FAHAHEEL AL WATANIEH INDIAN PRIVATE SCHOOL

KUWAIT

CLASS 12
PHYSICS PRACTICAL
2021-‘22

ROUGH RECORD OF OBSERVATIONS

Name of student…………………………………………………………………..

Class…………… Sec………

Roll No………
2
General instructions for Class 12 Physics Practical

2021 - 22
 You will perform 12 experiments (6 from section A and 6 from Section B) during this academic year
 The entire class (divided into groups) will perform the same experiment. Always be in the group
assigned to you.
 You must have your observation book while entering the lab failing which you will not be allowed to
enter the lab.
 Come to lab prepared to perform the experiment. (read all the instructions, aim, apparatus required,
formula, tabular column etc and the procedure for the experiment before you enter the physics lab).
 Prepare your practical record with all entries (Theory, apparatus, procedure etc and blank tabular
column) for the experiment, except the readings calculation and result, before the experiment is
conducted.
 Perform the experiment as instructed by your teacher. Follow all written and verbal instructions. Do
not perform any thing which is not a part of the standard procedure. When in doubt, ASK, do not
assume things.
 Tabulate your observations only in your observation note book and not on loose or rough sheets.
 Calculations for each result should be clearly and neatly written, necessary graphs should be drawn
and the result written with proper units. Observations, calculations and result should be written in ink
before submitting for teacher’s signature.
 Get the result of your experiment signed in your observation note book by your lab teacher, on the
same day of the experiment or latest by the next working day.
 Once the experiment is signed in your observation book, you may complete your record of the
experiment with the corrected values and result.
 Use pencil to draw the diagrams and tabular column in the record. The readings and observations,
calculations and all other entries to be written in ink.
 Do not enter the values in your record until it has been checked by the teacher in your observation
book.
 You must bring the completed physics record for correction when you come to the lab for your next
experiment.
 Be aware of the risks involved in electrical experiments. In the case of any other emergency, follow
the instructions of the teacher.

 You are responsible for your observation book and record. Do not misplace it, if lost, you have
to redo the whole thing again.

3
 Teacher’s
Sl No. BRIEF AIM
signature
SECTION A
To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph for
potential difference versus current.
To find the unknown resistance and hence resistivity of a given resistance wire
Ex 1
by using a metre bridge.

2 To verify the laws of(series) combination of resistances using a metre bridge.

3 To compare the emf of two primary cells using a potentiometer.

4 To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell using a potentiometer.

5 To find the frequency of AC mains using a sonometer.

To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and

6
to find its figure of merit.
SECTION B

7 To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v

To find different values of image distance ‘v’ corresponding to different

values of object distance ‘u’ for a given concave mirror and to calculate the
focal length using the mirror formula.
8 To plot a graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation and
find the angle of minimum deviation
To find the refractive index of the material of a glass slab by using a travelling
microscope.

9 To determine focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens

10 To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens

11 To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward–bias and

reverse-bias
To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse
12 breakdown voltage

ACTIVITIES

5
 Experiment 1
Ohm’s Law
Date of experiment……………….

Aim: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.
Apparatus: Resistance wire, battery, key, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat and connecting wires.
Theory:
According to the Ohm’s law the potential difference across a conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to
the current flowing through it, provided temperature and other physical conditions remain constant.
V I
V  IR ,
where the constant of proportionality R is the resistance of the given conductor. The slope of the V-I graph
gives R
The resistance R of the wire depends on the material, the length and the area of cross section.
l
R
A

Procedure:
1. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Note the least count and range of the voltmeter and ammeter.
3. Insert the key, adjust position of rheostat to get a suitable reading in the ammeter and note the
corresponding reading in the voltmeter.
4. Repeat the observation five times for increasing values of current by adjusting the rheostat and note the
readings of the ammeter and voltmeter.
5. Taking current on x-axis and voltage on the y-axis and suitable scale, plot the best fitting straight line
graph passing through the origin.
6. The slope of the graph gives the resistance of the wire.
7. Measure the length of the wire using a thread and a metre scale.
8. Calculate the resistance per unit length of the wire.
Result: Resistance per cm. of the wire is ………….. Ohm/cm
Sources of error :
1. The wire may get heated up hence changing resistivity of the material and hence the resistance of the
wire changes.
2. Zero error in the voltmeter and ammeter.
3. The resistance of connecting wires may not be negligible.
Precautions:
1. The key should not be kept on for long periods of time.
2. The connections should be made tight
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should have proper range and zero error should be taken into account.
4. Voltmeter and ammeter should be connected with correct polarity.

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6
Circuit diagram

Model V-I graph

o
I
Observations:
Least count of ammeter…………….

Range of ammeter………………

Least count of voltmeter……………….

Range of voltmeter………………..

To find resistance of wire

Ammeter Reading Volmeter Reading
Sl No.
I (amp) V (volt)
1

Calculations
R from graph= slope = ………………..

=…………………….. ohm
7
Length of the wire ………………… cm

Resistance per cm. ………………..

= ………………….ohm/cm

Signature of teacher…………………………………… Date……………………………………..

8
 Experiment No 1
Metre Bridge 1

Date of Experiment…………………….

