(otherwise its resistance will increase)
4. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
5. Zero error in measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter) should be eliminated before
taking observations.
SOURCES OF ERRORS :
1. Loose connection may cause variation in readings.
2. Resistance of connecting wires may be considerable.
3. The wire used may be of variable cross sectional area.
E
VIVA-VOCE
OHM’S LAW
1. State Ohm’s law.
Ans. According to the Ohm’s law, “the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions
(temperature, dimensions, pressure) of the conductor remains the same.
2. What are Ohmic and non-ohmic resistances?
Ans. Resistances which obey Ohm’s law, are called ohmic resistances e.g., alloys like
nichrome, constantan & manganin. Resistances which do not obey Ohm’s law are called
non-ohmic resistances e.g., p-n junction diodes and transistors.
3. Name some substances whose resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
Ans. Resistance of semi-conductors (Si, Ge) decreases with increase in temperature.
4. Why a large current is not allowed to be passed through the conductor during the
experiment?
Ans. If a large current is passed (or even if a small current is passed unnecessarily for a long
time), the conductor will become hot and its resistance will increase. Then the graph will
not remain a straight line.
5. Why do we need to measure resistance per unit length of wire?
Ans. By knowing the resistance per unit length of wire we can make the resistance of desired
value.
6. Why unknown wire whose resistance is to be determined, is made of alloys such as
manganin, Eureka?
Ans. Unknown resistance wire is made of alloy, but not of metals, because (1) The resistivity
of alloys is greater than that of metals. (2) The temperature coefficient of resistance of
alloys is negligible than that of metals so their resistance remains unaffected from
temperature changes.
7. Why a voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit?
Ans. A voltmeter is a high resistance device. If it is connected in series with the circuit, a very
small current will flow through the circuit. So, a voltmeter is always connected in parallel
with the circuit.
8. Why an ammeter is always connected in series with the circuit?

Ans. An ammeter is a low resistance device. If it is connected in parallel with the circuit, then
all the current flows through the ammeter and it will cause a short circuit as well as coil
of ammeter got burnt. So, an ammeter is always connected in series with the circuit.
9. What is an ideal ammeter?
Ans. It is an ammeter whose resistance is zero.
10. What is ideal voltmeter?
Ans. It is a voltmeter whose resistance is infinity.
E
EXPERIMENT – 2A – METER BRIDGE

OBJECT:
To determine resistance of a given wire using meter bridge
APPARATUS:
Meter Bridge, unknown resistance wire (S), galvanometer, resistance box (R), plug key,
jockey, battery, connecting wire.
PRINCIPLE:
D
A metre bridge works on the principle of
Wheatstone’s bridge. As shown in figure, it consists of four R S
G
resistors P, Q, R and S connected in the form of a network A C
ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to two terminals
K2
of a cell through a key K1. Terminals B and D are connected I P Q
I
to a sensitive galvanometer G through a key K2. B
If there is no deflection in the galvanometer G, then balance + –
condition for Wheatstone’s bridge is: Battery K1
FORMULA:
Unknown resistance S of the wire having uniform cross-sectional area is given by
æ Qö æ 100 - l ö
S = ç ÷R = ç ÷R W
èPø è l ø
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
R.B S
.R
G
P=l Q = 100 – l
A C
B
0 50 100
+ – K1
Batter
y
E
OBSERVATION TABLE: (For unknown resistance)
Note: Null points should be in the middle of the wire (30 cm to 70 cm).
S. Resistance P=l Q = 100 - l æ Qö æ 100 - l ö
S = ç ÷R = ç ÷R W
No. from R. B. (Ω) (cm) (cm) èPø è l ø
1
2
3
4
Smean = ………Ω
CALCULATION:
For Resistance of unknown given wire

æ 100 - l ö æ 100 - l ö
1. S=ç ÷ R = ……........ W 2. S=ç ÷ R = ……........ W
è l ø è l ø
æ 100 - l ö æ 100 - l ö
3. S=ç ÷ R = ……........ W 4. S=ç ÷ R = ……........ W
è l ø è l ø
Smean = ……........ W
RESULT:
The unknown resistance of the given wire is found to be S = ………… W
PRECAUTIONS :
1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.

2. The key should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
3. There shouldn't be any clink in the resistance wire.
4. The jockey should be moved gently and it shouldn't be rubbed on wire.
5. Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.
SOURCES OF ERRORS :
1. The screws or connections of the instrument might be loose.

2. The wire used in meter bridge might be of non-uniform diameter.
3. Plug key in resistance box may be loose while taking reading.
E
EXPERIMENT – 2B – METER BRIDGE

OBJECT:
To verify the law of series combination of resistances using meter bridge.
APPARATUS:
Meter Bridge, unknown resistance wires (S1 & S2), galvanometer, resistance box (R), plug key,
PRINCIPLE:
A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s D
bridge. As shown in figure, it consists of four resistors P, Q,
R and S connected in the form of a network ABCD. The R S
G
terminals A and C are connected to two terminals of a cell A C
through a key K1. Terminals B and D are connected to a
K2
sensitive galvanometer G through a key K2. If there is no P Q
I I
deflection in the galvanometer G, then balance
B
condition for Wheatstone’s bridge is:
+ –
= Battery K1
FORMULA:
æ Qö æ 100 - l ö
S = ç ÷ R =ç ÷R W
èPø è l ø
When two resistances S1 and S2 are connected in series then their equivalent resistance Ss is given by
SS = S1 + S2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
R.B S S
.R
D
G
P=l Q = 100 – l
A C
B
0 50 K1 100
+ –
Batter
E y
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Resistance Resistance
P=l Q = 100 - l S= R Mean
coil S. No. from R. B.
(cm) (cm) (Ω) (Ω)
or wire R (Ω)
Resistance
S1 S1 = ……….
Resistance
S2 S2 = ……….
Resistance
S1 and S2 in
Ss = ……….
Series
CALCULATION:
Experimental value of SS = …………W
Theoretical value of SS = S1 + S2 = ……+…… W = ………… W
Difference =…………W
RESULT:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of series resistance
(SS) are same. Hence law of combination of resistances in series is verified.
PRECAUTIONS :
4. The jockey should be moved gently and it shouldn't be rubbed on wire.
SOURCES OF ERRORS :

