TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING
Dr. Mu’ath Al-Tarawneh

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 Terms and Definitions

■ Transport: is a science that concerns with the efficient

movement of people and goods that is undertaken to
accomplish objectives to complete tasks that require
transfer from one location to another
■ Transportation Engineering: is concerned with the
application of scientific principles to the planning, design;
operation & management of transportation systems. It is a
sub-speciality of civil engineering. However, it is inherently
multidisciplinary overlapping diverse fields as economics;
psychology; geography; city planning; public administration;
political science; industrial & electrical engineering

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Definition of Urban and Rural Areas

▪ Urban or rural = f (density and types of land use, density

of street and highway networks, nature of travel patterns,
and the way in which these elements are related)

▪ Urban areas are those places with a population of 5000 or

more.
50,000 or more Urbanized areas
5,000 – 50,000 Small urban areas

▪ Rural areas are those areas outside the boundaries of

urban areas.

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Functions of Transportation :

■ 1- Links residents with employments .

■ 2- Links producers of goods with their users .
■ 3- Provides the options for work , shopping and recreation ,
and give access to health , education , and other facilities .

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Transportation Systems
Transportation systems consists of the following components:

■ Physical “fixed” facilities: streets; roads; highways;

railroads; airport; sea & river ports; pipelines and
canals.
■ Flow entities: fleets of vehicles; vessels and
aircrafts.
■ Control systems refers to the technological ways in
which individual vehicles are guided on fixed
facilities. It can be done manual or automatic. They
include means that permit the efficient safe and
smooth operation of streams of vehicles and
reduce conflicts between vehicles [Signing;
Marking and signalling]
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 Transportation Systems
■ Facility oriented organization are involved in
planning; designing; constructing; maintaining &
operating fixed facilities
■ Operation organization “ carriers” concerned with
operating fleets to provide transportation services
[Railroads; airlines; ships; truck lines; transit
operator; private car owner, etc]
■ Operating bases and facilities for vehicle
maintenance facilities

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Characteristics of transportation
Transport demand characteristics:

■ Highly qualitative and differentiated [By time of the

day; day of the week; journey purpose and type of
cargo)
■ It is derived and transport is not an end by itself.
People are travelling in order to satisfy their needs
at their destinations and for the seek of transport
■ It takes place over space [the distribution of
activities over space]. The spatiality of demand
leads to problem of lack of coordination which
affect equilibrium between demand and supply

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Characteristics of transportation
Transport supply characteristics:

■ It is a service and not a good. We cannot stock

it. Transport service must be consumed when
and where it is produced otherwise its benefit
is lost.
■ Transport infrastructure is lumpy and take long
time to be carried out.
■ Transport investment has an important political
role.
■ Transport is very important elements in the
welfare of nations and well being of urban and
rural dweller.

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Transportation system classification
The definition of transportation systems makes a distinction between
passengers and freight “goods”. Both are needed to satisfy human needs and
both constitute a significant portion of Gross National Product
■ Transportation system is categorized into four major sub-
system according to the medium on which the flow
elements are supported. These subsystem are commonly
referred as modes.
■ Modes describe various means of travel.
■ The four major subsystem are
Land Air Water Pipelines
Transportation Transportation Transportation
Highway Domestic Inland Oil
Rail International Ocean Gas; other
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Mode classification by geography location
Location Freight Passengers
Private Auto-Highway
Urban Truck-Highway Transit-
Highway/Railway
Truck-Highway Private Auto-Highway
Railway Bus
Intercity
Ocean shipping Rail
Inland water Air
(Express)
Pipelines
Air
Special Conveyor belt
Purpose Cable system
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 Transportation provider type
Transportation systems are classified as either public or private or classified
as for hire or not for hire

■ Hire system are further classified into

– Contract Carriers: provide service to public under
individual contractual arrangement
– Common Carriers offer scheduled service and are open
to all member of public willing to pay the posted fare
(Price).
■ Mass transportation or Mass transit refer to the common
carriage of passengers; taxi; car rental

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 Urban Transportation systems
■ The intra-city or urban distribution of freight (cargo,
goods) is predominantly accomplished by highway
subsystem using vans; trucks.
■ The major movement within urban areas are related to
passenger transport.
■ Water transport is found within urban areas, it is
related to passenger transport.
■ Air transportation is unsuited for urban travel
■ Transport means available for urban travel are land
based regardless of being private or public.
■ Mode of transport in urban, heavy rail; light rail, bus

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Transportation Modes

■ Highways are the most dominant mode of

transport in most countries of the world including
Jordan.
■ The highway system is used by private vehicles;
truck lines; bus lines.
■ Highway systems serves intercity passengers;
freight transportation; urban passenger transport
& distribution of goods.

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Major Characteristics of highway systems
■ Very high accessibility to almost all potential
destination
■ Direct service with very low-to-door travel time
■ Moderate line haul speed & capacities
■ Capital costs of physical facilities are moderate
■ Vehicle used are small & cheep to be owned by
individual compared to all other mode.
■ Total investment of physical facilities & vehicle is
high
■ Operating cost is high
■ Environmental impact of the system as a whole are
high and of major concerns of societies

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Urban transit
■ It is a specialized mode. It includes traditional mass
transit modes [Buses, street cars, light rail, rapid rail
transit & para-transit]
■ Tram “street car”: Vehicles received their power from
overhead power. They are operating on tracks
sharing the roadway with cars and buses
■ Light rail: A term embracing a wide range of
electrical powered vehicle running on steel rails
(metro). Passengers board from road surface or low
plat form. It operated along street but maybe
provided with exclusive right of way

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Urban transit

■ Rapid rail transit system called metro is the

underground tube operate on exclusive
R.O.W and relatively high speeds & provide
highest line capacity available.
■ Para-transit: A term applies to small
passenger vehicles operating informally on
fare-paying basis & serving in some places
as an alternative to regular bus transit
services.