Aim: To find the unknown resistance and hence resistivity of a given resistance wire by using a metre bridge.
Apparatus: Metre bridge, battery, key, resistance box, galvanometer, jockey, resistance wire or coil, connecting
wires.
Theory:
A metre bridge is a practical form of the Wheatstone bridge. The metre bridge wire AB has a uniform cross
section and material density. Hence the resistance is proportional to the length. If AC = l cm , CB= (100-l) cm.
Resistance of AC kl l
Hence   where k is the resistance per unit length of the wire.
Resistance of CB k (100  l ) 100  l
P R RQ
For a balanced Wheatstone bridge, the condition is that  or X 
Q X P
P l
Since 
Q 100  l
R(100  l )
X
l
Where R is the resistance taken out from the resistance box and l is the length of the metre bridge wire from the
zero end to the balance point
L
Also X  where the wire of unknown resistance X has a length L and resistivity ρ.
A
XA

L
d 2
A
4
d 2
  X
4L
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram, connecting a suitable resistance R by means of a
resistance box in one gap and the unknown resistance in the other.
2. Locate a point C on the wire AB such that on pressing the jockey there the galvanometer shows no
deflection.
3. Note the length of the wire between A and C. This is the value of ‘l’.
4. Repeat the observation five times changing the resistance taken from the resistance box , making sure
that the value of ‘l’ lies between 40 and 60 cm.
5. Tabulate the values and calculate the unknown resistance X.
6. Find the length of the given resistance wire using a thread and a metre scale.
7. Find diameter of the wire using a screw gauge , making measurements at least at three places on the
wire, measuring at two mutually perpendicular directions at each point.
8. Calculate the resistivity of the wire.
Result: The resistance of the wire is……………ohms
The resistivity of the material is ………………………ohm m
9
Sources of error
1. The wire may not be of uniform cross section
2. The end resistances may not have been considered
3. The screw gauge may have backlash error.
Precautions
1. The plugs in the resistance box should be tight
2. The balance point or null point should preferably be between 40 cm to 60 cm.
3. The jockey should not be pressed on the wire.
4. The plug in the key should be inserted only when you record observation, to avoid heating of the bridge
wire

Circuit Diagram of wheatstone bridge Circuit diagram of metre bridge

Observations
a) To find unknown resistance X
R (from R(100  l )
Balancing
Sl No. resistance (100-l) cm X ohms
length (l )cm l
box)ohms
1

Calculations for X

10
Mean X= …………….ohms

To find diameter of wire using screw gauge

Least count………..

Zero error…………..

Observed
Corrected
diameter (LSR d = (a + b )/2
Sl No. LSR HSR diameter
+ HSR x LC) mm
mm
mm
1. a

b
2. a

b
3. a

Mean d = …………..mm

=………….. m
Length of the wire……………….. m

11
 d 2 X
 =
4L

=……………………. Ohm m

Teacher’s signature………………………. Date …………………………

12
 Experiment No 2 Metre
Bridge-2
Date of Experiment………………

Aim: To verify the laws of combination of resistances (series) using a metre bridge
Apparatus: Metre bridge, resistance box, battery, key, resistance wires or coils, galvanometer, jockey,
connecting wires.
Theory:
P R RQ
For a balanced Wheatstone bridge, the condition is that  or X 
Q X P
P l
Since for the metre bridge 
Q 100  l
R(100  l )
X
l
Where R is the resistance taken out from the resistance box and l is the length of the metre bridge wire from the
zero end to the balance point.
Equivalent resistance of two resistors in series is Rs= R1+R2.
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram, connecting a suitable resistance R by means of a
resistance box in one gap and the first unknown resistanceR1 in the other.
2. Locate a point C on the wire AB such that on pressing the jockey there the galvanometer shows no
deflection.
3. Note the length of the wire between A and C. This is the value of ‘l’.
4. Repeat the observation three times changing the resistance taken from the resistance box , making sure
that the value of ‘l’ lies between 40 and 60 cm.
5. Tabulate the values and calculate the unknown resistance R1.
6. Repeat the experiment with R2 in place of R1, then with series combination of R1 and R2 .
7. Calculate the equivalent resistance in series using the measured values of R1 and R2 and compare with
the measured values of the series combinations
Result:
Value of RS from formula ……………ohms
From experiment……………ohms
Within experimental limits the measured values of RS are the same as the theoretical value, hence proving the
laws of combination of resistances in series.
Sources of error
1. The wire may not be of uniform cross section
2. The end resistances may have not been considered
Precautions
1. The plugs in the resistance box should be tight
2. The balance point or null point should preferably be between 40 cm to 60 cm.
3. The jockey should not be pressed on the wire.
4. The plug in the key should be inserted only when you record observation, to avoid heating of the bridge
wire
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13
Circuit diagram of metre bridge

Observations
To find unknown resistance R1

Sl No. R (from Balancing (100-l) cm R(100  l )

resistance length (l )cm R1  ohms
l
box)ohms
1

3
Calculations for R1

14
Mean R1=
To find unknown resistance R2

Sl No. R (from Balancing (100-l) cm R(100  l )

resistance length (l )cm R2 
l
box)ohms
ohms
1

Calculations for R2

Mean R2=

To find the resistance of the series combination Rs

Sl No. R (from Balancing (100-l) cm R(100  l )
resistance length (l )cm RS 
l
box)ohms
ohms
1

Calculations for Rs

15
Mean Rs=

Value of RS from formula RS = R1+R2

……………ohms
From experiment……………ohms

Teacher’s signature: …………………………. Date………………………..

16
 Experiment 3
Potentiometer-1
Date of Experiment………………………..

Aim: To compare the emf of two primary cells using a potentiometer.