3. Plug key in resistance box may be loose while taking reading.
E
EXPERIMENT – 2C – METER BRIDGE

OBJECT:
To verify the law of parallel combination of resistances using meter bridge.
APPARATUS:
Meter Bridge, unknown resistance wires (S1 & S2), galvanometer, resistance box (R), plug key,
PRINCIPLE:
D
A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s
bridge. As shown in figure, it consists of four resistors P, Q, R S
R and S connected in the form of a network ABCD. The G
A C
terminals A and C are connected to two terminals of a cell
through a key K1. Terminals B and D are connected to a K2
I P Q
sensitive galvanometer G through a key K2. If there is no I
B
deflection in the galvanometer G, then balance
+ –
condition for Wheatstone’s bridge is:
Battery K1
=
FORMULA:
æ Qö æ 100 - l ö
S = ç ÷R = ç ÷R W
èPø è l ø
When two resistances S1 and S2 are connected in parallel then their equivalent resistance SP is given by
æ SS ö
SP = ç 1 2 ÷ W
è S1 + S 2 ø
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
S
R.B
.R
D S
G
P=l Q = 100 – l
A C
B
0 50 100
+ – K1
Batter
y
E
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Resistance
Resistance P=l Q = 100 - l S = R Mean
coil S. No.
from R. B. (Ω) (cm) (cm) (Ω) (Ω)
or wire
S1 S1 = …….
S2 S2 = …….
S1 & S2 in SP = …….
parallel
CALCULATION:
Experimental value of SP = …………W
æ S1 ´ S2 ö
Theoretical value of SP = ç = …………W
è S1 + S2 ÷ø
Difference = …………W
RESULT:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of parallel resistance
(SP) are same. Hence law of combination of resistances in parallel is verified.
PRECAUTIONS :

4. The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn't be rubbed.
SOURCES OF ERRORS :
3. Plug key in resistance box might be loose while taking reading.
E
VIVA – VOCE
METER-BRIDGE
1. What is a meter-bridge? & Why it is called meter-bridge?
Ans. The device used to determine the unknown resistance. The length of the wire used in this
instrument is one meter, so it is called meter-bridge or slide wire bridge.
2. On what principle meter-bridge works?
Ans. It works on Wheatstone bridge principle.
3. What do you mean by Wheatstone bridge?
Ans. It is a network consisting of four resistors in such a way as to form the four sides of
quadrilateral.
4. When is a Wheatstone’s bridge said to be balanced?
Ans. A Wheatstone’s bridge is said to be balanced, when no current flows through the
galvanometer and it gives zero deflection (null point).
5. What is null point?
Ans. It is a point on the wire, keeping jockey at which, the galvanometer gives zero deflection.
6. What is the condition for a Wheatstone’s bridge to become balanced?
Ans. In a balanced Wheatstone bridge, we have = .
7. Why metre bridge is also called a slide wire bridge?
Ans. Since a jockey is sliding over the wire (during the experiment), it is also called a
slide- wire bridge.
8. Why the jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire when sliding over it?
Ans. Sliding the jockey with a hard press, will scratch the wire and make its thickness
non-uniform. Then the resistance per unit length of the wire will not remain constant
because resistance depend upon area of cross-section.
9. Why it’s advised to keep null point between 30 cm and 70 cm?
Ans. Wheatstone bridge is sensitive when all four arms have resistance of same order.
10. Why the bridge method for resistance measurement is better than Ohm’s Law?
Ans. It is so because the bridge method is a null method (at null point, there is no current
flowing in galvanometer) and more accurate.
11. What do you mean by sensitivity of a Wheatstone bridge?
Ans. A Wheatstone bridge is said to be sensitive if it produces more deflection in the
galvanometer for a small change of resistance.
E
EXPERIMENT – 3A – POTENTIOMETER
OBJECT:
To compare the electro-motive force (emf’s) of given two primary cells using a
potentiometer.
APPARATUS:
Potentiometer, Leclanche cell, Daniel cell, rheostat, galvanometer, jockey, plug key, two-way
plug key, battery and connecting wire.
PRINCIPLE:
It's working is based on the fact that when constant current is passed through potentiometer
wire of uniform cross sectional area, the potential difference across any segment of wire is
directly proportional to length of that segment.
E1 l1
E µ l or E = xl Þ =
E 2 l2
Where E1 & E2 are the e.m.f of two given cells and l1 & l2 are the corresponding balancing
lengths on potentiometer wire.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
E K1
+ –
B = Battery
Rh
l K1 = Plug Key
A J B K2 = Two way plug Key
R = Resistance wire
E1
+ – Rh = Rheostat
K2 E1 = Leclanche Cell
G E2 = Daniel Cell
E2
G = Galvanometer
+ – Two way key
OBSERVATIONS:
E.M.F. of battery or battery eliminator E = 3.0 V
E.M.F. of Leclanche cell E1 = 1.45 V
E.M.F. of Daniel cell E2 = 1.08 V
E
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Balancing Length for
Balancing Length for
S. No. Daniel Cell l2 =
Leclanche Cell l1 (cm)
(cm)
1
2
3
Mean = ……..
CALCULATION :
E1 l1
=
E 2 l2
E1 l1 E1 l1 E1 l1
1. = = …………. 2. = = …………. 3. = = ………….
E 2 l2 E 2 l2 E 2 l2
E1 l1
mean = ………….
E 2 l2
RESULT:
The ratio of EMF’S of given two primary cells is = …………
PRECAUTIONS :

4. The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn't be rubbed on the wire.
5. The emf E of the battery should be greater than the emfs of two primary cells individually.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. If the potentiometer wire is not tight along the scale on the board, then some error might
come in the measurement of balancing length.
2. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section throughout its length.
3. The battery (E) may not be fully charged.
4. Due to heating of potentiometer wire, some error might come in the result.
E
EXPERIMENT – 3B – POTENTIOMETER
OBJECT:
To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS:
Potentiometer, Leclanche cell, rheostat, resistance box, galvanometer, jockey, two one-way
plug keys, battery and connecting wire.
PRINCIPLE:
It's working is based on the fact that when constant current is passed through potentiometer
wire of uniform cross section area, the potential difference across any segment of wire is
directly proportional to length of that segment.
E µ l or E = xl1 Þ V = xl2
FORMULA :
The Internal resistance of cell is given by
E r
æE ö æl ö
r = ç – 1÷ R = ç 1 – 1÷ R
èV ø è l2 ø
R
Where l1 & l2 are the balancing lengths without shunt and with shunt respectively and R is the
shunt resistance in parallel with the given primary cell.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Battery K1
+ – B = Battery
Rh K1 = Plug Key
l1
A J B Rh = Rheostat
AB = Potentiometer
l2
E J = Jockey
+ – G E = Leclanche cell
G = Galvanometer
RB = Resistance Box
R K2
K2 = Plug Key
RB
E
OBSERVATIONS:
E.M.F. of battery or battery eliminator = 3.0 V; E.M.F. of Leclanche cell E = 1.45 V
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Balancing Balancing Internal
Resistance (R) resistance
Length (l1) when Length (l2) when
S. No. in R. B.
K2 is open K2 is closed r= −
R (Ω)
(cm) (cm) (Ω)
1
2
3
4
CALCULATION :
æl ö
Internal resistance r = ç 1 – 1 ÷ R
è l2 ø
æl ö æl ö
1. r = ç 1 – 1 ÷ R = …………… W 2. r = ç 1 – 1 ÷ R = …………… W
è l2 ø è l2 ø
æl ö æl ö
3. r = ç 1 – 1 ÷ R = …………… W 4. r = ç 1 – 1 ÷ R = …………… W
è l2 ø è l2 ø
RESULT:
The internal resistance of given primary cell is varies between
rminimum = …………W to rmaximam = ………… W
PRECAUTIONS :
3. The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn't be rubbed on the wire.
4. The emf E of the battery should be greater than the emfs of given primary cell.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. If the potentiometer wire is not tight along the scale on the board, then some error might
come in the measurement of balancing length.
2. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section throughout its length.
3. The battery used in primary circuit may not be fully charged.
4. Due to heating of potentiometer wire, some error might come in the result.
E
VIVA-VOCE
POTENTIOMETER
1. What do you understand by the e.m.f. of a cell?