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Streetcar/Tram

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Light rail

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Rapid Rail transit

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Para-transit

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 Who use urban transit system
■ Mainly serves passenger transportation(10% of passenger trips in USA
is made by transit, the percentage is much higher in Europe)
■ Transit passengers are either persons making work trips into central
business district, usually referred as commuters/choice rider or
passenger without access to automobile often referred to as captive
rider

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Characteristics of Urban Transit
■ Line haul speeds vary a great deal (Bus are slow where
rapid rail transit has quite high speed.
■ Door-to-door travel time are greater than those of
automobiles with an exception in CBD.
■ Accessibility depend on route & stop station spacing but in
general it is less than of private car.
■ Capacities are high.
■ Capital costs of rail system are high (both physical facilities
& vehicles)
■ Operating costs for both bus and rail system are moderate
but operating costs per trip is almost higher than dare.
■ Environmental impact are regarded as being less than
those of private cars.

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Rail Transportation
■ The primary market for rail is intercity freight, considerable
amount of general cargo are shipped by rail; particularly the
bulk cargo.
■ Rail share for intercity passenger miles is relatively low. Most
passenger rail trips are of short to intermediate length are
limited to high density corridor

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Rail Transportation characteristics
■ Provides Moderate speed & level of accessibility.
■ High & unreliable door-to-door travel times;
however continuous work is under-taken to reduce
the travel time.
■ Physical facilities for railway represent heavy
investment.
■ Capital cost of locomotives & railcars are relatively
high & productivity is low
■ Maintenance costs for track are relatively high
■ Operating cost per ton-mile are low
■ Environmental impact are comparatively low

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Airways
■ Airport definition according to international civil aviation
organization: a specific area of land or water used for
landing and takeoff. Many facilities are provided.
■ Is used in small shipment of light and expensive goods .
■ ( Speed of delivery is a controlling factor ) .
■ Factors Affecting the Design of a Location of Airports :
■ 1- Satisfactory accommodation for arriving and
departing passengers .
■ 2- Efficient handling of cargos .
■ 3- Sufficient parking space .
■ 4- Good surface transportation service between the
airport and the center of departure destination .

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 Air transportation Characteristics
Include commercial airlines, air freight carriers and general aviation
(private aircraft). Air transportation serves intercity passenger travel
(long-distance travel
■ High line haul speed
■ Accessibility is limited (relatively little importance because of great
length of trips made by air)
■ Capacities of individual aircraft are moderate but productivity is high
due to high speed.
■ Capital & operating costs are both quite high but because of high
productivity, the cost per passenger carried is moderate.
■ Cost of general aviation airports and aircraft are moderate.
■ Environmental impact are significant especially
■ the noise impact of commercial aviation, but are of much less concern
than those of highway system
■ Safe and comfort

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Water Transportation

■ Transportation by water can be categorized by

– inland transport
– Ocean transport
■ Ocean transport include container ships; bulk cargo carriers & oil
tankers.
■ Water transportation serves intercity freight.
■ Inland waterways serve bulk goods
■ Ocean shipping carries all types of goods.

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Water Transportation characteristics
■ Low speed; low accessibility
■ High capacities
■ Capital cost of vessel is high but operating costs per ton-mile are low
■ Environmental impact are relatively low, but if oil spills occur, serious
problem rise

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What is the factor that affect on
ships
■ Wind
■ Water wave

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Classification of water port
■ 1-Commertial port (raw material, cargo, passenger, food, ship
maintainace)
■ 2-Military port
■ 3-Fishing port
■ 4-Petrolume port
■ 5-Aircraft landing port
■ 6-Sport, picnic, & tourist port

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 The port must be
1. Sufficient water depth
2. Secure anchorage
3. Adequate anchorage area
4. Adequate entrance
5. Protection against wave action
6. Water must be calm
7. Port must be parallel to offshore (beach)
8. Port should be provided by service building
9. Port should be provided by infrastructure
10. Port should be provided by different cranes

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Pipe lines transportation characteristics
Pipe line transportation is specialized in freight transportation system. It
serves primarily crude oil.

■ Low speed to high speed continuous flow transportation

■ Costs are low
■ Environment impact is normally quite low once they are built. However,
construction impact is sometime of concern.

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Pipelines :
■ Provide direct low cost dependable movement of
petroleum products and water .
■ Advantages :
■ 1- There are no empty vehicles .
■ 2- Delivery is continuous and the amounts to be
delivered can be predicted accurately .
■ 3- The system is in the ground and the maintenance is
low .
■ 4- Theft is almost impossible and the labor required for
operation is comparatively small .

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Other modes
of Transportation

■ Cables & belt system, they do not have significant role. They
are used for specialized passengers “Ski-left and moving belt
in airports”

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Institutional (organization) Structure
■ Transportation should be the responsibility of government body
■ The government should be in charge of formulating national polices &
research development for transportation facilities & services
■ Transport service & lines are organized by governmental body
■ Transport administration is further organized geographically into region
and district.
■ The design, construction, and maintenance of transportation system is
organized by governmental body
■ Local government at city level are responsible of setting standards for
design street & roads, maintaining & operating them & they maybe
directly involved in the design & construction of their facilities.
■ Transport planning is responsibility of an agency that exist at national
level or district level or municipality level.
■ Private organization involved in transportation sector are the carriers
such as airlines, truck lines, bus operators

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System for financing transportation
Source of funds for transportation are

