II PUC PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

PHYSICS (33)
General instructions:
 Duration of practical examination: 2 Hours.
 Maximum marks allotted: 30 Marks.

Scheme of Evaluation

Weightage of marks

Sl. No. Particulars Marks

1 Performing the Experiment 20
2 Viva -voce 04
3 Practical Record 06
TOTAL 30

Distribution of marks for performing the Experiment

Sl. No. Particular Marks

1 Writing the principle of the experiment 2

s
2 Writing the formula and explaining the terms 2
Writing the diagram / figure / circuit with labeling (At least two
3 2
parts)
4 Writing the tabular column/ observation pattern 2

5 Constructing the experimental set up/ circuit 3

Performing the experiment and entering the readings into the
6 4
tabular column / Observation pattern
7 Substitution and calculation/plotting the graph and calculation 3
8 Result with unit 2
Total 20

Viva- voce:

1. Four questions must be asked and each question carries 1 mark.

2. The questions in the viva- voce should be simple, direct and related to the experiment to be performed
by the student.

NOTE:

At least three trials have to be taken in case of finding mean value.

At least six readings have to be taken in case of plotting the graph.

b
 CONTENTS

EXPERIMENT PAGE
NUMBER EXPERIMENTS NUMBER

1 Resistance per unit length of the wire 1–2

2 Resistivity of the material of the wire 3–4

3
Combination of resistances in series 5–6
4
Combination of resistances in parallel 7–8

5 Comparison of emf ’s of two cells 9 – 10

6 Internal resistance of a cell 11 – 12

7 Figure of merit of galvanometer 13 – 14

8 Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter 15 – 16

9 Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter 17 – 18

10 Focal length of concave mirror 19 – 20

11 Focal length of convex lens 21 – 22

12 Refractive index of glass 23 – 24

13 Refractive index of water 25 – 26

14 Semiconductor diode – forward bias 27 – 28

15 Semiconductor diode – reverse bias 29 – 30

16 Zener diode 31– 32

VIVA - VOCE QUESTIONS WITH ANSERS 33– 40

c
Circuit diagram:

V – Voltmeter
R – Wire of unknown resistance
A – Ammeter
Rh – Rheostat
Ba – Battery
K – Key

Observation: Length of experimental wire, L = ………………m

Tabular column:

Tr. No Current (A) Potential difference (V)

Calculation:
𝟏 𝐁𝐂
Resistance of the wire, 𝐑 = = = …………
𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 (𝐦) 𝐀𝐁

= …………..𝛀

𝐑
Resistance per unit length, = ……………
𝐋

= …………..𝛀𝐦−𝟏

1
Experiment No. 1 Date:

RESISTANCE PER UNIT LENGTH OF THE WIRE

Aim: Determination of resistance per unit length of a given wire by plotting a graph of current verse
potential difference.

Apparatus: A wire of unknown resistance, battery, voltmeter, ammeter, plug key, rheostat and meter
scale.

Principle: Ohm’s law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the ends of the conductor when temperature and other
physical conditions remain constant.

1
Formula: 1. Resistance of the wire, R = …..in Ω
m
Where R – Resistance of the wire
m – Slope of the graph of current versus potential difference.

R
2. Resistance per unit length, = …. in Ωm−1
L

Where L– The length of the experiment wire.

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2) The rheostat is adjusted for a particular value of current. Current and corresponding voltage is
noted.
3) The experiment is repeated for different values of current and the readings are tabulated.
4) A graph is plotted between voltage (V) and current (I), taking V on x-axis and I on y-axis. The
reciprocal of the slope gives the resistance of the wire.
5) The length of the resistance wire is measured. Then the resistance per unit length of the wire is
calculated.

Result: Resistance per unit length of given wire = …………….. Ωm−1

2
Circuit diagram:

Observation:

Diameter of the experimental wire, D = ………..× 10−3 m (Given)

Length of wire, L = …………..m

Tabular Column:

Tr. No Resistance ‘S’ Balancing (100 − l) 𝑺𝒍

R = ( 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍 ) in 𝛀 Rmean in 𝛀
in 𝛀 length ‘l’ in cm in cm
1

Calculation:

𝛑𝐃𝟐 𝐑
The resistivity of the material of the wire, 𝛒 = = ……………… …………….
𝟒𝐋

=………………………..× 10−6 Ωm.

3
Experiment No. 2 Date:

RESISTIVITY OF THE MATERIAL OF THE WIRE

Aim: Determination of resistance of a given wire using meter bridge and hence to find resistivity of the
material of the wire

Apparatus: Meter Bridge, experimental wire, plug key, resistance box, jockey, galvanometer and
battery.

Principle: A meter bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s network. Wheatstone’s bridge is said
to be balanced when current through galvanometer is zero. The balanced condition of Wheatstone’s
bridge is
𝐏 𝐑
=
𝐐 𝐒

𝑆𝑙
Formula: 1) Resistances of the wire, R = ( 100−𝑙 )… in Ω
Where S is standard resistance
l is the balancing length in cm.
πD2 R
2) Resistivity of the material of the wire, ρ = …..in Ωm
4L
Where R – Resistance of the wire
L – Length of the experimental wire.
D– Diameter of the wire.