Apparatus: Daniel cell, Lechlanche cell, battery eliminator/DC source, potentiometer, key rheostat, resistance
box, two way key, connecting wire.
Theory: Principle of the potentiometer: When a steady current flows through the potentiometer wire of uniform
area of cross section and composition, the potential drop along the length l can be given by
l
V  IR  I . The current I, the resistivity of the wire ρ and the area of cross section A remaining same
A
V
V  l or  constant.
l
E1 l1
If l1 is the balancing length for the cell of emf E1 and l2 that for cell of emf E2 then 
E2 l2
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. The positive terminal of the battery is to be
connected to end A of the potentiometer. The positive terminals of the two cells (Daniel cell and
Lechlanche cell) are also connected to end A and the negative terminals to the two way key k2. The
common terminal of this key is connected to the jockey through the galvanometer .
2. With key k1 closed, Insert the plug in key k2 and test the connections touching the jockey to the two
extreme ends of the potentiometer wire one by one. If the deflection in each case is in opposite
directions the connections are correct.
3. If deflection is one sided adjust the rheostat so that the desired current flows through the potentiometer
wire.
4. With the key k2 positioned to bring the Lechlanche cell in the circuit obtain the balancing point by
adjusting position of the jockey on the potentiometer wire to obtain zero deflection in the galvanometer.
Measure the balancing length from point A.
5. Note the balancing length as l1.
6. Now change the position of the plug in key k2 to bring the Daniel cell in the circuit and obtain the
balancing length. Note this length as l2.
l1
7. Changing the position of the rheostat take 3sets of readings for l1 and l2 and find the ratio in each
l2
case.
E1
Result: The ratio  ………………….
E2
Sources of error:
1. There may be some contact resistance at the ends of the wire.
2. The heating of the potentiometer wire may cause some error.
3. Potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross section.
4. Error in detecting null deflection in the galvanometer
Precautions:
1. The jockey should not be pressed along the potentiometer wire

17
 2. The emf of the auxiliary battery in the potentiometer circuit should greater than the emf of each of the
primary cells.
3. The current should be adjusted to obtain a considerably large balancing length.

***********************************************************************************

Circuit diagram

Observations

Sl No. Balancing Length E1 l1

Lechlanche cell Daniel cell 
l1 cm l2 cm
E2 l2
1

E1
Calculations for
E2

18
 E1
Mean  ……………..
E2

Teacher’s signature………………………… Date……………………

19
 Experiment 4
Potentiometer-2
Date of Experiment………………………
Aim: To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell using a potentiometer.
Apparatus: A potentiometer, a battery, one-way keys, rheostat, galvanometer, resistance box, ammeter,
lechlanche cell,
Theory:
Principle of the potentiometer: When a steady current flows through the potentiometer wire of uniform area of
cross section and composition, the potential drop along the length l can be given by
l
V  IR  I . The current I, the resistivity of the wire ρ and the area of cross section A remaining same
A
V
V  l or  constant.
l
The internal resistance of a cell is given by
(E  V )
rR where E is the emf of the cell, V is the potential difference across resistance R when the cell
V
sends current through it.
If l1 is the balancing length for the cell in open circuit and l2 that for cell in closed circuit
E l1

V l2
E  V l1  l 2

V l2
l1  l 2
rR
l2
Procedure:
1. Connect the potentiometer circuit as in the diagram with the positive terminal of the battery connected
at end A.
2. The positive terminal of the cell whose internal resistance is to be determined is connected to end A and
its negative terminal to the jockey through the galvanometer.
3. Connect a resistance box in parallel to the cell through a key k2.
4. With key k1 closed and k2 open obtain the balancing length by adjusting the position of contact of the
jockey on the potentiometer wire to obtain zero deflection in the galvanometer.
5. Note this length as l1.
6. Now close key k2, take out a suitable resistance from the resistance box and obtain the balancing length
l2 for the cell in closed circuit.
7. Repeat the set of reading five times for different values of R from the resistance box.
8. Calculate the internal resistance of the cell .

Result: The internal resistance of the primary cell is ………….. ohms.

Sources of error:
1. There may be some contact resistance at the ends of the wire.
2. The heating of the potentiometer wire may cause some error.
3. Potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross section.
4. Error in detecting null deflection in the galvanometer

20
Precautions:
1. The jockey should not be pressed along the potentiometer wire
2. The emf of the auxiliary battery in the potentiometer circuit should be greater than the emf of the
primary cell.
3. The current should be adjusted to obtain a considerably large balancing length.
4. The cell should not be disturbed during the course of the experiment.

**************************************************************************************

Circuit diagram

Observations
Sl No. Resistance Balancing Length Internal
R Resistance
ohm Cell in open circuit Cell in closed circuit r
l1 cm l2 cm ohm
1

Calculations for r

21
Mean value of r = ……………………ohms

Teacher’s signature…………………. Date……………..

22
 Experiment 5

Sonometer

Date of Experiment……………………

Aim: To find the frequency of AC mains using a sonometer

Apparatus: Sonometer, step down transformer, horse shoe magnet, load and hanger.

Theory: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, it experiences a force
whose direction is given by the Fleming’s Left Hand rule. This force acts perpendicular to the length of the wire
and to the direction of magnetic field. If the current through the wire reverses direction at a given frequency, the
force acting on the wire also reverses direction at the same frequency.

If l is the length of the sonometer wire oscillating at resonance with the AC source the fundamental frequency
1 T
of the wire given by   where T is the tension and µ is the mass per unit length of the wire.
2l 

l 1
From the l- T graph, slope of graph = Hence the frequency   which is equal to the
T 2  ( slope)
frequency of the AC.