■ User charges include direct charges such as fares, tolls &

indirect sources such as fuel tax.
■ General fund revenues collected by different levels of
government are derived from regular taxes “No direct
relationship between source of fund and the activity which
they spent on”
■ Private investment occurs in the part of transportation
system that are normally under private control (carrier).
■ Cross-subsidization occurs when revenues collected from
users of one type of transportation are used to finance
some other type of system (Gasoline tax revenue to finance
public transport)

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Transportation Engineering
 The Traffic System
• There are three components of the traffic
system
1. Roadway/Transport Facilities
2. Vehicle
3. Humans (drivers, passengers,
pedestrians)
 Design Vehicle
• Design Vehicle – largest (slowest,
loudest?) vehicle likely to use a facility with
considerable frequency
• Three Characteristics
– Physical
– Operating
– Environmental
 Physical Characteristics
• Type Passenger Car
– Motorcycle
– Truck
• Size (Several examples)
– Length
– Height
– Weight
– Width
– Minimum and Maximum Turning Radii
 Operating Characteristics

• Acceleration
• Deceleration and braking
• Power/weight ratios
• Turning radius
• Headlights
 Environmental Characteristics

• Noise
• Exhaust
• Fuel Efficiency
 Vehicle Characteristics
• Static: those characteristics that DO NOT
depend on the interaction with the
transportation facility

• Dynamic: those characteristics that DO

depend on the interaction with the
transportation facility
Vehicle Performance

Impact of vehicle performance on

• Road Design
• Traffic operations
• Truck Performance on Grades
 Road user types
• Driver
• Passenger
• Cyclist
• Pedestrian
 Driver
Driving task – monitoring and responding to a
continuous series of visual and audio cues
Driving task at three levels:
Operational (Control) – vehicle control through
second-to-second driver’s actions, speed
Tactical (Guidance)– vehicle guidance through
maintenance of a safe speed and proper path
Strategic (Navigation) – route planning
 Human Component
• Sensing
– Feeling: forces on the vehicle
– Seeing: critically important means of
acquiring information
• Ability to see fine details, depth perception,
peripheral vision, ‘night’ vision, glare
recovery
– Hearing: important for drivers, cyclists
and pedestrians
– Smelling: detecting emergencies e.g.
overheated engine, burning brakes, fire
 Human Component
• Driver decision process involves
– Sensing
– Perceiving (seeing)
– Analyzing
– Deciding
– Responding
 Human Component/Perception and Reaction
Times

• Perception time is delay between visibility and

determining there is a potential hazard
• Perception and Reaction time consists of four stages
– Perception: Sees or hears situation (sees a stone)
– Identification: Identify situation (realizes deer is in road)
– Emotion: Decides on course of action (swerve, stop, change lanes,
etc)
– Reaction (volition) :Acts (time to start events in motion but not
actually do action)
• Foot begins to hit brake, not actual deceleration
• Thus, the total Reaction Time (PIEV) involves analytical and
decision-making as well as actual control response (e.g, put foot on
brake)
• Perception-reaction time (PIEV) often assumed to be 2.5 seconds
– At 100 kph a vehicle travels about 70 meters in that time
 Typical Perception-Reaction
time range is:
0.5 to 7 seconds
ASSTHTO 2 sec
For design purpose Perception-Reaction Time (PIEV) is assumed to
be 2.5 seconds and normally it is taken to represent the behaviour
of 85% of drivers
At 100 kph a vehicle travels about 70 metres in that time

It is affected by a number of factors.

What are they?
 Perception-Reaction Time
Factors
• Environment:
• Urban vs. Rural
• Night vs. Day
• Wet vs. Dry
• Age
• Physical Condition:
• Fatigue
• Drugs/Alcohol
 Perception-Reaction Time
Factors
• medical condition
• visual acuity
• ability to see (lighting conditions, presence of
fog, snow, etc)
• complexity of situation (more complex = more
time)
• complexity of necessary response
• expected versus unexpected situation (traffic
light turning red vs. dog darting into road)
Variations in Reaction Time

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

Reaction time (sec)

 Effect of Task Complexity
where
t r = a + b  log 2 N
tr = reaction time (s)
a = minimum reaction time under circumstances (s)
b = 0.13, slope
N = no. of alternatives

Example
a = 0.15 s and one action is possible, then
tr = 0.15 +0.13 log21 = 0.15 + 0.13x0 = 0.15 s
If there are two possible actions are to select from, then
tr = 0.15 +0.13 log22 = 0.15 + 0.13x1 = 0.28 s
 Visual Acuity
Visual acuity :It refers to the sharpness with
which a person can see on object.
One measurement of it is the recognition acuity
obtained using Snellen chart.

Visual acuity is either static : no motion involved

and dynamic : relative motion involved.
 Snellen Chart
• Normal Vision
• Recognizing 1/3”
letters under well lit
conditions from 20”
• A person with 20/40
requires object be
twice as large at
same distance
• Visual acuity is 20/20 if a person can recognize 1/3 in
letter at a distance of 20 ft.
• Visual acuity is 20/x if a person can recognize the
letters at the distance 20/x times the distance
required by a person with visual acuity 20/20.
 Static Acuity and Letter Size

Acuity (ft/ft) 20/10 20/20 20/30 20/40 20/50 20/60

Index L/H (ft/in) 114.6 57.3 38.2 28.7 22.9 19.1

Visual acuity is worse when an object is moving

During night conditions, the visual acuity is one column
worse
 Example
A driver with 20/20 vision can read a sign from a
distance of 90 ft. How close must a person with the
20/50 vision be in order to read the same sign?
L20 / 50 = L20 / 20  (20 / 50)
L20 / 50 = 90  (20 / 50) = 36 ft

How large should letters be to be recognizable at a

distance of 90 ft by a person with the 20/60 vision?