Ans. Electromotive force i.e., e.m.f. of a cell is the potential difference across the terminals of
the cell when the cell is in open circuit i.e., when no current is drawn from the cell.
2. What is a potentiometer? Why is it called a potentiometer?
Ans. It is an instrument used to measure potential difference or e.m.f. of a cell. Because it
measures potential difference between any two points of electric circuits.
3. What is the principle of a potentiometer?
Ans. It works on the principle that for a constant current, potential drop along a uniform wire is
directly proportional to its length.
4. What is potential gradient?
Ans. It is the fall of potential per unit length of the potentiometer wire. x =V/l.
5. What purpose is served by varying the potential gradient?
Ans. A lower potential gradient gives more length of wire upto null point. Accuracy increases.
6. What is the preferred material used for making potentiometer & meter bridge wires?
Ans. Constantan, It is characterised by a low temperature coefficient of resistance and a high
resistivity.
7. Why is a ten-wire potentiometer more sensitive than, that with four-wire?
Ans. The potential gradient, under same conditions, decreases with an increase in the length of
the potentiometer wire. Hence, a 10-wire potentiometer (having a smaller potential
gradient) is more sensitive than a 4-wire one.
8. How will you know that the apparatus can give a null point?
Ans. The jockey is connected at the two ends of the potentiometer wire. The deflection in the
galvanometer must be in opposite directions.
9. What do you mean by internal resistance of a cell?
Ans. It is the opposition offered by the electrolyte to the flow of ions between respective
electrodes.
10. On what factors does the internal resistance of a cell depend?
Ans. (1) Distance between electrodes and is directly proportional to distance. (2) Surface area
of the electrodes in contact with electrolyte and is inversely proportional to it. (3) Nature
of electrolyte and is inversely proportional to its specific conductivity. (4) Temperature
increases, the internal resistance decreases and vice-versa. (5) Internal resistance
increases with the use of cell.
11. Can we find the internal resistance of an accumulator or secondary cell.

Ans. No. the internal resistance of an accumulator is so small (= 0.01 W) so this method cannot
be used.
12. Why is a potentiometer preferred over a voltmeter for measuring the e.m.f. of cell.
Ans. A potentiometer draws no current from the cell whose e.m.f. is to be measured. On the
other hand, the voltmeter always draws some current. Thus e.m.f. measured by voltmeter
will be slightly less than the e.m.f. measured by potentiometer.
13. Can we consider the potentiometer as an ideal voltmeter.
Ans. Yes. At null point, the potentiometer does not draw any current. Hence it measure the
emf. The potentiometer is equivalent to an ideal voltmeter.
E
EXPERIMENT – 4 – HALF DEFLECTION METHOD
OBJECT:
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by Half Deflection Method and to find it’s
figure of merit.
APPARATUS:
Galvanometer, high resistance box (R), low resistance box (S), two one-way plug keys, battery
and connecting wire.
FORMULA:
For resistance of galvanometer
RS
G= (W)
R –S
FIGURE OF MERIT:
It is defined as the current required to produce a deflection of one division in the scale of
galvanometer, its symbol is k.
E
k= Amp/Div.
(R + G)q
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
K1
( )
K1
( )
HRB E = Battery
K1 = Plug Key
HRB HRB = High Resistance Box
G = Galvanometer
S = Small Resistance Box
K2 = Plug Key
( )
Shunt K2
E
OBSERVATION TABLE: (For galvanometer resistance)
Galvanometer
Deflection in the Shunt resistance
Resistance Half Deflection
S. No. Galvanometer Resistance
R (Ω) q/2 (division) RS
q (division) S (Ω) G= W
R–S
1
2
3
4
Gmean = ………Ω
FOR FIGURE OF MERIT :
Galvanometer resistance G =……… W

No. of division on galvanometer scale = 30
EMF (E) Resistance Deflection Figure of merit

Number of
S. No. of the cells from HRB q E
cells k= ( A / div )
(volt) R (Ω) (division) ( R + G) q
1
2
3
4
kmean = …… × 10-5 A/div
CALCULATION:
For galvanometer resistance:

1. G = = ……………… W 2. = =……………… W
3. G = = ……………… W 4. = =……………… W
Gmean = ……… W
E
FOR FIGURE OF MERIT:
1) k = = ………× 10-5 A/div 2) k = = ………× 10-5 A/div

( )q ( )q
3) k = = ………× 10-5 A/div 4) k = = ………× 10-5 A/div

( )q ( )q
kmean =……… × 10-5 A/div
RESULT:
Resistance of given galvanometer = ……… W

Figure of merit of given galvanometer = ……… × 10-5 A/div
PRECAUTIONS :

3. Use high value of resistance R as high as possible in order to get the correct value of
Galvanometer resistance G.
4. The emf E of cell or battery must be constant throughout the experiment.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The resistance of the coil in the Resistance Box (RB) used may not exactly be same as
marked.
2. The emf of the battery may not be constant.
3. The divisions in the galvanometer may not be of equal size.
E
VIVA-VOCE
HALF DEFLECTION METHOD
1. What do you mean by a galvanometer?

Ans. A galvanometer is a device which is used to detect and measure small electric currents.
2. State the principle of galvanometer.

Ans. A galvanometer works on the principle that "a current-carrying coil, placed in a uniform
magnetic field, experiences a torque."
3. Should a galvanometer have a low or a high resistance?

Ans. A galvanometer should have a low resistance.
4. A galvanometer is converted into (i) milliammeter (ii) ammeter which one has
greater resistance?
Ans. Milliammeter
5. Give the resistance of an ideal ammeter.

Ans. Zero
6. How can we convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter?

Ans. We can convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in
series with it.
7. In a circuit, how is a voltmeter connected?

Ans. A voltmeter is always connected in parallel in the circuit.
8. Give the resistance of an ideal voltmeter.

Ans. Infinite
9. What is meant by the figure of merit of galvanometer?

Ans. The figure of merit of a galvanometer can be defined as the current required to produce
unit deflection in the galvanometer.
10. What do you mean by sensitivity of a galvanometer?