Procedure

1. Connect the primary of the step down transformer to A.C mains and the secondary to the two
ends of the sonometer wire.
2. The horse shoe magnet is placed in the middle of the wire such that the magnetic field is
applied in a horizontal plane and at right angles to the length of the wire.
3. Hang a mass M (say ½ kg) from one end of the wire and adjust the distance l between two
bridges C and D symmetrically with respect to magnet till the wire appears to be vibrating with
the maximum amplitude. Note the distance l between the two bridges.
4. By increasing the tension on the wire, repeat the experiment for three or more different
tensions.
5. Note the linear mass density of the material of the wire.

Result: The frequency of AC mains obtained from experiment = ……………..hz

Sources of error:

1. The sonometer wire may not be of uniform cross section

2. The pulley may not be frictionless
3. The mains frequency may not be stable

Precautions

1. The bridges should have sharp edges

2. There should not be any kinks on the wire.
23
 3. The wire should be of non magnetic material.
4. Horse shoe magnet should be placed in the middle.
5. The distance between the two bridges should be altered very slowly otherwise the resonance
point would be missed
*************************************************************************************
Diagram

T
Observations
Load on hanger m Tension (m x g = T ) Resonant length L
Sl No.
kg N m

Calculations

Slope of graph= …………………

24
Mass per unit length μ = kgm-3

1

2  ( slope) =

= ………………hz

Teacher’s signature…………………………… Date………………….

25
 Experiment 6

Resistance of Galvanometer

Date of Experiment………………….

Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of
merit.

Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a battery eliminator, two resistance boxes (10000 ohm and
200 ohm range). Two one way keys and connecting wires.

Theory:

1) If the deflection in the galvanometer is θ when the resistance R is connected in series to the
galvanometer and θ/2 when the shunt resistance S is also connected, then the resistance of the
RS
galvanometer, G  .
RS
2) Figure of merit of the galvanometer is the value of the current required to produce unit
deflection in the galvanometer.
If R is the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and battery of emf E and θ is
the deflection in the absence of shunt.
E E
k  where k is the figure of merit of the galvanometer. Hence k 
RG ( R  G )

Procedure:

a) To find resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

1. Make connections as in the circuit diagram.
2. See that all plugs in the resistance box are tight
3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 ohms) from the resistance box R and insert the key
K1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R so that the deflection is maximum, even in number and within the
scale.
5. Note the deflection θ.
6. Insert the key k2 also and without changing the value of R adjust the value of S such that
the deflection reduces to exactly half the value i.e θ/2.
7. Note the value of S
8. Repeat the set of readings for different values of R adjusting S each time for half
deflection.
9. Calculate the resistance of the Galvanometer.

b) To find figure of merit

26
 1. Make connections according to the circuit diagram.
2. Take out some high resistance from the resistance box R and note the deflection in the
galvanometer.
3. Repeat for different values of R taking care to keep the deflection within scale.
E
4. Find the figure of merit using the formula k 
( R  G )

Result : 1. The resistance of the given galvanometer is …………… ohms

2. The figure of merit of the galvanometer is ………………A div-1.

Sources of error

1. The plugs of the resistance box may not be clean

2. The divisions on the galvanometer may not be evenly graduated.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight

2. The deflection in the galvanometer before connecting the shunt should be an even number of
readings
3. The value of R should be large to keep deflection within scale.

******************************************************************************

Circuit diagrams:

To find resistance of galvanometer To find figure of merit

27
Observations

To find resistance of galvanometer

Sl No. Resistance Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanometer

R Galvanometer resistance deflection resistance
θ S θ/2 ohm

Calculations for G

Mean G = ………………….ohms

28
To find figure of merit

Emf of cell (or battery eliminator) E = volts

Serial Resistance R (ohm) Deflection in Figure of merit

No. Galvanometer (θ) E
k
( R  G )
1

Calculations for k

Mean value of k =………… A/div

Teacher’s signature…………………………. Date ……………………

29
 Exp -7

Focal Length of convex lens

Date of Experiment…………………

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v

Apparatus required: Optic bench, Convex lens with holder, three uprights, two needles and metre
scale.
Theory: AB is an object needle kept in front of a convex lens with optical centre O. A ray of light from
A parallel to the principal axis of the lens passes through F after refraction. Another ray along AO
goes without deviation. The two rays meet at A’. Thus A’B’ is a real inverted image of AB. CD is the
image needle whose position can be adjusted to remove the parallax between CD and the image of AB
so that the position of the image is located.

Let OB = -u

And OB’ = +v

1 1 1
 
f v u
1 uv

f uv
uv
f 
uv

From u-v graph

OX = -u and OY =v for - u = v.

Hence

OX
f 
2
OY
f 
2

OX  OY
Mean f 
4

Procedure

1. Find approximate value of the focal length of the thin convex lens by focusing the image of a
distant object. It can be found by obtaining a sharp image of the Sun or a distant tree on a screen,
say a plane wall, or a sheet of paper placed on the other side of the lens and measuring the distance

30
 between the lens and the image with a scale. This distance is a rough estimate of the focal length, f
of the convex lens.
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform, and using the spirit level, make it
horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided at the base of the bench.
3. Clamp the convex lens on an upright and mount it vertically almost near to the middle of the optical
bench such that its principal axis is parallel to the optical bench. In this position, the lens would lie
in a plane perpendicular to the optical bench.
4. Place the vertically mounted sharp pins P and P ’on left and right hand sides of the lens respectively.
Adjust the pins P and P’ so that the heights of the tips of these pins become equal to the height of
the optical centre O of the lens from the base of the optical bench. Let the pin P (placed on left hand
side of the lens) be the object pin and the pin P’(lying on right hand side) be the image pin. Put a
small piece of paper on one of the pins (say on image pin ) to differentiate it from the object pin P
5. Displace the object pin P (on left side of the lens) to a distance slightly less than 2f from the optical
centre O of the lens. Locate the position of the real and inverted image on the other side of the lens
above the image pin P’.
6. Using the method of parallax, adjust the position of the image pin P’ such that the image of the
object pin P coincides with the image pin P’.
7. Note the upright position of the object pin, convex lens and image pin on the optical bench and
record the readings in an observation table.
8. Move the object pin P closer to the optical centre O of the lens (say by 2 cm or 3 cm). Repeat the
experiment and record at three sets of readings for various distances of object pin between f and 2f
the lens.
9. Also take three more sets of readings with the object pin placed at small distances beyond 2F.
10. Calculate the object distance and the image distance in each case and plot the graph between u and
v.