Procedure:
1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) A suitable standard resistance S is unplugged in the resistance box.
3) The circuit is checked for opposite deflections by placing the jockey at the two ends of the wire
AC alternatively.
4) The jockey is moved on the wire from end A towards C till the galvanometer shows zero
deflection.
5) The balancing length, l is measured. The resistance of the wire is calculated using the formula.
6) The experiment is repeated for different values of S and average value of R is found.
7) The length of the experimental wire is measured. The resistivity of the material of the wire is
calculated using the formula.

Result: Resistivity of the material of the wire, ρ = ……………………… Ωm.

4
Circuit diagram

Observation:

1) Resistance, R1 = ………………… 𝛺

2) Resistance, R2 = ………………… 𝛺

Tabular column

Trail Resistance Balancing (100 − l) 𝒔𝒍 Rmean in 𝜴

𝑹𝒔 = ( 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍 )
No. S in 𝜴 length l in cm in cm
in 𝜴

Calculation:

Theoretical value of equivalent resistance, 𝐑 𝐒 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 = …………………. 𝛀

5
Experiment No. 3 Date:

COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

Aim: Verification of the law of combination of resistances in series using Meter Bridge

Apparatus: Metre Bridge, two different resistors, plug key, resistance box, jockey, galvanometer and
battery.

Principle: A meter bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s network. Wheatstone’s bridge is said
to be balanced when current through galvanometer is zero. The balanced condition of Wheatstone’s
bridge is
𝐏 𝐑
=𝐒
𝐐

𝑠𝑙
Formula: 1) Resistance, R S = ( 100−𝑙 ) ….in 𝛺
Where S – Standard resistance
l – The balancing length

2) Equivalent resistance in series, R S = R1 + R 2 ….. in Ω

Where R1 and R 2 are individual resistances.

Procedure:
1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) A suitable standard resistance S in unplugged in the resistance box.
3) The circuit is checked for opposite deflections by placing the jockey at the two ends of the metre
bridge wire AC naturally.
4) The jockey is moved on the wire from the end A towards C till the galvanometer shown zero
deflection.
5) The balancing length, l is measured. The equivalent resistance of the series combination is
calculated using the formula.
6) The experiment is repeated for different values of S and average value of 𝑅𝑆 is calculated.

Result: Theoretical value of resistance ( R S ) is equal or nearly equal to experimental value of resistance
(R S ) , hence the law of combination of resistances in series is verified.

6
Circuit diagram

Observation:

3) Resistance, R1 = ………………… Ω

4) Resistance, R2 = ………………… Ω

Tabular column:

Trail Resistance Balancing (100 − l) 𝒔𝒍 Rmean in 𝜴

𝐑 𝐩 = ( 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍 )
No. S in 𝜴 length l in cm in cm
in 𝜴

Calculations:
𝐑 𝐑
Theoretical value of equivalent resistance in parallel, 𝐑 𝐩 = 𝐑 𝟏+𝐑𝟐 = …………..
𝟏 𝟐

= …………..Ω

7
Experiment No. 4 Date:

COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

Aim: Verification of the law of combination of resistances in parallel using metre bridge.

Apparatus: Metre Bridge, two different resistors, plug key, resistance box, jockey, galvanometer and
battery.

Principle: A meter bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s network. Wheatstone’s bridge is said
to be balanced when current through galvanometer is zero. The balanced condition of Wheatstone’s
bridge is
𝐏 𝐑
=
𝐐 𝐒

𝒔𝒍
Formula: 1) Resistance, 𝐑 𝐩 = ( 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍 ) ……..in 𝛺

Where S – Standard resistance

l – The balancing length

𝐑 𝐑
2) Equivalent resistance in parallel, 𝐑 𝐩 = 𝐑 𝟏+𝐑𝟐 ……….in Ω
𝟏 𝟐

Where R1 & R 2 are individual resistances.

Procedure:

1) The combinations are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2) A suitable standard resistance S is unplugged in the resistance box.
3) The circuit is checked for opposite deflections by placing the jockey at the two ends of the
metre bridge wire AC alternatively.
4) The jockey is moved on the wire from the end A towards C till the galvanometer shows zero
deflection.
5) The balancing length, l is measured. The equivalent resistance of the parallel combination is
called calculated using the formula.
6) The experiment is repeated for different values of S and average value of 𝑅𝑝 is calculated.

Result: Theoretical value of resistance ( R p ) is equal or nearly equal to experimental value of resistance
( R p ) hence the law of combination of resistances in parallel are verified.

8
Circuit diagram

Observation:

Emf of the first cell, E1 =………………..V

Emf of the second cell, E2 =…………….V

Tr. No. Balancing length Balancing length 𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟏

𝒍𝟏 (cm) 𝒍𝟐 (cm) 𝒍𝟐
[ ]
𝒍𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏

9
Experiment No. 5 Date:

COMPARISON OF EMF’S OF TWO CELLS.