Ans. Sensitivity is defined as the deflection produced per unit current. It is reciprocal of the
figure of merit K.
E
EXPERIMENT – 5A – G TO A CONVERSION
OBJECT:
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) in to
an ammeter of desired range and to verify the same.
APPARATUS:
Galvanometer, Shunt resistance (1 W & 2 W), Ammeter (100 mA / 500 mA), plug key,
rheostat, battery and connecting wire.
FORMULA:
The shunt resistance required for conversion.
Ig G
S=
I – Ig
Where:
S = Shunt resistance; G = Galvanometer resistance;
I = Required range of ammeter; Ig = full scale deflection current in the galvanometer.
I g = nk
(Here, n= Total no. of divisions on galvanometer scale and k= Figure of merit)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Key
(l)
E
OBSERVATIONS:
L.C. of Ammeter (of 100 mA standard range) = = = 2 mA.
OBSERVATION TABLE: 1 (For conversion into 100 mA)

L.C. of galvanometer converted into Ammeter = = ……… mA.
Galvanometer Reading Ammeter Reading Difference

S. No. Current in mA Current in mA (Error)
I1 = division × L.C. I2 = division × L.C. I2 – I1 (mA)
1
2
3
4
OBSERVATION TABLE: 2 (For conversion into 50 mA)

L.C. of galvanometer converted into Ammeter = = ……… mA
Galvanometer Reading Ammeter Reading Difference
S. No. Current in mA Current in mA (Error)
I1 = division × L.C. I2 = division × L.C. I2 – I1 (mA)
1
2
3
4
RESULT:
As the difference in actual and measured value of current (as recorded in column 4 in both
tables) is very small, so the conversion is perfect.
PRECAUTIONS :
3. The Ammeter connected in series with Galvanometer should be of same range as that of
Galvanometer.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The resistance of the coil in the Resistance Box (RB) used may not be exactly same as
marked.
E
EXPERIMENT – 5B – G TO V CONVERSION
OBJECT:
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) in to a
voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.
APPARATUS:
Galvanometer, Series resistance (4890 W & 9750 W), Voltmeter (10 V), plug key, rheostat,
battery and connecting wire.
FORMULA:
The series resistance required for conversion.
V
R= –G
Ig
Where:
R = Series resistance; G = Galvanometer resistance;
V = Required range of voltmeter; Ig = Full scale deflection current in the galvanometer.
I g = nk
(Here, n= Total no. of divisions on galvanometer scale and k= Figure of merit)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Battery Key
+ –
( )
Rheostat
Voltmeter
+ –
Galvanometer
R
G Converted voltmeter
E
OBSERVATIONS:
L.C. of Voltmeter (of 10 V - standard range) = = = 0.2 V.
OBSERVATION TABLE: 1 (For conversion into 10 V)

L.C. of galvanometer converted into Voltmeter = = ……… V.
Galvanometer Reading Voltmeter Reading Difference

S. No. P.D. in volts P.D. in volts (Error)
V1 = division × L.C. V2 = division × L.C. V2 – V1 (volt)
1
2
3
4
OBSERVATION TABLE: 2 (For conversion into 5 V)
L.C. of galvanometer converted into Voltmeter = = ……… V
Galvanometer Reading Voltmeter Reading Difference

S. No. P.D. in volts P.D. in volts (Error)
V1 = division × L.C. V2 = division × L.C. V2 – V1 (volt)
1
2
3
4
RESULT:
As the difference in actual and measured value of current (as recorded in column 4 in both
tables) is very small, so the conversion is perfect.
PRECAUTIONS :

3. The Voltmeter connected in Parallel with galvanometer should be of same range as that
of galvnometer.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The resistance of the coil in the Resistance Box (RB) used may not be exactly same as
marked.
E
VIVA-VOCE
GALVANOMETER, VOLTMETER & AMMETER
1. What is a galvanometer?
Ans. It is a device (instrument) used for detecting small electric currents in circuits.
2. Do we have positive and negative terminal in a galvanometer?
Ans. Although a galvanometer has positive and negative terminals, yet it is not significant as
the pointer can deflect on either side from zero in the middle.
3. Why the divisions of a galvanometer scale are equally spaced?
Ans. Deflection is proportional to the current passed. I µ q.
4. Why is the galvanometer called a moving coil galvanometer?
Ans. Because in this galvanometer the coil moves (deflects), while the magnet remains
stationary.
5. What do you mean by resistance of a galvanometer?
Ans. The resistance of the coil of a galvanometer is called the resistance of the galvanometer.
It is represented by the symbol G.
6. How do you determine the resistance of a galvanometer?
Ans. The resistance of a galvanometer is determined by half-deflection method.
7. Why is this method called half deflection method?
Ans. It is so because the deflection is made half by using a shunt resistance S.
8. Define figure of merit of a galvanometer.
Ans. The quantity of current required to produce a deflection of one division in the
galvanometer, is called figure of merit of the galvanometer. It is represented by the
symbol k. Its unit is ampere per division.
9. How is a galvanometer converted into an ammeter?
Ans. A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel
with the galvanometer coil (this parallel low resistance is called shunt).
10. What is full name of an ammeter?
Ans. Full name of an ammeter is ampere-meter.
11. How is a galvanometer converted into a voltmeter?

Ans. A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series
with the galvanometer coil.
12. What is shunt? State its S.l. unit?
Ans. A small resistance connected in parallel with a galvanometer is called shunt. Its S.l. unit
is ohm.
13. Is the working of MCG affected by the earth magnetic field?
Ans. No. The earth magnetic field is very weak as compared to strong radial magnetic field.
E
EXPERIMENT – 6 – AC SONOMETER
OBJECT:
To find the frequency of the AC mains with a sonometer.
APPARATUS:
Sonometer with iron wire, hanger with slotted weight (500 gm each), step down transformer,
electromagnet, AC supply (220 V) and connecting wire.
FORMULA:
The natural frequency of oscillation for a stretched wire is
1 T
n= Hz
2l m
n
& frequency of AC mains is f =
2
DIAGRAM:
E
OBSERVATIONS:
Length of wire (L) = 140 cm = 1.40 m
Mass of this length (m') = 1.54 g = 1.54 × 10–3 kg
Mass per unit length (m) = = 0.011 g/cm = 0.0011 kg/m
Mass of hanger = 0.5 kg
Value of g (acceleration due to gravity) = 10 m/s2
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Load (M)
Tension Resonant
S. Including Wavelength 1 T
T = Mg Length n= ( Hz)
No. mass of l =2l (m) 2l m
(Newton) l (m)
hanger (kg)
1 0.5 5
2 1.0 10
3 1.5 15
4 2.0 20
nmean = ………Hz
CALCULATION:
1) n = = … … … Hz 2) n = = ……… Hz
3) n = = … … … Hz 4) n = = ……… Hz
nmean = ……… Hz
n
Frequency of AC mains = f = mean ……… Hz
2
E
RESULT :
Frequency of AC mains (f) = ……… Hz

Actual frequency of AC mains is 50 Hz.
PRECAUTIONS :
1. The sonometer wire should be of soft iron or any other magnetic material and of uniform
cross-section.
2. The pulley used in the experimental set up should be frictionless.
3. The paper rider should always be placed exactly on the middle of wire between the
wedges.
4. Loading of wire should be done within their elastic limits to avoid breaking of wire.
5. The length of vibrating wire should be noted when the amplitude of vibration is maximum.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The two wedges may not be sharpened.