Result: The focal length of the convex lens as calculated from u –v graph = …………. cm .

Sources of error:

1. Parallax error
2. The uprights may not be vertical

Precautions:

1. The tips of the object needle and the image needle should be at the same height
2. The cross movement of the uprights should be used to ensure that the image needle and object
needle are along same vertical line
3. The object needle should not be placed within the focus of the lens.

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31
Ray diagram:

Model u -- v graph:

u X O

Observations:

Rough focal length of lens = cm

Sl No. Position of Object distance Image distance

Object pin lens Image pin u cm v cm
1

OX from graph= ……… cm

OY from graph=………. cm

32
 OX  OY
Mean f  =………………… = …………………..cm
4

Teacher’s signature…………………… Date……………………

33
 Exp 9

Focal length of concave mirror

Date of Experiment…………………….

Aim: To find different values of image distance ‘v’ corresponding to different values of object
distance ‘u’ for a given concave mirror and to calculate the focal length using the mirror formula.

Apparatus: Optic bench with three uprights, concave mirror with holder, two needles, metre scale.

Theory: We have from the mirror formula

1 1 1
 
f u v
uv
f 
uv

Where f is the focal length, u is the distance of the object needle from the pole of the mirror (OP = - u)
and v is the distance of the image needle from the pole of the mirror (IP= - v)
Since u and v are negative in this case, f will also be negative.
Procedure :
1. Obtain approximate value of the focal length of concave mirror by focusing the image of a distant
object. Obtain bright and clear image of a distant building or tree on a plane wall or a sheet of paper
and measure the distance between the mirror and the image which gives the approximate focal
length of the concave mirror.
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table. Make it horizontal using a spirit level and levelling screws.
3. Clamp the concave mirror on an upright and mount it vertically near one end of the optical bench.
Move an object pin P1 on the optical bench back and forth so that its image is formed at the same
height. Make slight adjustments of the height of the pin or the mirror inclination. This procedure
ensures that the principal axis of the mirror is parallel to the optical bench.
4. Place another vertically mounted sharp and bright pin P2 in front of the reflecting surface of the
concave mirror. Adjust the pins P1 and P2 so that the height of the tips of these pins become equal to
the height of the pole P of the mirror from the base of the optical bench.
5. Move the pin P1 away from the mirror and place it almost at 2F. An inverted image of same size as
the pin should be visible.
7. Now place another pin P2 on the bench, adjust its height to be almost the same as the earlier pin.
Place a piece of paper on the tip of one pin, take this as the object pin.
8. Place the pin with paper at a distance lying between F and 2F.
9. Locate the image of the pin using the other pin. Remember that parallax has to be removed between
the image and the pin.
10. Note the values of u and v i.e., the distances of the object and image pins from the mirror
respectively.
11. Repeat the experiment for at least five different positions of the object and determine the
corresponding values of v. Record your observations in tabular form.

Result: Focal length of concave mirror calculated using mirror formula is : ………. cm
34
Sources of error:

1. The uprights may not be vertical

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect

Precautions:

1. The principal axis of the concave mirror must be horizontal and parallel to the scale of the
optical bench.
2. In order to locate the position of the image, the eye should be placed at least 30 cm away from
the needle.
***************************************************************************

Ray Diagram

Observations

Rough focal length of concave mirror = cm

Position of uv
u v f 
Sl No. Object Image
mirror cm cm uv
pin pin cm
1

35
 Calculations for f

Mean f = cm

Teacher’s signature……………………… Date……………………….

36
 Exp 8
Angle of minimum deviation of a prism

Date Of Experiment………………..

Aim: To plot a graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation and find the angle of
minimum deviation
Apparatus : Prism, white sheets of paper, drawing board, protractor, graph paper.
Theory: ABC is the principal section of the prism and A is the angle of the prism. A ray of light LK
incident on the face AB of the prism at  i1 . The refracted ray KM is again incident on the face AC at
 r2. The ray emerges from the prism at  i2. Thus the ray suffers two refractions in passing through
the prism and turns through  QPN=δ, called the angle of deviation. If the angle of incidence is
increased the angle of deviation decreases till a minimum value δm after which it increases with
increasing angle of incidence. δm is called the angle of minimum deviation. When δ = δm, i1=i2 and
r1=r2.