Aim: comparison of the emf of two given cells using a potentiometer.

Apparatus: potentiometer, battery, given two cells, galvanometer, two – way key, rheostat and plug
key.

Principle: When a steady current flows through a conducting wire of uniform thickness, potential
differences between any two points on it is directly proportional to the length of the wire between those
two points.
𝐄𝟏 𝒍𝟏
Formula: The ratio of emfs of the cells, =
𝐄𝟐 𝒍𝟐

Where E1 – Emf of the first cell

E2 – Emf of the second cell

𝑙1 – Balancing length of first cell

𝑙2 – Balancing length of second cell

Procedure:
1) The circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) The key K is closed and two way key is connected to the cell 𝐸1 . The circuit is checked for
opposite deflections by placing jockey at the two ends of the wire AB alternatively.
3) The jockey is moved on the potentiometer wire from A towards the end B till the
galvanometer shows zero deflection. The balancing length 𝑙1 is measured.
4) The two way key is disconnected from the cell 𝐸1 and connected to the cell 𝐸2 , the balancing
𝒍𝟏
length 𝑙2 is measured. The ratio of is calculated.
𝒍𝟐

𝒍𝟏
Result: The ratio of emf’s of the cells, = ………..
𝒍𝟐

10
Circuit diagram

Observation:

Balancing length (𝑘1 is closed and 𝑘2 is open), 𝑙1 = ……………cm.

Tabular Column:

Trail Resistance R Balancing length 𝒍𝟐 𝑹 ( 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐 ) rmean

r= 𝒊𝒏 𝜴
𝒍𝟐
No. in 𝜴 in cm 𝐢𝐧 𝛀

Calculations:

11
 Experiment No. 6 Date:

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL

Aim: Determination of the internal resistance of a given cell using potentiometer

Apparatus: Potentiometer, battery, given cell, galvanometer, resistance box and two keys.

Principle: when a steady current flows through a conducting wire of uniform thickness, potential
difference between any two points on it is directly proportional to the length of the wire between those
two points.

𝑹 ( 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐 )
Formula: Internal resistance of the cell, r = 𝐢𝐧 𝛀
𝒍𝟐

Where R – resistance unplugged in the standard resistance box,

𝑙1 – Balancing length for the given cell,

𝑙2 – Resistance R is connected in parallel to it.

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown on the circuit diagram.

2) Keeping key 𝐾1 closed and key 𝐾2 opened, the circuit is checked for opposite deflections by
placing the jockey at two ends of the AB alternatively.
3) The jockey is moved on the wire from A towards the end B till the galvanometer shows zero
deflection. The balancing length 𝑙1 is measured.
4) A suitable resistance R is unplugged in the resistance box. Keeping both 𝑘1 and 𝐾2 closed, the
balancing length 𝑙2 is measured.
5) Ammeter reading has to be kept constant throughout the experiment.
6) Internal resistance of the cell is calculated using the formula.
7) The experiment is repeated for different values of R and the observations are tabulated.

Result: The value on internal resistance of the given cell = ………………. 𝛺.

12
Circuit diagram:

Observations:

Emf of the cell, E = ………………V

Tabular Column:

Trail Resistance R Deflection 𝛉 𝛉

S = G for 𝟐
𝐄
k = ( 𝐑+𝐆 )𝛉 Mean ‘k’
No. in 𝛀 in div in A/div
in 𝛀 in A/div.

Calculation:

13
Experiment No. 7 Date:

FIGURE OF MERIT OF A GALVANOMETER

Aim: Determination of the resistance of a galvanometer by half – deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.

Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer, cell, resistance boxes and two keys.

Principle: Deflection in a galvanometer is directly proportional to the current through the

galvanometer.

i.e I 𝜶 𝛉

I=k𝛉

Where k is called figure of merit of the galvanometer.

𝐄
Formula: Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k = ( 𝐑+𝐆 )𝛉 ……. in A/div

Where E – Emf of the cell

R – Resistance in series with the galvanometer
G – Galvanometer resistance.
θ – Deflection in the galvanometer.

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2) Key 𝐾2 is opened and key 𝐾1 closed, the suitable resistance R is unplugged from the resistance
box to get even deflection θ in the galvanometer.
θ
3) 𝐾2 is closed and suitable resistance S is unplugged so that deflection becomes 2 , then the
resistance of the galvanometer is noted (i.e S = G)
4) The experiment is repeated is repeated for different values of R and average value of G is found.
5) The figure of merit of the galvanometer is calculated in each using the formula.

Result: The figure of merit of the pointer galvanometer = ……………………A/div.

14
Circuit diagram:

Observations:

1) Resistance of the galvanometer, G (Given) =……………… Ω

2) Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k (given) =…………………. A/div.

3) Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale, N = ……………div.