2. The values marked on slotted weights and hanger may not be true.
3. The main AC frequency may not be stable.
E
VIVA-VOCE
ALTERNATING CURRENT
1. What do you mean by one cycle of A.C.?
Ans. One cycle of A.C. means current from zero becoming maximum positive, then zero, then
maximum negative and finally zero again.
2. Why this instrument is called sonometer?
Ans. Sono means sound. Therefore, a sonometer is an instrument which measures the
frequency of sound.
3. What is the unit of frequency of A.C.?
Ans. Unit of frequency of A.C. is hertz (Hz) or cycle per second.
4. What is frequency of alternating current supplied to us in our houses?
Ans. The frequency is 50 hertz (Hz).
5. What is an electromagnet?
Ans. A magnet magnetised by electric current, is called an electromagnet.
6. How frequency of magnetisation of the electromagnet related with frequency of the
alternating current which magnetises it?
Ans. It is twice the frequency of the alternating current.
7. Why is frequency of magnetisation of electromagnet double of that of the alternating
current?
Ans. It is because the electromagnet is magnetised twice during one cycle of alternating current.
8. Which material is used to make sonometer wire and Why?
Ans. Iron, because it is a ferromagnetic material.
9. What are nodes and antinodes?
Ans. Nodes are the points of zero displacement and antinodes are points of maximum
displacement.
10. Define wavelength of a stationary wave.

Ans. The distance between the centres of two successive crests or troughs is called the
wavelength of a stationary wave.
11. How does the wire begin to vibrate in this case?
Ans. When a current carrying wire is placed in magnetic field then magnetic force act on the
wire which tends to move it in a direction which is perpendicular to current and field. The
current is A.C., the force which act on the wire is also oscillating and hence the wire
vibrate.
E
IMPORTANT NOTES
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Evaluation Scheme
Total 15 Marks
Term - II
TERM-II
Experiments
1. To find the focal length of a convex lens graph between angle of incidence and
by plotting graphs between u and v or angle of deviation.
between 1/u and 1/v. 4. To determine refractive index of a glass
2A. To find the focal length of a convex slab using a travelling microscope.
mirror, using a convex lens. 5. To find refractive index of a liquid by

OR using convex lens and plane mirror.
2B. To find the focal length of a concave 6. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for
lens, using a convex lens. a p-n junction in forward bias and
3. To determine angle of minimum reverse bias.
deviation for a given prism by plotting a
E
IMPORTANT NOTES
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E
EXPERIMENT – 1 – CONVEX LENS
OBJECT:
To find the focal length of convex lens by plotting a graph between u and v or between
1/u and 1/v.
APPARATUS:
Optical bench with uprights, lens holder, object pin, image pin, convex lens, spirit level.
FORMULA:
Lens formula
where :
= −
u = object distance from lens

v = Image distance from lens
f = focal length of convex lens
According to sign convention: v = + ve & u = - ve
Then
=
+
RAY DIAGRAM:
I
O P
E
OBSERVATION:
Rough focal length of convex lens = ……… cm.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Position of Distance Distance
S. f = +
Lens Object Image P-O=u I-P=v
No. (cm)
(P) (O) (I) (cm) (cm) (cm-1) (cm-1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
fmean = …..cm
CALCULATION:
1) f = = ………cm 2) f = = ……… cm
3) f = = ………cm 4) f = = ……… cm
5) f = = ………cm 6) f = = ……… cm
fmean = ………cm
RESULT:
Focal length of given convex lens is = ……cm. (by graph)

Focal length of given convex lens is = ……cm. (by calculation)
PRECAUTIONS :
1. The uprights supporting the needles and lens should be rigid and mounted vertically.
2. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image formed will not be distinct.
3. The tips of the needles and the centre of the convex lens should be at the same height.
4. The image and object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of
observations.
5. Tip to tip parallax should be removed.
E
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The uprights may not be vertical

2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. The table may not be horizontal.
GRAPH:
between u & v between 1/u & 1/v
Note: Plot graph according to the readings obtained by you in experiment.

E
EXPERIMENT – 2A – CONVEX MIRROR
OBJECT:
To find the focal length of convex mirror using convex lens.
APPARATUS:
Optical bench, lens holder, mirror holder, object pin, image pin, convex lens, convex mirror,
spirit level.
FORMULA:
R
f=
2
Where: f = Focal length of convex mirror & R = Radius of curvature of mirror.
RAY DIAGRAM:
E
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Position of
S. No. Object Lens Mirror Image Radius of curvature f = (cm)
(O) (L) (M) (I) R = I – M (cm)
1
2
3
4
fmean = …….cm
CALCULATION:
1) f = =……… cm 2) f = =……… cm
3) f = =……… cm 4) f = =……… cm
fmean =……… cm
RESULT:
Focal length of given convex mirror is =……… cm.
PRECAUTIONS :
3. The tips of the needles and the centre of the convex lens should be at the same height.
observations.
SOURCES OF ERROR :

E
EXPERIMENT – 2B – CONCAVE LENS

OBJECT:
To find the focal length of concave lens using a convex lens.
APPARATUS:
Optical bench, two lens holder, object pin, image pin, convex lens, concave lens, spirit level.
FORMULA:
Lens formula
= −
u = object distance from lens

v = Image distance from lens
f = focal length of lens
According to sign convention: v = + ve for both lenses
& u = - ve for convex lens & it is + ve for concave lens
Then
=
−
RAY DIAGRAM:
E
OBSERVATION:
Rough focal length of convex lens = ……… cm.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Position of
Object Lens Image Lens Image u = I - L2 v = I'- L2 f =
S.No.
(O) (L1) (I) (L2) (I') (cm)
1
2
3
4
fmean = -..... cm
CALCULATION:
1) f = = -……… cm 2) f = = -……… cm
3) f = = -……… cm 4) f = = -……… cm
RESULT:
Focal length of given concave lens is = -……… cm.
PRECAUTIONS :
3.
The tips of the needles and the centre of the both lens should be at the same height.
observations.
SOURCES OF ERROR :

E
EXPERIMENT – 3 – PRISM
OBJECT:
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between the angle of incidence & the angle of deviation.
APPARATUS:
Prism, all-pins, drawing card board, protector, meter scale, drawing pins, blank white paper.
FORMULA:
Using Snell's law refractive index of medium (Glass)
+d
μ = =
RAY DIAGRAM:
where A ® Angle of prism 60°
dm ® Angle of minimum deviation
E
 45
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No. Angle of incidence i Angle of deviation 

1 30⁰
2 35⁰
3 40⁰
4 45⁰
5 50⁰
6 55⁰
7 60⁰
CALCULATION:
Angle of prism A = 60⁰

Angle of minimum deviation by graph = …….
𝑨+𝒎
𝑺𝒊𝒏 ( ) 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (……… ) 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (……….⁰)
𝟐
So Refractive Index of given prism is µ = 𝑨 = 𝟔𝟎 =
𝑺𝒊𝒏 ( ) 𝑺𝒊𝒏 ( ) 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝟑𝟎⁰)
𝟐 𝟐
…………
= = …………….
𝟎.𝟓
GRAPH:
Between angle of incidence and angle of deviation
GRAPH BETWEEN i AND 

X Scale:
50° X-axis 1° = 2 Division
Y-axis 1° = 4 Division
45°
Angle deviation ()
40°
m
35°
i=
30°
O 30° 35° 40° 45° 50° 55° 60° Y
Angle of incidence (i)
Fig. Graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation
E
RESULT:
Angle of minimum deviation (by graph) = ………….