Procedure:
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or tape
2. Place the prism on the paper and draw the outline ABC. Mark the vertex A on the prism so that it is
commonly chosen as the refracting angle while repeating the experiment.
3. Mark a point K at the midpoint of AB and draw a normal to AB at K.
4. Draw a line L K making an angle 35⁰ with the normal. Fix two pins P1 and P2 on line LK. This
represents the incident ray. The distance between the pins should be 2cm or more
5. Place the prism on the outline and look at the images of point P1 and P2 through face AC.
6. Close your left eye and bring the open right eye in line with the two images.
7. Fix two office pins P3 and P4 vertically and 10 cm apart such that the open right eye sees pins P4 and
P3 and images of P2 and P1 in one straight line
8. Remove pins P3 and P4 and encircle their pricks on the paper. Join the points P3 and P4 to obtain the
emergent ray M N.
9. Produce the emergent ray inward in the boundary of the prism to meet produced incident ray
10. Measure angle between incident ray and the emergent ray. This is the angle of deviation.
11. Repeat steps 2 to 10 for angle of incidence i = 40⁰,45⁰, 50⁰, 55⁰ and 60⁰,

Result:
1. When angle of incidence increases gradually, the angle of deviation decreases becomes
minimum and then increases.
2. The angle of minimum deviation as obtained from the graph is …….o.
Sources of error:
1. Parallax error while observing the pins.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
3. Pin pricks may be too thick.

37
Precautions:
1. Pins should be vertical.
2. One pin should be placed close to the glass prism on the other side and the other at a distance
of at least 3 cm away.
3. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
4. The same angle of prism should be used for all observations.

***************************************************************************

Model graph

δ
δm

i1 i i2
i

38
Observations:

Sl No. Angle of Angle of

incidence deviation
1

Angle of minimum deviation from graph =……………

Teacher’s signature………………….. Date…………..

39
 Exp 11
Refractive index of a glass slab

Date of Experiment…………….
Aim: To find the refractive index of the material of a glass slab by using a travelling microscope.
Apparatus : Travelling microscope with Vernier scale, a glass slab, lycopodium powder.
Theory:
Consider the ray PQ from a point P at the bottom of the glass slab, incident on the glass air interface at
the top making a small angle i with the normal. On refraction it emerges along QR making an angle r
with the normal at Q. Consequently an observer will see a refracted image of P at P’.
sin(i )
Now refractive index of air with respect to glass  nag
sin(r )
sin(APQ )
 nag
sin(AP ' Q)
AQ
PQ P' Q
 nag =
AQ PQ
P' Q
1 PQ
n ga  
nag P ' Q
For near normal viewing angles i and r are small, so PQ  PA and P' Q  P' A
PA Real thickness
Hence refractive index of the glass, n ga = =
P ' A Apparent thickness
A travelling microscope fitted vertically on a vertical scale is used .It can be moved up and down ,
carrying a vernier scale moving along the main scale. In any position the reading is taken by
combining main scale and vernier scale reading.

Procedure:
1. Place the travelling microscope on the table near a window so that sufficient light falls on it .

2. Adjust the leveling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes horizontal

3. Make the microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye piece so that the cross wires are
clearly visible

4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope.

5. Make a black ink cross-mark on the base of the microscope, the mark will serve as point P

6. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P, so that there is no parallax between the
cross –wires and the image of the mark P.

7. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings on the vertical scale. Calculate the reading X

8. Place the glass slab over the mark P

40
9. Raise the microscope upward and focus it on the image P1 of the cross mark.

10. Note the reading on the vertical scale as before (Y).

11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of the slab.

12. Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the particles near A

13. Note the reading on the vertical scale as before (Z).

14. Repeat above steps with another mark on the base.

15. Record your observation in tabular form and calculate refractive index.

Result:
Refractive index of the glass slab = ……..

Sources of error:
1. The microscope may have backlash error
2. The calibration of the scale may not be accurate
3. The ink mark may not be properly focused

Precautions:
1. The glass slab should be cleaned before performing the experiment
2. The screw should always be move in one direction only while taking the reading to avoid
backlash error.
3. Observation should be taken from near normal position.

Ray diagram

41
Observations
Least count of Vernier scale:…………………
Real Apparent ZX
Sl No. Position of MSR VSR Total thickness thickness n ga 
Z-X Z-Y Z Y

Object X

1 Image Y

Top surface Z

Object X

2 Image Y

Top surface Z

Object X
Image Y
3
Top surface Z

Calculations

42
Mean value of refractive index nga = ................

Teacher’s signature…………………………………………… Date…………………

43
 Exp 9

Focal length of convex mirror

Date of Experiment………………..

Aim: To determine focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens

Apparatus: Light box source, convex lens and convex mirror with holders, metre scale.
Theory: The convex mirror forms a virtual image of an object. Since this image cannot be caught on a
screen we cannot directly find the focal length of a convex mirror.
Suppose a convex lens is interposed between the convex mirror and the object and the position of the
object O is adjusted such that a real and inverted image is obtained at O itself. In this position the rays
refracting through the lens are falling normal to the mirror and getting reflected back along the same
path hence forming the image at O itself after refraction through the lens.
The normal rays falling on the mirror are directed towards the centre of curvature C of the mirror. If
the mirror is removed the image formed by the convex lens would therefore be at C.
Noting the position of the mirror (M) before it is removed and the position of the image formed by the
convex lens after mirror is removed (C) , the distance MC gives the radius of curvature R of the mirror
and the focal length f = ½ R
Procedure:

1. Place the source at some distance from the convex lens.

2. Place the convex mirror on the other side of the lens, facing the lens
3. Adjust the position of the source to obtain a clear image at same position as the source
4. Note the positions of source, lens and mirror.
5. Without changing the position of source or lens, remove the mirror and place the screen on the
other side of the lens
6. Adjust position of the screen to obtain the clear image formed by the lens.
7. Note the position of the screen
8. The distance between the mirror position before it was removed and that of the screen, is the
radius of curvature of the convex mirror.
9. Half this distance is the focal length.
10. Repeat experiment changing the positions of the lens and mirror.