( L / H ) 20 / 60 = 19.1 ft/in
H 20 / 60 = 90 / 19.1 = 4.7 inch
 Roadway Sign Readability
• Maximum distance a driver can read a road
sign within her/his vision acuity
• = (letter height in inches)*(vision acuity)
• Example
– letter height of road sign = 4 inches
– a driver can read a road sign at a distance of 30 ft
for each inch of letter height
• Solution
– readability = (4 in)(30 ft/in) = 120 ft
 Roadway Sign Readability
• Maximum distance a driver can read a road
sign within her/his vision acuity
• = (letter height in inches)*(vision acuity)
• Example
– letter height of road sign = 4 inches
– a driver can read a road sign at a distance of 30 ft
for each inch of letter height
• Solution
– readability = (4 in)(30 ft/in) = 120 ft
 Sign Legibility

A sign should be legible at a sufficient distance

in advance so that the motorist gets time to
perceive the sign, its information and perform
any required maneuver.

Rule of thumb:
LD = H*50
Where, LD = Legibility distance (ft)
H = Height of letters on the sign (inch)
 Human Visual Factors

Visual Acuity Factors:

• 20° cone of satisfactory vision
•10° cone of clear vision (traffic signs and signals should be within this
cone)
• 3° cone of optimum vision
•160 ° cone of vision defines the peripheral vision (Driver can see
object but with no clear details)
 Aging’s impact of vision
• Older persons experience low light level
– Rules of thumb – after 50 the light you can
see halves with each 10 years
• Glare – overloading eye with light
– Older drivers can take twice as long to
recover from glare
• Poor discrimination of color
• Poor contrast sensitivity
 Pedestrian
• A pedestrian is defined as any person on
foot. While everyone is a pedestrian at one
time
• or another, in the United States walking is
viewed primarily as a recreational activity.
However,
• for relatively short trips, walking can be an
efficient and inexpensive mode of
transportation.
• Increased levels of walking can result in benefits
in terms of health and physical fitness, the
environment, and transportation. Studies have
demonstrated that even low to moderate levels
of exercise, such as regular walking, can reduce
the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and
other chronic diseases, help reduce healthcare
costs, and contribute to greater functional
independence in later years and improve the
quality of life at every stage. Replacing
automobile trips with walking trips could result in
significant economic benefits. Since it is
nonmotorized and nonpolluting, walking would
result in reduced emissions, energy
consumption, and congestion.
Pedestrian Characteristics

Walk Speed:
4.0 fps Safe or 15th
5.0 fps Median
6.0 fps 85th
 There are many factors that influence choice of travel mode and,
specifically, the decision to walk.

• 1-Initial considerations. Many people rely on their

automobile to go virtually anywhere and
• never seriously consider the option of walking. An
individual’s attitudes and values also
• play a role—e.g., walking may be considered as ‘‘not
cool.’’ Perceptions are also important
• in the decision to walk—e.g., safety concerns about
traveling at night. Finally, there
• are situational constraints that, if they do not preclude
the decision to walk, they do require
• additional planning and effort. Examples include needing
a car at work or having to pick
• up children from soccer practice.
• 2- Trip barriers. Concern for safety in
traffic is a frequently cited reason for not
walking.
• This is particularly true where there are no
alternatives to walking along high-speed,
high volume roadways. There may be
problems with access and linkage, e.g.,
lack of connections between
neighborhoods and shopping areas or
parks. Environmental factors such as
• rugged topography or extremes in weather
can also be considered as barriers.
• 3-Destination barriers. Lack of support
from employers or coworkers can act as a
barrier, e.g., relaxing the dress code or
establishing a policy of flextime.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
PEDESTRIANS
1 Ambulation •
2 Seeing and Being Seen •
3Groups of Particular Concern •
 Seeing and Being Seen
• Visibility of a pedestrian in the traffic stream is influenced
by environmental conditions, behavior, and attire
(clothing). The key factor is the degree of contrast
between the pedestrian and his or her environment.
Environmental factors can affect the visibility of
pedestrians to motorists. Rain, snow, fog, shadows, and
glare all reduce visual range and acuity. There are also
‘‘visual screens’’ in the driving environment. Moving
vehicles, particularly buses and commercial vehicles can
block pedestrians’ and motorists’ view of one another.
• Stationary features such as parked vehicles, shrubs
(small tree), structures, and traffic signal controller boxes
can have the same effect
• About one-half of fatal
pedestrian crashes occur in
low-light or dark conditions.
At night, pedestrians are
frequently difficult to see
because they lack
conspicuity.
Groups of Particular Concern
• Older Adults. By 2020, it is estimated that 17
percent of the U.S. population will be older
• than 65. Although aging itself is not a disability,
most persons aged 75 or older have a
• disability. Many of the characteristics commonly
associated with aging can limit mobility.
• The aging process often causes a general
deterioration of physical, cognitive, and sensory
• abilities.
Characteristics of Older Adults
1. • Vision problems such as degraded acuity
2. • Reduced range of joint motion
3. • Reduced ability to detect, localize, and differentiate
sounds
4. • Limited attention span, memory, and cognitive
abilities (‫قدرة االدراك‬
5. • Reduced endurance‫قدرة التحمل‬
6. • Decreased agility‫ خفة الحركة‬, balance, and stability
7. • Slower reflexes
8. • Impaired judgment‫ ضعف الحكمة‬, confidence, and
decision-making abilities
 Children.
• Children have fewer capabilities than adults due to their
developmental immaturity
• and lack of experience. Compared to adults, children tend to exhibit
the following
• characteristics:
1. • One-third less peripheral vision
2. • Less accuracy in judging speeds and distances
3. • Difficulty in localizing the direction of sounds
4. • Overconfidence
5. • Inability to read or comprehend warning signs and traffic signals
6. • Unpredictable or impulsive actions
7. • Trust that others will protect them
8. • Inability to understand complex situations
 Disabled
• Disabled. can be divided into three
categories:
• mobility,
• sensory, and
• cognitive.‫ادراكي‬
 Planning
• Initially, planners should determine where people want or need to
travel, the routes they might travel, and who these people are. The
most likely users of improved pedestrian facilities are:
1. • Children who must be driven to school, play, and other activities.
2. • Parents who have to drive children and would appreciate safe
walking routes so their children can move around the community by
themselves.
3. • Older people who may not drive but have time to walk may be able
to carry out some of their daily chores, enjoy the outdoors, and
exercise all on the same trip.
4. • Commuters who may be able to walk to bus or carpool stops.
‫مسافرون‬
5. • Recreational users, especially those who jog or walk regularly,
would benefit from improved routes and separation from fast-
moving traffic. ‫ترفيهي‬
• Simple pedestrian volume counts usually do not yield
enough information about where people are going or
coming from, trip purpose, and any special pedestrian
needs that should be met. Such data are best obtained
through an origin / destination survey that should include
• the following information:
• 1. Location of major pedestrian generators such as
parking facilities, transit stations, and major residential
developments
• 2. Location of significant pedestrian attractions such as
shopping centers, office and public buildings, theaters,
colleges, hospitals, and sports arenas
• 3. Existing and potential pedestrian routes between
major destinations
• 4. Time periods in which major pedestrian flow occurs
Characteristics of suburbs include:
‫ضواحي‬
• 1. Suburban land use planning encourages low
density and separation of land use types.
• 2. Street design standards typically require wide
streets that encourage high-speed traffic
• and sometimes do not require sidewalks.
• 3. It is not easy to use public transportation in
suburban locations.
• 4. Barriers to walking are created
unintentionally.
 At intersection
Crosswalks •
Signal Timing, Indications, and •
Detection.
Refuge Islands. •
Vehicle motion
 Definitions
Vehicle motion can be described based on kinematic and kinetic equations