Refractive Index of given prism is µ = ……………… (Optional)
PRECAUTIONS :
1. All pins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper.

2. To draw boundary of the prism and rays of light, use a sharp pencil.
3. To take various sets of observations, the angle of incidence should lie between 30° to 60°.
4. For all observations, use same angle of prism.
5. While fixing the all pins, it should be ensured that their tips must be in line.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The pins may not be fixed properly.

2. Pin pricks may be thick.
3. Errors may arise in measuring the values of the angles by protractor.
4. The curve drawn may not be a smooth curve.
E
EXPERIMENT – 4 – TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

OBJECT:
To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
APPARATUS:
Travelling microscope, glass slab, convex lens, lycopodium powder or chalk powder, spirit
level.
FORMULA:
R.I. of the transparent glass slab is given by
−
μ = =
−
DIAGRAM:
Eye R
N
r
A S B
Q
r
i
P1
t
i
D P C
Fig. : Real and apparent thickness of a glass slab.
Fig. Real and apparent thickness
OBSERVATION:
Least count of travelling microscope:

Value of 1 MSD = cm = 0.05 cm
No. of division in Vernier scale = 50
.
So Least Count = =
.
= 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm
E
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Reading of microscope focused on Real Apparent

S.
R1 R2 R3 depth depth µ=
No.
MSR + (VSD × LC) MSR + (VSD × LC) MSR + (VSD × LC) (R3 – R1) (R3 – R2)
1
2
3
µmean=…..
CALCULATION:
1) R1 = MSR + (VSD × LC) =………cm
R2 = MSR + (VSD × LC) =………cm
R3 = MSR + (VSD × LC) =………cm
Then µ1 = =………
2) R1 = MSR + (VSD × LC) =………cm
R2 = MSR + (VSD × LC) =………cm
R3 = MSR + (VSD × LC) =………cm
Then µ2 = =………
3) R1 = MSR + (VSD × LC) =………cm
R2 = MSR + (VSD × LC) =………cm
R3 = MSR + (VSD × LC) =………cm µmean = =………

Then µ3 = =………
RESULT:
The refractive index of given glass slab is µ =………
E
PRECAUTIONS :
1. Least count of the scale of travelling microscope should be observed carefully.
2. The microscope should be levelled properly.
3. The screws used in focusing the microscope should be moved in one direction only to
avoid backlash error.
4. The glass slab should be placed on a horizontal surface.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.
2. Position of the microscope may not be normal to the surface of the glass slab.
3. The focusing arrangement may be changed after first reading.
E
EXPERIMENT – 5 – R. I. OF LIQUID
OBJECT:
To find the refractive index of a liquid (water) by using convex lens and plane mirror.
APPARATUS:
A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in a beaker (water), an optical needle,
(a thick knitting needle passed through a rubber cork), an iron stand with base and clamp
arrangement, plumb line, plane glass slab, a spherometer, half metre scale etc.
THEORY & FORMULA:
If f1 and f2 be the focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens and F be the focal length of
their combination then,
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + or = -
F f1 f2 f2 F f1
Liquid lens formed is a plano-concave lens with R1 = R (radius of curvature of convex lens
surface), R2 = ¥
1 æ 1 1 ö
From lens maker’s formula = (m - 1) ç - ÷
f2 è R1 R 2 ø
1 ( µ - 1) R
We have = or µ = 1 + here R is the radius of curvature of lower surface of the
f2 R f2
convex lens.
l2 h
R is determined using spherometer and is given by R = +
6h 2
Where l is the average distance between two legs of a spherometer and h is a height of convex
surface.
E
DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATIONS:
(i) For Radius of curvature of convex lens (R)
A. Pitch of the screw:
(i) Value of smallest division on the vertical pitch scale = 1 mm
(ii) Distance q moved by the screw for p complete rotations of the circular
disc = 1 mm
(iii) Pitch of the screw = = = 1mm
B. Least Count (L.C.) of the spherometer:

(i) Total no. of divisions on the circular scale (N) = 100
Pitch of the spherometer screw
(ii) Least count (L.C.) of the spherometer =
Number of divisions of the circular scale
L.C. = Pitch of the screw = = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm

N
C. Determination of length l (from equilateral triangle ABC)

A
(i) Distance AB =………mm
(ii) Distance BC =………mm
(iii) Distance CA=………mm
Mean l = AB + BC + CA =………mm C B
3
(ii) Rough focal length of convex lens =………cm

E
OBSERVATION TABLE: (i) For Radius of curvature of convex lens (R)
Spherometer Readings
With Spherical Surface With Horizontal Plane Surface h=
S.
M.S.R. C.S.D. C.S.R. M.S.R. C.S.D. C.S.R. (h2 –h1)
No h1 = x + z h2 = x' + z'
x y z =( y × L.C) x' y' z' =( y' × L.C) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
(mm) (div) (mm) (mm) (div) (mm)
1
2
3
hmean =………mm
(ii) For distance of needle tip from lens and mirror

Distance of needle tip
From lens From plane
Mean x = Focal length
Arrangement surface x1 mirror x2 (cm)
(cm)
(cm) (cm)
Without Liquid f1 =………
With Liquid F =………
CALCULATIONS :
A. Using the values of l and h, radius of curvature R is:
l2 h = ………….
+
……….
R= +
6h 2 ×……..
R = ………mm = ………cm
B. Using the values of f1 and F (From table (ii) focal length of plano-concave lens f2 is:
× ………. × ………..
= − Þ = =
………. ……….
=…………….cm
By putting the values of R and f2 in formula:
…………
µ= + = + = ………
…………
E
RESULT:
The refractive index of given liquid (water) is µ = …………….
PRECAUTIONS :
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip.
3. The plane mirror and the lens should be cleaned before use.
SOURCES OF ERROR :

2. The distances measured with the help of plumb line may not be measured correctly.
E
VIVA-VOCE
RAY OPTICS
1. Define spherical lens. Describe its types.
Ans. A piece of a transparent medium bounded by atleast one spherical surface, is called a
spherical lens.
There are two types of spherical lenses.
1. Convex or Converging lenses : These are thick in the middle and thin at the edges.
2. Concave or Diverging lenses : These are thin in the middle and thick at the edges.
2. How will you distinguish between a glass slab, a convex lens and a concave lens
without touching it?
Ans. The glass piece is put over a printed page and the virtual image of the printed matter is
seen. The magnification of the image is judged. If the image has same size as the object,
the glass piece is a glass slab. If the image is magnified, the glass piece is a convex lens.
If the image is diminished, the glass piece is a concave lens.
3. Define sign convention?
Ans. (i) All distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens or pole of the mirror
taken as origin.
(ii) Distances, which are measured in the direction of the incident ray are taken as
positive and those, which are measured against it, are taken as negative.
(iii) Distances, which are measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis are taken
as positive and, in the downward directions, are taken as negative.
4. Give lens and mirror formula?
Ans. For mirror = + & = −
5. What is meant by real image?

Ans. An image formed by actual convergence of light rays after reflection or refraction is
known as real image.
6. Give the characteristics of real image.