4) Current required for producing full scale deflections of N divisions, Ig = Nk =…………. A

5) Maximum voltage to be measured, V =…………. V

6) Resistance to be connected in series with galvanometer, R =………………….. Ω

Verification table

Tr. Deflection Standard VM reading Converted VM reading Error

No. 𝛉 [in div] VS [in V] 𝐕 VS ~ VC [in V]
VC =[ 𝐍] 𝛉 [in V]

15
Experiment No. 8 Date:

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER

Aim: To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of the required range (0 – 5V) and verify the
same.

Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer, battery, voltmeter, resistance box, key and rheostat.

Principle: A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting suitable high resistance in
series with galvanometer. The high resistance is given by
𝐕
R = 𝐈𝐠 – G

Formula:

1) Current required for full scale deflection, Ig = Nk.

Where N is number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer.

k is figure of merit of galvanometer.

2) High resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer

𝐕
R = 𝐈𝐠 – G

Where G – Galvanometer resistance.

V – Maximum voltage to be measured.

Ig – Current required for full scale deflection

Procedure:

1) The value of resistance is calculated using the formula.

2) The circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
3) The calculated high resistance, R is unplugged in the standard resistance box. The key ‘K’ is
closed and the rheostat is adjusted so that the deflections in the galvanometer are nearly
maximum.
4) The reading of the galvanometer and the voltmeter are noted.
5) The above step is repeated by adjusting the rheostat for different values of deflection in the
galvanometer.

Result: Galvanometer of resistance ……………... Ω is converted into a voltmeter of range ……….V

by connecting a high resistance of …………….. Ω in seires with given galvanometer.

16
Circuit diagram:

Observations:

7) Resistance of the galvanometer, G (Given) =……………… Ω

8) Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k (given) =…………………. A/div.

9) Total number of divisions in the galvanometer, N = ……………div.

10) Current required for full scale deflection, Ig = Nk =…………. A

11) Maximum current to be measured, I =…………. A

12) Resistance to be connected in parallel with galvanometer, S =………………….. Ω

Verification table

Tr. Deflection Standard ammeter Converted ammeter Error

No. 𝛉 [in div] reading reading IS ~ IC [in A]
IS [in A] 𝐈
IC =[ 𝐍] 𝛉 [in A]

17
Experiment No. 9 Date:

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER

Aim: To convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter of the required range (say 0 – 30mA) and
verify the same.

Apparatus: Galvanometer, battery, Ammeter, resistance box, key and rheostat.

Principle: A galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting suitable low resistance in
parallel with galvanometer. The shunt resistance is given by
Ig 𝐺
S = 𝐈−𝐈𝐠

Formula:

1) Current required for full scale deflection, Ig = Nk.

Where N is number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer.

k is figure of merit of galvanometer.

2) Shunt resistance to be connected in parallel with the galvanometer

Ig 𝐺
S = 𝐈−𝐈𝐠

Where G – Galvanometer resistance.

I – Maximum current to be measured.

Ig – Current required for full scale deflection

Procedure:

1) The value of shunt resistance ‘S’ is calculated using the formula.

2) The circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
3) The calculated low resistance, S is unplugged in the standard resistance box. The key ‘K’ is
closed and the rheostat is adjusted so that the deflections in the galvanometer are nearly
maximum.
4) The reading of the galvanometer and the ammeter are noted.
5) The above step is repeated by adjusting the rheostat for different values of deflection in the
galvanometer.

Result: Galvanometer of resistance ……………... Ω is converted into an ammeter of range …………A

by connecting a shunt resistance of …………….. Ω in parallel with galvanometer.

18
Diagram:

Observation:

Approximate focal length of concave mirror = ……………cm

Tabular Column:

𝐮𝐯
Trail Object distance Image distance f = 𝐔+𝐕 Mean ‘f’ (cm)
No. U in cm V in cm in cm

Calculation:

19
 Experiment No. 10 Date:

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR.

Aim: Determination of the focal length of a concave mirror by u – v method.

Apparatus: Optical bench, two sharp – edges pins, concave mirror of local length less than 20 cm,
three uprights with clamps and metre scale.

Principle: Focal length is the distance between the pole and principle focus of the mirror. The object
distance must be greater than the focal length of the concave mirror to get a real and inverted image.
𝐮𝐯
Formula: Focal length of concave mirror, f = 𝐔+𝐕 …….in cm

Where u – Distance of the object from the mirror

v – Distance of the image from the mirror.

Procedure:

1) The given concave mirror is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp image of the
distant object on the white sheet of paper kept vertically before the mirror. Then the distance
between the mirror and the sheet of white paper gives the approximate focal length f of the
concave mirror.
2) The uprights mounted with concave mirror, object needle 𝑝1 and image needle 𝑝2 are placed on
one side of the optical bench as shown in the figure.
3) The heights of the object pin 𝑝1 and image pin 𝑝2 are adjusted such that their tips lie on the
principal axis of the mirror.
4) The position of the object pin 𝑝1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance u which is greater
than f.
5) Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin 𝑝1 from the other side of the optical
bench, the position of the image pin 𝑝2 is adjusted so that its tip coincides with the tip of the
image without parallax, then the distance between the concave mirror and image pin 𝑝2 becomes
image distance V.
6) The focal length of the concave mirror is calculated using the formula.
7) Experiment is repeated for differed values of U and readings are tabulated and average focal
length is found.