• Kinematic is the study of motion irrespective of

the forces that cause it
• Kinetic is the study of motion that accounts the
forces that cause it.
• The motion of a body can be linear or curvilinear
• It can be investigated in relation to a fixed
coordinate system (absolute motion) or in
relation to a moving coordinate system (relative
motion)

2 Transportation
Engineering
 Equation of motion/ Rectilinear Motion
• The rectilinear position of x is measured from a
reference point and has unit of length
• The displacement is the difference in its position
between two instants.
• Velocity v is the displacement of the particle divided by
time over which the displacement occurs. It is given by
the derivative of the displacement with respect of time
dx
v=
dt
• Speed is a scalar quantity and it is equal to the
magnitude of the velocity, which is a vector

3 Transportation
Engineering
 Equation of motion/ Rectilinear Motion
Equation derivation
• Acceleration a is the rate of change dv
of velocity with respect to time. a=
dt
• It can be positive, zero or negative.
dv  dx 
Negative acceleration or what is a=  
common known as deceleration is dx  dt 
often denoted as d and its  dv 
a =  v
magnitude is given in the positive  dx 
(d of 16 ft/s2 equals the same as an which leads to
acceleration of - ft/s2)
vdv = adx

4 Transportation
Engineering
 Equation of motion/ Rectilinear Motion
• The simplest case of rectilinear motion is the
case of constant acceleration where
dv
= a = cons tan t
dt
dv = adt
by int egrating over the lim it t = 0 to t gives
v t

 dv =  adt
vo o

v = at + vo

The velocity can be exp ressed as a function of dis tan ce by inegrating

vdv = adx, which lead

(v − vo2 ) = a( x − xo )
1 2
2
Thus
1
x = at 2 + vo t + xo
2
5 Transportation
Engineering
…Equation of motion/ Rectilinear Motion
Acceleration as a function of velocity
• The acceleration of a vehicle from an initial speed vo is
given by the relationship dv
a= = A − Bv
dt
A and B are cons tan
v
dv t

 =  dt
v A − Bv
o o

v
1
− ln( A − Bv ) = t
B v o

which lead
A
v= (1 − e − Bt ) +v o e − Bt
B
if v is substitute in a = A − Bv, a equals
a = ( A − Bvo )e − Bt
 A A v
x =  t − 2 (1 − e − Bt ) + o (1 − e − Bt )
B B B
6 Transportation
Engineering
 Travel Speed
Distance

x2 − x1
x2

v=
x1
t 2 − t1
t1 t2 Time
 Spot Speed

Distance

dx
v=
V dt
x1

t1 Time
 Distance
Spot Speed Measurements
Time Distance Speed 1 Speed 2
t x v v
(s) (ft) (ft/s) (ft/s)

2.0 30.0 --- ---

x3 3.0 40.0 (40-30)/(3-2) (45-30)/(4-2)

x2 =10.0 = 7.5
4.0 45.0 (45-40)/(3-2) ---
=5.0
x1

Time t3 t2 t1
Spot Speed Measurements

Time Distance Speed

(s) (ft) (ft)

0.0 0.0 -
0.1 2.13 21.5
0.2 4.30 21.9
0.3 6.51 22.4
0.4 8.78 22.4
0.5 10.99 21.3
0.6 13.04 -
 Average Acceleration Rate
Speed

v2

v2 − v1
v1 a=
t 2 − t1
t1 t2 Time
 Spot Acceleration Rate

speed

dv
a=
v1
a
dt

t1 Time
 Measuring Acceleration
Rates
Time Distance Speed Acceleration
(s) (ft) (ft/s) (ft/s2)
0.0 0.0 - -
0.1 2.13 21.5 -
0.2 4.30 21.9 4.5
0.3 6.51 22.4 2.5
0.4 8.78 22.4 -5.5
0.5 10.99 21.3 -
0.6 13.04 - -
 Constant Acceleration Motion
dv
= a = const dv dx = vdt = (at + v0 )dt
dt v=a
dx
x t
0 dx = 0 (at + v0 )dt
v t
v dv = 0 adt
v x
0 v0 vdv = 0 adx

v = at + v0 v 2 − v02 1 2
x= x = at + v0 t
2a 2
v02 − v 2
x=
Remark: The equation used for design is , where the
2a

deceleration rate has a positive value.