Ans. A real image is always inverted and can be projected on the screen.
7. What is a virtual image?
Ans. When the light rays do not actually meet after reflection or refraction, a virtual image is
formed.
8. Which convex lens has more focal length, thick or thin?
Ans. A thin convex lens has more focal length.
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9. Can you find rough focal length of a concave lens?

Ans. No, because it does not form a real image.
10. What is the type of the eye lens?
Ans. The eye lens is convex.
11. Define optical centre of a lens?
Ans. It is a fixed point inside the lens on its principal axis, through which light rays passes
un-deviated.
12. What is the principal axis of a lens?
Ans. The straight line passing through the centres of curvature of the curved surfaces of the
lens is called the principal axis of the lens.
13. What is the principal focus of a lens?
Ans. It is fixed point on the principal axis of a lens where a beam of light incident parallel to its
principal axis converges or appears to diverge after passing through the convex lens or
concave lens.
14. What is the focal length of a lens?
Ans. It is the distance between optical centre and principal focus of a lens. Its S.I. unit is metre.
15. What are the sign for the power of a convex lens and concave lens?
Ans. The power of a convex lens is positive since its focal length is positive & it converge the
rays while the power of a concave lens is negative since its focal length is negative & it
diverge the rays.
16. What is lens makers formula?
Ans. It is a relation between focal length, radii of curvature, refractive index of material of lens
and refractive index of surroundings.
17. Under what condition, the nature of lens change.

Ans. When the refractive index of surrounding medium is greater than that of material of lens.
The convex lens acts as concave lens and vice-versa.

18. What type of lens is an air bubble inside water?
Ans. Concave lens.
19. What is the power of combination of a convex and concave lens of the same focal length?
Ans. Zero.
20. Why we can't find the rough focal length of concave lens?
Ans. It makes virtual image for all positions of objects.
E
21. What do you mean by term “Parallax”?
Ans. The lateral shift between image of an object when it is viewed from two different
locations.
22. Define a mirror.
Ans. It is a fine polished surface which reflects most of the light that is incident on it.
23. Describe different types of mirrors.
Ans. There are two types of mirrors: Plane and Spherical.
24. Define a spherical mirror.
Ans. It is a reflecting surface which forms the part of a sphere.
25. Name two different types of spherical mirrors.
Ans. (i) convex mirror (ii) concave mirror.
26. Give the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a spherical mirror.
Ans. The focal length is half of the radius of curvature.
27. What is index error?
Ans. The difference between the actual distance between the pole of a mirror (optical centre, of
a lens) and the point object (or image) and observed distance measured on optical bench
is called index error. It is also called bench error. Index error = observed distances –
actual distance Index correction = actual distance – observed distance.
28. How will you distinguish between a plane, a concave and a convex mirror, without
touching them?
Ans. We see our face in the mirror from a close distance. In all cases virtual images will be
formed. Judge the magnification of the image. If the magnification is one, mirror is plane.
If the magnification is more than one (enlarged image), mirror is concave. If the
magnification is less than one (diminished image), mirror is convex.
29. Is the focal length of a mirror change (i) due to change in medium (ii) or colour of
light?
Ans. No. Since focal length of a mirror does not depend the external medium and colour of light.
30. Give the cause of refraction?
Ans. The cause of refraction is the fact that the speed of light is different in different media.
31. Define refractive index?
Ans. It is the property of a transparent medium which resist the propagation of light in that
medium. It is measured in term of speed of light in a medium w.r.t. speed of light in
vacuum.
E
32. What is relative refractive index?

Ans. Relative refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t. medium 1 is the ratio of the speed of light in
medium 1 to the speed of light in medium 2.
33. What is prism?

Ans. A prism is a portion of transparent medium bounded by five plane surfaces inclined to
each other at a certain angle.
34. What do you mean by angle of prism?
Ans. The angle between the two faces of a prism is called the angle of prism.
35. Define angle of deviation?
Ans. The angle through which a ray of light turns away from its original path on passing
through a prism, is called angle of deviation.
36. On what factors does the angle of deviation depend?
Ans. The angle of deviation depends upon the following factors :
(i) The angle of incidence.
(ii)The refracting angle of the prism.
(iii) The material of the prism. i.e.(Refractive index)
(iv) The colour of the light used i.e., wavelength of light.
37. Define angle of minimum deviation.
Ans. The least value of the angle of deviation is known as the angle of minimum deviation.
38. What is the speciality about minimum deviation?
Ans. Under minimum deviation condition, light ray travels inside prism parallel to the base of
the prism and the angle of incidence is equal to angle of emergence.
39. Does the angle of minimum deviation depend upon the colour of light used?
Ans. Yes, it is different for different colours.

40. What name is given to the phenomenon of splitting white light into seven colours?
Ans. The phenomenon is called dispersion of light.
41. What does the graph between Ð i and Ðd indicate?
Ans. There is only one unique value of angle of incidence for which the deviation is minimum.
42. Does a beam of white light give a spectrum on passing a hollow prism?
Ans. No, Because dispersion does not occurs in air.
E
43. Which colour deviate (i) Most (ii) Least?
Ans. (i) Violet (ii) Red.
44. Which colours have highest and smallest refractive index? Why?
Ans. Refractive index is smallest for red colour and that is highest for violet colour
1
µ
ℎ
45. What is dispersive power of prism?
Ans. It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion for these two colours to the mean
deviation produced by the prism.
46. On what factors dispersive power depends?
Ans. It depends upon refractive index of the material of prism.
47. Why a slab does not deviate and disperse light, whereas a prism does?
Ans. In a slab, the refracting faces are parallel. The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
There is no deviation and dispersion. In a prism, the refracting faces are not parallel. The
emergent ray is not parallel to incident ray. There is a deviation and hence dispersion.
48. Why lycopodium power is spread over the glass surface?
Ans. To focus the microscope accurately, otherwise the bottom surface will be focussed
because of transparency of glass slab.
49. What is normal shift?
Ans. It is the difference between actual depth and apparent depth. Its S.I. unit is metre.
50. What is cause of normal shift?
Ans. Due to refraction of light.
51. On what factors, apparent depth depends?
Ans. (i) nature of medium (R.I.) (ii) thickness of medium (actual depth) (iii) colour of light.
52. In general for which colour we take the refractive index of a material in lens and
glass slabs.
Ans. Yellow colour, Since it is the mean colour of visible spectrum.
53. What may be refractive index for hollow glass slab?
Ans. n = 1.
E
EXPERIMENT – 6 – P-N JUNCTION DIODE

OBJECT:
To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse
bias.
APPARATUS:
A p-n junction diode, one Voltmeter (0-1V), one Voltmeter (0-60V), one Ammeter (0-10mA),
one Ammeter (0-100 µA), rheostat, Battery connecting wire.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
+ mA – + mA –
I I
+ P + N
Variable + Variable +
V Voltage V V
Voltage V – – N – P
source source –
(a) Forward (b) Reverse Bias