Result: The focal length of the concave mirror =……………………………cm.

20
Ray diagram:

U is object distance

V is image distance

Observation:

Approximate focal length of convex lens = ……………..cm

Tabular column:

Trial Object distance (u) in cm Image distance (v) in cm

No

Calculation:

21
Experiment No. 11 Date:

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

Aim: Determination of the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph of U versus V.

Apparatus: Optical bench, two – sharp – edges pins, convex lens than 20cm focal length, three uprights
with clamps and metre scale.

Principle: Focal length is the distance between the pole and principle focus of the lens. The object
distance must be greater than focal length of the convex lens to get real and inverted image.
𝐎𝐀+𝐎𝐁
Formula: Focal length of the convex lens, f= …….in cm
𝟒

Where OA – Image distance

OB – Object distance.

Procedure:

1) The given convex lens is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp image of the
distant tree on the white sheet of paper kept, vertically behind the lens. The distance between
the lens and white sheet of paper is measured. This is the approximate focal length if f of
the lens
2) The uprights mounted with convex lens, object needle 𝑝1 and image needle 𝑝2 are placed on
one side of the optical bench as shown in the figure.
3) The heights of the object pin 𝑝1 and image pin 𝑝2 are adjusted such that theory tips lie on the
principal axis of the lens.
4) The position of the object pin 𝑝1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance U which is
greater than f of the lens.
5) Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin 𝑝1 , the position of the image pin 𝑝2
is adjusted so that its tip coincides with the tip of the image without parallax. Then the
distance between the convex lens and image pin 𝑝2 becomes image distance.
6) Experiment is repeated for differed values of u and readings are tabulated.
7) A graph is plotted between u and V, taking U on x-axis and V on Y-axis. The angular
bisector OP is drawn and OA and OB are measured.
8) Focal length of the convex lens is calculated using the formula.

Result: The focal length of the convex lens is……………………cm.

22
Diagram

Observation:

1) Value of one MSD, S = …………...cm

2) Number of division on the Vernier scale, N = ………...

S
3) Least count of the travelling microscope, LC = N = ………….cm

Tabular Column:

Trail Reading 𝐑 𝟏 Reading 𝐑 𝟐 Reading 𝐑 𝟑 R.I of glass

No in cm in cm in cm 𝐑 𝐑 Mean value
𝐧𝐠 = 𝐑𝟑 −−𝐑 𝟏
𝟑 𝟐 of 𝐧𝐠

Calculation:

23
Experiment No. 12 Date:

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS

Aim: Determination of the refractive index of glass using a glass slab and travelling microscope.

Apparatus: Travelling microscope, glass slab.

Principal: The refractive index of the glass with respect to air is the ratio of real depth to the apparent
depth.
𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐡 𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭
Refractive index = 𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐡

Formula:
𝐑𝟑 − 𝐑𝟏
1) Refractive index of the glass with respect to air, 𝐧𝐠 = 𝐑 𝟑 −𝐑 𝟐

Where
R1 – Reading of the microscope when focused on the ink mark without glass slab
R 2 – Reading of the microscope when focused on the ink mark through glass slab.
R 3 – Reading of the microscope when focused on the ink mark on the upper surface of
the glass slab.

2) Total reading of TM, R = MSR + (CVD × LC)…….in cm

Where MSR – Main scale reading
CVD – Coincide scale reading
LC – Least count.

Procedure:

1) The least count of the travelling microscope is calculated.

2) A sheet of white paper is placed on the base of travelling microscope and ink mark is made on it.
3) The microscope is adjusted to focus on the ink mark on the paper. MSR and CVD are noted in
vertical scale and reading 𝑅1 is calculated using the formula.
4) Glass slab is placed on the paper and the microscope is raised to focus on the ink mark through
glass slab and corresponding reading 𝑅2 is found.
5) Chalk dust is sprinkled on the upper surface of the glass slab and microscope is again raised to
focus on the chalk dust and corresponding reading 𝑅3 is found.
6) Refractive index of glass is calculated using the formula.
7) The experiment is repeated for different positions of the glass slab and average refractive index
is found.

Result: The refractive index of glass slab = ………….

24
Diagram

Observation:

1) Radius of curvature of concave mirror, R = …………….cm

2) Radius of curvature of concave mirror with water, R1 = ………..cm

Calculation:
𝐑
Refractive index of water with respect to air, 𝐧𝐰 = 𝐑 =……………..
𝟏

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Experiment No. 13 Date:

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER

Aim: Determination of the refractive index of water using a concave mirror.

Apparatus: Concave mirror, water, a pin and a metre scale.

Principle: The rays of light from the object incident normally on the concave mirror, retrace their paths
so that image of the object forms by the side of the object. The bottom of the concave mirror containing
water appears to be raised up because of refraction of light through water.

R
Formula: Refractive index of water with Concave mirror, nw = R
1

Where R – Radius of curvature of concave mirror.