 Kinematic (Dynamic)
Characteristics
Acceleration (Constant or variable): •

Passing maneuvers •
Gap acceptance •
Dimensions of freeway ramps and passing lanes •
Motion elements (Distance and Velocity) •
 Exercise

From the following data, •

calculate the acceleration Distance Speed
rate at the distance of 2 (ft) (ft/s)
feet from the reference 0 19.4
point. 1 19.6
2 20.0
a=5.91ft/s2???
3 20.8
4 21.3
 Constant Acceleration Motion
dv
= a = const dv dx = vdt = (at + v0 )dt
dt v=a
dx
x t
0 dx = 0 (at + v0 )dt
v t
v dv = 0 adt
v x
0 v0 vdv = 0 adx

v = at + v0 v 2 − v02 1 2
x= x = at + v0 t
2a 2
v02 − v 2
Remark: The equation used for design is x= , where the
2a

deceleration
17 rate has a positive value. Transportation
Engineering
 Motion on Circular Curves

dv
at =
dt

2
v
an =
18
R Transportation
Engineering
Motion on
Circular
Curves

W sin  + f s W cos  = m an cos 

W v2
W sin  + f s W cos  = ( ) cos 
g R W cos 

sin 
= tan  = e v2
cos  e + fs =
19 gR Transportation
Engineering
 Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve
V 2 (mph)
R( ft ) =
15(e + f s )

V 2 (km / hr )
• Where R(m) =
127(e + f s )
• V = vehicle velocity
• e = tan a (rate of super-elevation)
• fs = coefficient of side friction (depends on
design speed)

20 Transportation
Engineering
 Example

– design speed = 65 mph

– rate of superelevation = 0.05
– coefficient of side friction = 0.11
• Solution
– minimum radius
– R = (65)2/[15(0.05+0.11)] = 1760 ft
 Relative Motion
• It is common to examine the motion of one
object in relation to another, for example the
motion of vehicles on a highway may be studies
from the point of view of the driver of a moving
vehicle.
• The simplest case of relative motion involves the
motion of one object B relative to a coordinate
system (x, y, z) that is translating but not rotating
with respect to a fixed coordinate system (X, Y,
Z)

22 Transportation
Engineering
 Power Requirements
• Engine power required to overcome air grade, curve,
and friction resistance to keep vehicle in motion
Grade Resistance = Rg = w
• Power: rate at which work is done
x g = 4,500 lb •
• 1 HP = 550 lb-ft/sec x 0.03
1.47 Ru
P=
550
where;

P = horse power

R = sum of resistance

Weight
u = speed (mi/hr)
 Hill Climbing Ability
• Force acting on a vehicle:
• Engine Power
• Air Resistance
• Grade Resistance
• Rolling Resistance
• Friction
• Weight
 Vehicle Braking Distance

Factors
• Braking System
• Tire Condition
• Roadway Surface
• Initial Speed
• Grade
 Coefficient of friction

Pavement condition Maximum Slide

Good, dry 1.00 0.80

Good, wet 0.90 0.60

Poor, dry 0.80 0.55

Poor, wet 0.60 0.30

Packed snow and 0.25 0.10

Ice
 Skid mark
A skid mark is a tire mark on the road surface produced •
by a tire that is locked, that is not rotating.
A skid mark typically appears very light at the beginning •
of the skid getting darker as the skid progresses and
comes to an abrupt end if the vehicle stops at the end of
the skid.
A skid mark is left when the driver applies the brakes •
hard, locking the wheels, but the car continues to slide
along the road. Steering is not possible with the front
wheels locked. Skid marks are generally straight but may
have some curvature due to the slope of the road.
Skid mark measurements
 Braking Distance

Db
u

wf cos a
G
1.0

w
a
g
w

w sin a
Distance to stop vehicle
a

29 Transportation
Engineering
 Braking on Grades
W 
 a = Wf cos a  W sin a
g 
v02 − v 2
x=
2a
x

Db

v02 − v 2 cos a
Db = x cos a = cos a a = (v02 − v 2 )
2a 2 Db
1 2 cos a
 (v0 − v 2 ) = f cos a  sin a
cos a v02 − v 2
 
g 2 D b Db =
1 2 1 sin a sin a
2 g ( f  G)
 (v0 − v 2 ) = f  = tan a = G
g 2 Db cos a cos a
30 Transportation
Engineering
 Braking Distance
• AASHTO represents friction as a/g which is a function
of the roadway, tires, etc
• Can use when deceleration is known (usually not) or
use previous equation with friction

Db = _____u2_____
30({a/g} ± G)
Db = braking distance
u = initial velocity when brakes are
applied
a = vehicle acceleration
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
G = grade (decimal), level roads G=zero

31 Transportation
Engineering
 Vehicle Braking Distance
• Factors
• Braking System
• Tire Condition
• Roadway Surface
• Initial Speed
• Grade

32 Transportation
Engineering
 Sight distance

Distance a driver can see ahead at any specific time

Must allow sufficient distance for a driver to
perceive/react and stop, swerve etc when necessary
 Stopping Sight Distance
Distance to stop vehicle, includes P/R and braking distance
S = 1.47Vt + _____V2_____
30({a/g} ± G)
where:
Db = braking distance (ft)
V = initial velocity when brakes are applied (mph)
f = coefficient of friction
G = grade (decimal)
t = time to perceive/react
a = vehicle acceleration
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
 Stopping Sight Distance
With assumed acceleration, using friction