Bias
OBSERVATIONS:
Range of Voltmeter = 0-1 V Least Count of Voltmeter = 0.02 V
Range of Ammeter = 0-10 mA Least count of Ammeter = 0.2 mA
Range of Voltmeter = 0-60 V Least Count of Voltmeter = 1 V
Range of Ammeter = 0-100 µA Least count of Ammeter = 2 µA
OBSERVATION TABLE:
FORWARD BIAS
S. No. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
No. of div. × L.C. (VF) In Volt No. of div. × L.C. (IF) In mA
1 0×
2 5×
3 10 ×
4 15 ×
5 20 ×
6 25 ×
7 30 ×
8 35 ×
9 40 ×
E
REVERSE BIAS
S. No. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
No. of div. × L.C. (VR) In Volt No. of div. × L.C. (IR) In µA
1 0×
2 5×
3 10 ×
4 15 ×
5 20 ×
6 25 ×
7 30 ×
8 35 ×
GRAPH:
E
RESULT:
The characteristic curve of the given p-n junction diode is shown on the graph.
PRECAUTIONS :
1. Before connecting the wires, their ends should be cleaned with the help of sand paper to
remove the insulation.
2. All connections in circuit should be neat and clean.
3. The voltmeter, milliammetres and microammeter should be of suitable range and the
current and voltage should not be exceed beyond their limits.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The p-n junction diode kit may be faulty.

2. The forward voltage may be applied beyond the tolerance limit (limit specified on the
diode) of the diode.
3. It may be due to loose connection.
E
VIVA-VOCE
SEMICONDUCTOR
1. What is meant by doping?
Ans. Doping is the process of addition of impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to alter its
conduction properties.
2. Name two different types of extrinsic semiconductors.
Ans. p-type and n-type.
3. Describe an n-type semiconductor.
Ans. An n-type semiconductor is obtained by adding a small quantity (one millionth part) of a
pentavalent impurity to pure crystal.
4. Name the pentavalent impurities.
Ans. The pentavalent impurities are:
(i) Phosphorus (P15), (ii) Arsenic (As33), (iii) Antimony (Sb51), (iv) Bismuth (Bi83).
5. Describe a p-type semiconductor.
Ans. A p-type semiconductor is obtained by adding a small quantity (one ppm) of a trivalent
impurity to pure crystal.
6. Name the trivalent impurities.
Ans. The trivalent impurities are: (i) Boron (B5), (ii) Aluminium (Al13), (iii) Indium (In49)
7. Define a hole.
Ans. A place vacated by an electron, is called a hole. It is associated with a positive charge.
8. What do you mean by p-n junction diode?
Ans. When a p-type semiconductor is joined to n-type semiconductor, junction diode is
formed.
9. What is a depletion layer?
Ans. It is a layer at junction in the middle, having no free charge carriers. The opposite charge
carriers got neutralized.
10. What is junction potential barrier?

Ans. It is the potential difference across junction which opposes the flow of majority charge
(e–s) carriers from N-region to p-region.
11. What is biasing of a junction? Give names of the two types of the biasing?
Ans. Applying an external potential difference across the junction, is called biasing of the
junction. The two types of biasing are:
(i) forward biasing (ii) reverse biasing.
E
12. What do you mean by forward bias?

Ans. A p-n junction is forward biased when p-region is connected to positive terminal and
n-region is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
13. What do you mean by reverse bias?
Ans. A p-n junction is reverse biased when p-region is connected to negative terminal and
n-region is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
14. How does the bias affect the junction resistance?
Ans. The forward bias makes junction resistance less. The reverse bias makes junction
resistance more.
15. Define Knee voltage.
Ans. In a forward biased p-n junction, the knee voltage is the voltage at which there is a
sudden increase in current with a small increase in voltage.
16. Define characteristic of a junction diode.
Ans. Graph drawn between bias voltage and circuit current of a junction diode is called
characteristic of the diode. It reveals the character (behaviour) of the junction diode.
17. What is the order of forward current and reverse current?
Ans. Forward current is » milliampere (mA) whereas reverse current is » microampere (mA).
18. What is the effect on depletion layer when diode is connected in forward and reverse
bias respectively?
Ans. In forward bias depletion layer decreases and in reverse bias depletion layer increases.
E
IMPORTANT NOTES
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PHYSICS PRACTICALS AT A GLANCE

1. Ohm’s Law (Specific Resistance) 03

2A. Meter Bridge (Resistance) 09

2B. Meter Bridge (Series Combination) 11

2C. Meter Bridge (Parallel Combination) 13

3A. Potentiometer (EMF Comparison) 16

3B. Potentiometer (Internal Resistance) 18

4. Half Deflection Method 21

1. Focal Length of Convex Lens 37

2A. Focal Length of Convex Mirror 40

2B. Focal Length of Concave Lens 42

5. RI of liquid using convex lens & plane mirror 50

6. P-N Junction Diode 59

PRACTICAL SYLLABUS (2021-22)

Time Allowed: 1½ hours M. Marks: 15

Two experiments to be performed by students at time of examination 8 Marks

Practical record [experiments and activities] 2 Marks

Viva Voce on experiments and activities 5 Marks

bridge. verify the same.

Time Allowed: 1½ hours M. Marks: 15

Two experiments to be performed by students at time of examination 8 Marks

Practical record [experiments and activities] 2 Marks

Viva Voce on experiments and activities 5 Marks

EXPERIMENT – 1 – OHM’S LAW

Range of Voltmeter = 0-3 V Least Count of Voltmeter = = 0.05 V

Range of Ammeter = 0-500 mA Least count of Ammeter = = 10 mA = 0.01 A

Length of first given wire (L1) = ________________ m

OBSERVATION TABLE No. 1 : For first resistance wire

OBSERVATION TABLE No. 2 : For Second resistance wire

Measurement of diameter of wire of unknown resistance :

OBSERVATION TABLE: (For diameter D1 of wire)

Sum of all six values of R

Similarly calculate the resistance R2 for second unknown given wire.

For resistivity of first unknown given wire.

Similarly calculate the resistivity r2 for second unknown given wire.

1. All the connection should be neat, clean and tight.

8. Why an ammeter is always connected in series with the circuit?

EXPERIMENT – 2A – METER BRIDGE

For Resistance of unknown given wire

The unknown resistance of the given wire is found to be S = ………… W

1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.

5. Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.

1. The screws or connections of the instrument might be loose.

EXPERIMENT – 2B – METER BRIDGE

1. The screws or connections of the instrument might be loose.

EXPERIMENT – 2C – METER BRIDGE

3. There shouldn't be any clink in the resistance wire.

The ratio of EMF’S of given two primary cells is = …………

1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.

1. What do you understand by the e.m.f. of a cell?

11. Can we find the internal resistance of an accumulator or secondary cell.

EXPERIMENT – 4 – HALF DEFLECTION METHOD

FOR FIGURE OF MERIT :

Galvanometer resistance G =……… W

EMF (E) Resistance Deflection Figure of merit

For galvanometer resistance:

FOR FIGURE OF MERIT:

1) k = = ………× 10-5 A/div 2) k = = ………× 10-5 A/div

3) k = = ………× 10-5 A/div 4) k = = ………× 10-5 A/div

kmean =……… × 10-5 A/div

Resistance of given galvanometer = ……… W

1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.

HALF DEFLECTION METHOD