R1 – Apparent radius of curvature of concave mirror with water.

Procedure:
1) A concave mirror is placed on the base of laboratory stand as shown in the figure.
2) A sharp edges bright pin is placed horizontally just above the pole of the mirror and
clamped.
3) The position of the pin is adjusted such that the tip of the pin coincides exactly with the tip
of its image without parallax.
4) The vertical distance R between the mirror and pin is measured.
5) Now a small quantity of water is poured into the concave mirror.
6) The position of the pin is lowered such that the tip of the pin coincides with tip of its image
without parallax.
7) Then vertical distance R1 between the mirror and the pin is measured after the removal of
water.
8) Refractive index of water is calculated using the formula

Result: The refractive index of water = …………..

26
Circuit diagram:

Tabular column:

Voltage

[in Volts]

Current

[in mA]

27
 Experiment No. 14 Date:

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Aim: To draw the current (I) verses voltage (v) characteristic curve of p-n junction diode in forward
bias and hence find cut – in voltage.

Apparatus: Semiconductor diode, millimeter, voltmeter, rheostat and battery.

Principle: When the diode is forward biased it offers very low resistance. Cut – in voltage is the
characteristic voltage at which diode current increases exponentially even for a small increase in bias
voltage.

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2) Using the rheostat, the voltage is adjusted for suitable value. The voltage and the corresponding
current are noted.
3) The voltage is increased in small steps, the values of V and I are noted in each case and readings
are tabulated.
4) A graph is plotted by taking the voltage along x-axis and current along y -axis. Cut – in voltage
is noted from the graph.

Result: Cut – in voltage of the diode = ………………V

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Circuit diagram:

Tabular column:

Voltage
[in Volts]

Current I
[in 𝝁A]

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Experiment No. 15 Date:

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Aim: To draw the current (I) verses (v) characteristic curve of p-n junction diode in reverse bias and
hence to determine reverse saturation current.

Apparatus: semiconductor diode, micro ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat and battery.

Principle: When the diode is reverse biased it offers very high resistance. As the applied voltage
increases in reverse bias, the current increases and soon becomes constant and it is called reverse
saturation current.

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2) A suitable voltage V is adjusted by using rheostat and corresponding current I is noted.
3) The experiment is repeated for different values of V and the readings are tabulated.
4) A graph is plotted between V and I, taking voltage along x-axis and current along y-axis.
5) The reverse saturation current is found.

Result: The reverse saturation current of the given diode is …………..μA.

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Circuit diagram

TABULAR COLUMN:

Voltage

in V

Current

in 𝝁𝑨

31
Experiment No. 16 Date:

ZENER DIODE

Aim: To draw the current (I) verses voltage (v) characteristic curve of Zener diode in reverse bias and
hence to determine its breakdown voltage.

Apparatus: Zener diode, micro ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat and battery.

Principle: When the Zener diode is reverse biased, at a particular negative voltage, the reverse current
increases sharply so that the voltage across diode remains constant. This voltage is called breakdown
voltage of Zener voltage.

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram

2) A suitable voltage V is adjusted by using rheostat and the corresponding current I is noted.
3) The experiment is repeated for different values of voltage and readings are tabulated.
4) A graph is plotted by taking voltage V along x-axis and current I along y – axis. The breakdown
voltage is noted from the graph.

Result: The breakdown voltage of Zener diode =… …………………..V.

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VIVA – VOCE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

Resistance per unit length / Resistivity of the material of a wire / series

combination / parallel combination

1. State ohm’s law.

Ans: At constant temperature, current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends, provided other physical conditions remains constant.
2. What is resistance of a conductor?
Ans: It is effective opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of current through it.
3. What is the SI unit of resistance?
Ans: The SI unit of resistance is ohm ( )
4. What is the reciprocal of resistance?
Ans: Conductance
5. What is ohmic device?
Ans: It is a device which obeys ohm’s law
6. Give one example for ohmic device.
Ans: Galvanometer, voltmeter, ammeter etc
7. What is non – ohmic device?
Ans: It is a device which does not obeys ohm’s law
8. Give one example for non - ohmic device.
Ans: Semiconductor, vacuum tubes etc
9. What is current?
Ans: Rate of flow of charges is called current.
10. How the resistance of the conductor varies with the area of cross section?
Ans: Resistance varies inversely with the area of cross-section.
11. How the resistance of the conductor varies with its length?
Ans: Resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to its length.
12. What is rheostat?
Ans: It is an instrument used to vary resistance continuously.
13. What is the slope of V-I graph?
Ans: The slope of V-I graph measures resistance.
14. What is the principle of Meter Bridge?