S = 1.47Vt + _____V2_____
30(f ± G)
where:
Db = braking distance (ft)
V = initial velocity when brakes are applied (mph)
f = coefficient of friction
G = grade (decimal)
t = time to perceive/react
 Braking Distance
S = Vt/3.6 + _____V2_____
254(f ± G)

– Db = braking distance (meters)

– V0 = initial velocity (km/hr)
– V = final velocity (km/hr)
– f = coefficient of friction
– G = Grade (decimal)
254 = conversion coefficient
Example SSD
• A vehicle is traveling at uniform velocity, at t0 the driver
realizes a vehicle is stopped in the road ahead and the
driver brakes
• Grade = + 1%
• tP/R = 0.8 sec
• The stopped vehicle is just struck, assume vf = 0
• The braking vehicle leaves skid marks that are 405 feet
long
• Assume normal deceleration (11.2 ft/sec2)
• Should the police office at the scene cite the driver for
traveling over the 55 mph posted speed limit?
 SSD Example
SSD = 1.47ut + _____u2_____
30({a/g} ± G)

Stopping distance = 405 feet

405 feet = 1.47u(0.8 sec) + ________u2________
30({11.2/32.2} + 0.01)
405 feet = 1.17u + ________u2________
30(0.358)
405 feet = 1.17u + ________u2________
10.73
Solving for u, u = 59.9 mph
 Decision Sight Distance

When situation is unexpected or driver makes unusual

maneuvers or under difficult to perceive situations
Requires higher PIEV time
Depends on type of maneuver made and roadway
setting (urban vs. rural)
Passing Sight Distance
 Passing Sight Distance
Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d1 = distance traveled during P/R time to point where
vehicle just enters the left lane

d1 = 1.47t1(u – m + at1)
2
where
t1 = time for initial maneuver (sec)
u = average speed of passing vehicle (mph)
a = acceleration (mph/s)
m = difference between speeds of passing and passed
vehicle
 Passing Sight Distance

Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d2 = distance traveled by vehicle while in left lane

d2 = 1.47ut2
where:
u = speed of passing vehicle (mph)
t2 = time spent passing in left lane (sec)
 Passing Sight Distance

Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d3 = clearance distance varies from 110 to 300 feet

d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during passing

maneuver

d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2

Lateral displacement

l

 Lateral displacement
Experiments showed that the narrower the pavement and the •
closer the object to the pavement edge, the greater the
magnitude of lateral displacement.
The relationship between the longitudinal distance l, the lateral •
placement of a given object a, and the visual angle  is l= a cot 
By differentiating both side of equation with respect to time and •
V= vehicle’s speed
dl d
= −a csc 
2
d/dt= rate of change of
dt dt the visual angle
dl / dt = −v and csc 2 = (a 2 + l 2 ) / a 2
d va
= 2 2
dt a + l
Change Interval at Traffic
Signals
Dilemma
zone
 Calculation
• Vehicle Able to Stop = d = 1.47(V)(t)+(V2)/30(f)
• Vehicle Travel Through = d + w + l

• Change Interval (Amber) = d +w+l

1.47V
V2
◼ Change Interval = 1.47Vt + +w+l
30f
1.47V

V w+l
= t+ +
1.47(30)(f ) 1.47V

◼ t = 1.0 s
Highway classification
◼ Rural Highway
1-Arterials (Principle, Minor)
2-Collectors (Minor, Major)
3-Local roads
Urban Highway:
1-Arterials (Principle, Minor)
2-Collectors (Minor, Major)
3-Local roads
1
Highway classification
◼ According to Engineering Function
1. Class A: (high speed, great radius,
lower gradient)
2. Class B: (lower than A)
3. Class C: (lower than B)

2
 According to city, town &
village

1. Major: (between cities, international

and interstate)
2. Minor: between city and village
3. Belt or ring road
4. Radial
3
Functional classification of
highways
◼ Highways are classified either by
◼ The function they serve (functional classification)
◼ The entity responsible for their construction and
maintenance (jurisdictional classification)
◼ Two concepts are used when classifying
highway by their function
◼ Mobility: continuous travel
◼ Accessibility: direct access to abutting (next to or
adjacent) property
◼ Some roads serve one of these two function
while few can satisfy both
4
Functional Classification

5
Functional Classification

Different classification schemes have been applied for

different purposes in different rural and urban regions.

Classification by Design Type: Highway Location and

Design Procedures
Classification by Route
Numbering: Traffic Operations

Administrative classification: Highway Funding

Functional classification: Transportation

Planning and Design

ASSHTO Green Book is based on the functional

classification. One of the first steps in the design process
6
is determining the functional classification of a facility.
Functional Classification

Functional Classification is the process by which streets and

highways are grouped into classes according to the character of
traffic service that they are intended to provide.

There are three functional classes: Arterials including freeways

Collectors
Local Roads
Functional System Services Provided

Arterial Provides the highest level of service at the greatest speed for the
longest uninterrupted distance, with some degree of access
control.
Collector Provides a less highly developed level of service at a lower speed
for shorter distances by collecting traffic from local roads and
connecting them with arterials.

Local Consists of all roads not defined as arterials or collectors;

primarily provides access to land with little or no through
movement.
7
Roles of Functional Classification in Design
▪ AASHTO Green Book establishes the relationships between highway
functional classification and design criteria. State, county, and city highway
design manuals relate design criteria to highway functional classification.