Result: Focal length of the convex mirror is : …………. cm

Sources of error:
1. The image may not be clearly focused.
2. The radius of curvature of the convex mirror may be greater than the image distance for the
convex lens
Precautions:
1. The light source object should be held between f and 2f of the convex lens
2. The centre of lens, mirror and the source must be at the same height.

*********************************************************************************
44
 1. Ray diagrams

2. Observations

Position of
Radius of Focal
Convex Convex
Sl No. Object Image Curvature length
lens mirror
O C R f=R/2
L M
1
2
3

Calculations

Mean f = ……………..

=……………….. cm

Teacher’s signature…………………… Date……………….

45
 Exp 10

Focal length of a concave lens

Date of Experiment……………………………

Aim: To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens

Apparatus: Light box source, concave lens and convex lens with holders, screen and metre scale.

Theory: The concave lens forms only virtual images which cannot be caught on a screen. Hence its
focal length cannot be directly measured.
An object placed at O has it real inverted image formed at I by a convex lens at L. If the concave lens
is interposed (at L’) between the convex lens and the position of the image, the refracted rays from L
diverge as they pass through L’ and the image is now formed at I’.
For the concave lens the image formed (at I) by the convex lens acts as the object whose image is
formed at I’.
Therefore L’I = u and L’I’= v
From the lens formula
1 1 1
 
f v u
uv
f 
uv
Since here u < v, f will be negative.

Procedure
1. Place the light source object at some distance from the convex lens.
2. Place the screen on the other side and adjust its position to obtain a clear image.
3. Note the positions of the object lens and image.
4. Place the concave lens between the convex lens and the screen and adjust the position of the
screen to obtain the new position of the image.
5. Note the new position of the image.
6. Repeat the experiment by changing the position of the object with respect to the convex lens.

Result: The focal length of the concave lens is: cm

Sources of error:
1. The image may not be clearly focused.
2. The combination of lenses may be a diverging combination if the focal length of the convex
lens is not sufficiently small.
Precautions:
1. The height of the source and screen should be the same as that of the two lenses
2. The position of the object and the convex lens should be kept unchanged while
concave lens is introduced and position of image found
**********************************************************************************
46
 1. Ray diagrams

2. Observations

Positions of
Convex Concave L’ I L’I’ uv
Sl No. Object Image Image f 
O
lens lens
I I’
=u = v u v
L L’
1

Calculations for f

47
Mean f = cm

Teacher’s signature………………………… Date……………………..

48
 Experiment 11

P-N Junction characteristics

Date of Experiment………………….

Aim: To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward–bias and reverse-bias

Apparatus: A p-n junction (semi-conductor diode) , a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistance
rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100mA ammeter, one 0-100µA
ammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper.

Theory: Forward bias characteristics. when the p section of the diode is connected to positive
terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to negative terminal of the battery then junction is
said to be forward biased .With increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the
beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7V for Si diode (0.2V for Ge), the current increases rapidly .
This voltage is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.

Reverse –bias characteristics, when the p-section of the diode is connected to negative terminal of
high voltage battery and n- section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the same battery,
then junction is said to be reverse biased.

When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse current flow which remains
almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently high value, the
reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown of junction diode
occurs is called breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage may start from 1 volt to several hundred
volts depending upon dopant density and the thickness of depletion layer.

Procedure

(a) For Forward –bias

1. Make circuit diagram as shown in Fig

2. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA)

3. Insert the key K and increase the forward-bias voltage in steps of 0.2 V and note the
corresponding readings in the ammeter.

4. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly when the bias voltage becomes equal to the
threshold voltage.

5. Plot a graph between forward –bias voltage VF and forward current IF taking VF along X-axis
and IF along the Y axis. This graph is called forward-bias characteristic curve of the junction
diode

49
 (b )For reverse-bias

1. Make circuit diagram as shown.

2. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (µA)

3. Insert the key K and apply a reverse–bias voltage (Vr) of 0.5V,a feebly reverse current starts
flowing

4. Increase Vr in steps of 0.2V, current increases first slowly .Note the current

5. Note the reading of the voltmeter at which the current increases suddenly .This represents
‘reverse break down voltage. Note the current and take out the key at once.

6. Plot a graph between reverse voltage VR and reverse current IR taking VR along Y-axis.

This graph is called reverse –bias characteristic curve of junction diode

Precautions

1. Key should be opened when the circuit is not being used

2. Forward –bias voltage much higher than threshold voltage should not be applied
3. Reverse –bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied

Sources of error

1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty

***************************************************************************

Forward biased p-n junction

50
Reverse biased p-n junction

Model graph

Observations

(a)For Forward –bias

Range of voltmeter =…………….V
Least count of voltmeter =………V

51
 Zero error of voltmeter =……V
Range of milli-ammeter =…………...mA,
Least count of milli-ammeter =………mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter =…… mA

Serial No Forward bias Forward current

voltage VF (V) IF (mA)

(b)For reverse-bias

Range of voltmeter =………………..V

Least count of voltmeter =………………..V

Zero error of voltmeter =………………..V

Range of micro-ammeter =………………..µA

Least count of micro-ammeter =……………….. µA

Zero error of micro-ammeter =……………….. µA

52
 Serial No Reverse bias Reverse
. voltage VR (V) current IR (µA)

Result:The I-V characteristic curve of the p-n junction is plotted both in the forward–bias and reverse-bias

53
 Teacher’s Signature………………….. Date……………………

Experiment 12
Zener diode

Date of experiment……………………………
Aim: To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown voltage

Apparatus: A Zener diode (with small reverse breakdown voltage of about 6 volts ), a Dc power
supply , rheostat,, a micro ammeter, a voltmeter (0 – 20 V) and connecting wires.