33
 Ans: It is based on the principal of balanced Wheatstone’s network.
15. What is the null point?
Ans: It is a point on the wire, where the galvanometer shows zero deflection.
16. What is the potential difference across the galvanometer at null point?
Ans: At null point potential difference across the galvanometer is zero.
17. How do you verify the proper connection in meter bridge experiment?
Ans: If the deflection in the galvanometer is opposite, when the slider is placed at two extreme ends
of the meter bridge wire, then the connection is proper.
18. What is resistivity?
Ans: It is the resistance of a given wire of unit length and unit area of cross section.
19. Is resistivity of a material depending upon length / area of cross section of material?
Ans: No
20. What is a meter bridge?
Ans: It is a modified form of Wheatstone’s network.
21. What is the need of combination of resistances?
Ans: To get the desired range of resistance required for electrical circuit.
22. Why metal strips are made thick in Meter Bridge?
Ans: The thick metal strips have negligible resistance.
23. Why the jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire when sliding over it?
Ans: It alters the area of cross section of the wire, which in turn changes the resistance per unit
length of the wire.

Potentiometer: EMF of two cells / internal resistance of a cell

1. What is a potentiometer?
Ans: It is an instrument used to measure potential difference or emf of a cell.
2. What is the principal of a potentiometer?
Ans: When a study current flows through a material wire of uniform thickness, potential difference
between any two points on it is directly proportional to the length of the wire between the points.
3. What is Electromotive force (emf) of a cell?
Ans: Emf of a cell is potential difference across the terminals of the cell when the cell is in an open
circuit i.e, when no current is drawn from the cell.
4. What do you mean by sensitivity of a potentiometer?
Ans: sensitivity of a potentiometer is the smallest potential difference that it can measure.

34
5. Under what condition deflection in the galvanometer is shaky?
Ans: The reasons may be:
a) The emf of the battery or the cell may be fluctuating.
b) The circuit has a loose contact somewhere.
6. Why should we use a sensitive galvanometer?
Ans: A sensitive galvanometer will respond to even a small departure from the exact balance point
and will hence enable us to locate the balance point with greater precision.
7. What is meant by internal resistance of a cell?
Ans: It is the resistance offered by the electrolyte to the flow of ions to their respective electrodes.
8. Does the internal resistance depend on the current drawn from the cell?
Ans: Yes, the internal resistance usually increases as more current is drawn from the cell.
9. Can you measure emf by a voltmeter?
Ans: No, the voltmeter measures the terminal potential difference of a cell because it drawn some
current.
10. Potentiometer is used to determine the internal resistance of which cell-primary cell or
secondary cell or both?
Ans: The potentiometer is used to determine the internal resistance of primary cell only.
11. Why is a potentiometer preferred over a voltmeter for measuring the emf of cell?
Ans: A potentiometer draws no current from the cell whose emf is to be measured. On the other
hand, the voltmeter always draws some current.
12. Can we consider the potentiometer as an ideal voltmeter?
Ans: Yes, It can be considered as an ideal voltmeter.

Figure of merit of galvanometer / Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter

/ Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter

1. What is a Galvanometer?
Ans: It is a device used for detecting very small electric current in circuit.
2. What do you mean by figure of merit of a galvanometer?
Ans: Figure of merit of a galvanometer is the current required to produce a deflection of one
division on the galvanometer scale.
3. On what factors does figure of merit of galvanometer depend?
Ans: Number of turns in the galvanometer coil, area of coil and strength of magnetic field
4. Define current sensitivity of a galvanometer?
Ans: The deflection produced per unit current is called current sensitivity.
35
5. What is the SI unit of figure of merit?
Ans: The SI unit of figure of merit is ampere per division
6. How do you convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter?
Ans: A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series
with the galvanometer.
7. On what factors the value of high resistance connected in series depends?
Ans: It depends on the range of the required voltmeter and resistance of the galvanometer.
8. What is voltmeter?
Ans: Instrument used to measure potential difference.
9. What is the resistance of an ideal voltmeter?
Ans: Ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.
10. How do you convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter ?
Ans: A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel
with the galvanometer.
11. On what factor the value of shunt resistance depends ?
Ans: It depends on the range of the required ammeter and resistance of the galvanometer.
12. What is the resistance of an ideal ammeter?
Ans: Ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
13. What is the principle of galvanometer/voltmeter/ammeter
Ans: Mechanical effect of electric current.
14. What is the current flowing through the shunt?
Ans: The current flowing through the shunt is I − Ig

Focal length of a concave mirror / Focal length of a convex mirror / Focal

length of a convex lens / Focal length of a concave lens / Refractive index of

Glass / Refractive index of Water

1. When does a concave mirror produce virtual images?

Ans: When the object is placed between the principle focus and pole of a concave mirror, image
formed is virtual.
2. What is focal length of a concave mirror?
Ans: It is the distance between the pole and the principal focus of a concave mirror.
3. What is radius of curvature?
Ans: It is the radius of the sphere of which the spherical mirror forms a part.