▪ Once the functional classification of a particular roadway has been

established, so has the allowable range of design speed. With the allowable
range of design speed defined, the principal limiting design parameters
associated with horizontal and vertical alignment are also defined.

▪ Also, the determination of functional classification establishes the basic

roadway cross section in terms of lane width, shoulder width, type and width
of median area, and other major design features.

8
Representative Arterials

Representative Freeway Representative Urban Arterial

(I-476/US Route 1 Interchange, (Windsor,CT)
Montgomery County, PA)

Representative Rural Arterial

(Taconic State Parkway, NY) Representative Rural Arterial
(Rt 58, CT) 9
Representative Collectors and Local Roads

Representative Collector in a Representative Urban Collector

Residential Area (Greenbelt, MD) (Lambertville, NJ)

Representative Rural Collector Representative Local Street

(Easton, CT) (Montgomery Co., MD)
10
Land Use, Urban Sprawl, Highway Classifications
▪ Traffic service patterns on a roadway
and the roadway’s function can change
over time due to change of land use and
urban sprawl.

▪ The functional classification of a

highway may be upgraded to a higher
lever to reflect the change of traffic
service patterns.

▪ Road functions can change over time.

Figure (a) shows a new road through the
country. Figure (b) shows the first
residences along the road. Figure (c)
shows suburbanization and the need for
mitigation.

11
Design Standards and Highway Classifications
▪ Functional Classification of a highway facility is often related to the
“level of development” or the design criteria that should be applied.

▪ The relationship shown here represents the State of Washington’s

table for the relationship.

Functional
Design Criteria
Class

Interstate New Construction/Reconstruction Standards

Principal
New Construction/Reconstruction Standards
Arterial

Minor Arterial 3R Standards

Maintenance of Structural Integrity and

Collector
Operational Safety.
12
 Mobility
Function
classification

Accessibility
13
Mobility versus accessibility

14
Mobility and Accessibility of Highway Facilities

▪ Arterials provide a high

Arterials
level of mobility and a
greater degree of access
control

▪ Collector roadways provide

a balance between mobility Collectors
and land access

▪ Local facilities provide a

high level of access to
adjacent properties but a
low level of mobility
Local Roads
15
Mobility and Accessibility of Highway Facilities

▪ Arterials provide a high

level of mobility and a
greater degree of access
control

▪ Collector roadways provide

a balance between mobility
and land access

▪ Local facilities provide a

high level of access to
adjacent properties but a
low level of mobility
16
Hierarchy of Trip Movement

17
Trip Generation, Collection and Distribution

18
Mobility and Accessibility of Highway Facilities

Rural Highway
Network

Suburban
Highway
Network

Urban Street Network

19
Three Major Roadway Classes
and their functions:
◼ Arterial (high mobility, low access,
long trips, fast speeds)
◼ Collector (moderate, moderate,
moderate, moderate)
◼ Local (low, high, short, slow)

20
Roadway Functional Classes

◼ Determined by characteristics:
◼ Function
◼ access density
◼ traffic demands
◼ trip length
◼ expected speed

21
22
Freeway versus expressway

◼ The distinction between freeways and

expressway is based on the accessibility
control
◼ Freeways have a full control of access [access or
exit are permitted only at controlled locations (exit
ramp)]
◼ Expressways have a partial access control. (access
or exit are maybe permitted directly from or
adjacent land or via a limited number of at grade
intersections)

23
Rural road classification
Principal Arterials

◼ Function: Long distance Travel and

Connect urbanized areas
◼ Characteristics: Long trips, no stubs, high
speed, widely spaced, full/partial access
control
◼ Subclasses: Freeways, Other non-
Freeways with access control

24
Minor Arterials

◼ Function: connect small urban areas

with major trip generators
◼ Characteristics: Moderate everything
(routes, speed, spacing, mostly
mobility)

25
 Rural Collectors

◼ Major Collectors: Connect small twon to large towns

not served by arterials, link entities with nearby
arterials, urban areas
◼ Minor Collectors: Serve remaining small towns, link
local traffic generators with rural areas
◼ Characteristics: Shorter, Moderate Speeds (in rural
areas), Intermediate spacing

26
 Rural Local Roads

◼ Function: Provide access to land on collector

network, serve short distance travel
◼ Characteristics: Short routes that terminate at
higher classes, relatively low speeds,
intermediate spacing

27
28
 Urban Functional System
Principal Arterials
◼ Functions: carry most trips entering/leaving
urban area, serve intra-urban trips, carry
intra-urban and intercity bus routes, provide
continuity to rural arterials
◼ Characteristics: longest distance routes and
highest volume, high speed, spacing is less
than 1 km in CBD and greater than 8 km in
urban fringe, full/partial access control
◼ Subclasses: interstates, other freeways and
expressways, other principal arterials with
partial access control
29
30
 Urban Minor Arterials
◼ Functions: interconnect with and augment
principle arterials, accommodate moderate
length trips, distribute traffic, carry local
buses, provide intra-community continuity,
connect to urban collectors
◼ Characteristics: moderate trip length high
volumes, moderate speeds, spacing 0.2
to1.0 km in CBD and 3 to 5 km in suburbs

31
Urban Collectors

◼ Functions: Provide traffic circulation within

residential neighborhoods and
industrial/commercial areas, Collect traffic
from locals and channel to arterials, Carry
local buses, Provide some direct land access
◼ Characteristics: Shorter than minor arterials,
Moderate speeds, Spacing intermediate to
arterials, Penetrates residential
neighborhoods
◼ Subclasses: major and minor
32
Urban Locals

◼ Functions: Provide direct access to land,

Connect properties to higher class
streets (i.e., collectors)
◼ Characteristics: Short in length, Dead
end – terminate at collections, Low
speeds, No bus routes

33
34
35
36