Theory : A Zener diode is a semiconductor diode, in which the n-type and the p-type sections are
heavily doped ,i.e,they have more percentage of impurity atoms. This heavy doping results in a narrow
depletion region and a low value of reverse breakdown voltage (BVR) .This value can be controlled
during manufacture.

When we apply a reverse bias to this diode , the width of the depletion region increases which
increases the barrier potential. This gives rise to almost zero reverse current. As the reverse potential is
increased, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. The reverse breakdown voltage of a
zener diode is called Zener voltage (VZ). The reverse current that results after the breakdown, is
called Zener current (IZ)

Procedure:
1. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
2. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter and micro- ammeter
3. Insert the key K and adjust the bias voltage to obtain a reading in the voltmeter. Note the
corresponding reading in the microammeter. .
4. Go on increasing V in small steps of 0.5V.Note corresponding values of I and V.
5. At one stage, I increases by large amount without further increase in V, This is reverse breakdown
situation.
6. Plot a graph between voltage V and current I taking V along X axis and I along Y-axis.the graph
comes as shown in figure
Result:
The reverse breakdown voltage of Zener diode is ………………..volts
Precautions
4. All connections should be neat clean and tight
5. Key should not be closed only while taking readings.
6. Once breakdown is reached the circuit should be turned off.
Sources of error
1. The diode may be faulty
54
 2. Voltmeter and ammeter may be calibrated wrongly.

Circuit diagram Model graph for reverse characteristic of Zener diode.

Observations
Least count of of voltmeter(V) =………………..V
Zero error of voltmeter (V) =………………..V
Least count of milli-ammeter =……………….. mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter =……………….. mA
Serial Reverse Voltage Current
No

55
Teacher’s signature………………………….. Date……………………….

56
 ACTIVITIES

(Note to students: Record these activities after completing record of all the twelve experiments.
Use separate page for each activity. Draw all diagrams and tabular columns on blank page)

********************************************************************************

Activity-1

Aim: To assemble the components of a given circuit.

Apparatus: A battery, a rheostat, ammeter and voltmeter of required range, unknown resistance, a one–way key
and connecting wires.

Procedure: Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

Result: The given circuit is assembled.

*********************************************************************************

Activity-2

Aim: To check the continuity of a circuit and measure AC and DC voltage, DC current and resistance using a
multimeter.

Apparatus: A multimeter, battery eliminator, key, and unknown resistance.

A multimeter is a single measuring device which can be used as an ammeter, a voltmeter and an ohmmeter. For
this reason, sometimes it is also referred to as an AVO meter. It can measure AC as well as DC voltage/current.

a) Checking continuity of a circuit:

Procedure: Turn the multimeter knob to ohmmeter range of least value. Measure the resistance of the circuit
for closed key and open key.

Result: Measurement with open key gives infinite resistance while with closed key a finite resistance is
measured.

57
b) Measuring voltage, current and resistance
Procedure: Turn the multimeter knob to ohmmeter/ voltmeter/ ammeter range as desired. If the deflection is
too small or too large for a selected range, then the range should be chosen accordingly.
While using the ohmmeter, adjust the pointer to zero reading on the resistance scale. This zero lies on
the extreme right of the multimeter scale.
Record the observations accordingly.
Result: The use of the multimeter to measure current voltage and resistance and to check continuity was
demonstrated.

Observations :
1. Observed value of resistance : …….. Ω.
2. AC voltage : ……..V
3. DC voltage : …….. V
4. DC current in given circuit : …….. A
********************************************************************************

Activity-3
To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery rheostat, key ammeter , voltmeter and
resistance. Mark the components that are connected wrong, draw the correct circuit diagram and connect the
circuit.
Apparatus: the given circuit components.
Procedure: Identify the wrongly corrected components and reassemble correctly.
Result the given circuit is corrected and assembled.
(ON BLANK PAGE Draw the given wrong circuit diagram. Circle the mistakes in connection and draw the
correct diagram below it)
Wrong circuit diagram

Correct circuit diagram

58
********************************************************************************

Activity-4

Aim: To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such
items.

Apparatus: Carbon resistor, Diode, LED, Capacitor, transistor and IC

Identification:
1. A diode has two terminals. Conducts when forward biased. Does not conduct when reverse biased.
2. An LED is a diode that emits light when it conducts
3. A transistor is a three terminal device. The three terminals are called emitter, base and collector. There
are two types of transistors. NPN and PNP.
4. An integrated circuit (IC) is a multi-terminal device in the form of a chip. Different IC’s are designed
for different purposes.
5. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts in both directions and in DC and AC offering same
resistance.
6. A capacitor is a two terminal device. It does not conduct with DC but conducts with AC.
Result: The devices were correctly identified

Appearance and symbol of the different devices

**********************************************************************************
Activity – 5
Aim: To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.
59
Apparatus: Glass slab, drawing board, white sheet, pins, protractor
Result: The refraction of light through a glass slab is observed. The emergent ray is found to be parallel to the
incident ray but displaced laterally.
Observation:

Activity-6
Aim: To observe polarization of light using two polaroids.
Apparatus: two polaroids
Procedure: Light passing through the first Polaroid (polariser) is viewed through the second polaroid (analyser)
rotated to different orientations with respect to the polarizer and the variation in intensity observed.
Result : The expected variation in the intensity of light has been observed. This verifies transverse nature of
light.
Observation
Angle between polarizer and Intensity of observed light
analyser
0 Maximum
90 Minimum
180 Maximum
270 Minimum
360 Maximum

60