36
4. What is the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of mirror?
Ans: The relation between focal length and radius of curvature is R = 2f
5. What is the nature of the images formed by a concave mirror when an object is kept between
F and 2F?
Ans: The nature of the images formed by a concave mirror when an object is kept between F and 2F
is real and inverted.
6. What is a lens?
Ans: A lens is an optical medium bounded by two surfaces of which at least one is spherical.
7. When is the image real, enlarged and inverted in a convex lens?
Ans: When the object is between f and 2f image is real, enlarged and inverted.
8. Does focal length of a convex lens depends on its thickness?
Ans: Yes, a thick lens has small focal length and a thin lens has large focal length.
9. Is convex lens a diverging or a converging lens?
Ans: Converging lens
10. Define Principle focus of a convex lens
Ans: It is a point on the principal axis, such that rays starting from this point, after refraction through
the lens, become parallel to the principle axis.
11. What type of image is formed by a convex mirror?
Ans: A convex mirror forms a virtual, erect and diminished image.
12. Mention any one use of convex mirror.
Ans: It can be used as rear view mirror in vehicles.
13. Why convex lens is used in finding the focal length of a convex mirror?
Ans: Light reflected from convex mirror is diverging; to have a real image we use a convex lens.
14. Why the object must be placed between f and 2f of a convex lens?
Ans: To have a real, inverted and enlarged image, the object must be placed between f and 2f of a
convex lens.
15. What is the principle used to find the focal length of convex mirror?
Ans: Any ray of light incident normal to the convex surface appears to come from the centre of
curvature.
16. What is concave lens?
Ans: Lens which diverge the parallel beam of light incident on it is called concave lens.
17. What is convex lens?
Ans: Lens which converge the parallel beam of light incident on it is called convex lens.

37
18. What is the nature of image produced by the concave lens?
Ans: Concave lens always produce a virtual, erect and diminished image.
19. Which type of lens is required to find the focal length of concave lens by parallax method?
Ans: Concave lens.
20. Why image positions changes when concave lens is introduced between convex lens and
image?
Ans: Since concave lens is diverging image position changes.
21. For which type of eye defect, concave lens is used?
Ans: For short sightedness or myopia.
22. What is Normal shift?
Ans: When an object placed in one medium is observed from the other medium in a normal
direction object appears to be shifted along the normal. This is known as Normal Shift.
23. Define absolute refractive index.
Ans: Absolute R.I of the medium is the ratio of the velocity of the light in air/vacuum to that in a
given medium.
24. Define relative refractive index.
Ans: Relative RI of the medium is the ratio of the velocity of light in 1st medium to that in 2nd
medium.
25. What is the value of refractive index of glass, water and air?
Ans:
o Refractive index of glass is 1.5
o Refractive index of water is 1.33
o Refractive index of air is 1
26. What is meant by least count of TM?
Ans: The least measurement that can be done in TM is called least count.
27. Does normal shift produced by a medium depends on the position of an object below the
surface?
Ans: No, it depends only on the thickness and RI of the medium.
28. What is refraction?
Ans: The change in direction of a ray of light when it travels from one medium to another is called
refraction.
29. State Snell’s law.
Ans: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant
for a given pair of medium and for a given color of light.

38
30. Which property of light ray does not changes in refraction?
Ans: Frequency of light ray remains the same during refraction.
31. Define refractive index of a medium?
Ans: The ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to the velocity of light in a medium is called
refractive
index of the medium.
32. What is concave lens?
Ans: A lens which converge parallel beam of light passing through it is called converging lens or
convex lens.
33. What is refraction?
Ans: The change in direction of a ray of light when it travels from one medium to another is called
refraction.
34. State Snell’s law.
Ans: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant
for a given pair of medium and for a given colour of light.
35. What is radius of curvature?
Ans: The radius of the sphere of which the mirror or lens is a part is called radius of curvature.
36. Which property of light ray does not changes in refraction?
Ans: Frequency of light ray remains the same during refraction.

Semiconductor Diode / Zener Diode

1. What is semiconductor diode?

Ans: Semiconductor diode is a two terminal one junction device.
2. How do you forward bias the junction diode?
Ans: Junction diode is forward biased by connecting p region to positive and n region to negative
terminal of the battery.
3. What do you mean by junction potential difference in a pn-diode?
Ans: It is the potential difference across the junction of the semiconductor diode when it is unbiased.
4. What is Knee Voltage or cut in voltage?
Ans: It is the voltage at which the current raises sharply in forward biased condition.
5. How do you reverse bias the junction diode?
Ans: Junction diode is reverse biased by connecting n region to positive and p region to negative
terminal of the battery.

39
6. What is break down voltage?
Ans: It is the very high voltage at which the current raises sharply in reverse biased condition.
7. What is reverse saturation current?
Ans: It is the reverse bias current which remain constant with increase in bias voltage.
8. Mention one use of diode
Ans: It is used as a) switch and b) rectifier
9. What is Zener diode?
Ans: Zener diode is a heavily doped junction diode, generally used in reverse biased condition.
10. How do you reverse biase the Zener diode?
Ans: Zener diode is reverse biased by connecting n region to positive and p region to negative
terminal of the battery.
11. What is meant by Zener break down?
Ans: It is the voltage at which the current raise sharply in reverse biased condition.
12. Which is the main application of Zener diode?
Ans: Zener diode is mainly used as a voltage regulator.
13. Can the Zener diode be used in forward biased condition?
Ans: Yes, it can be.

40