JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SPORTS NUTRITION

2023, VOL. 20, NO. 1, 2267536

https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2023.2267536

Effect of single or combined caffeine and L-Theanine

supplementation on shooting and cognitive performance in
elite curling athletes: a double-blind, placebo-controlled
study
Umut Yilmaza, Yusuf Buzdagli b, Muhammed Lütfü Polatc, Yusuf Bakirc,
Burak Ozhancic, Sena Alkazanc and Halil Ucard
a
Hakkâri University, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Education, Hakkâri, Turkey;
b
Erzurum Technical University, Department of Coaching Education, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Erzurum,
Turkey; cErzurum Technical University, Institute of Health Sciences, Erzurum, Turkey; dAtatürk University,
Institute of Winter Sports and Sport Sciences, Erzurum, Turkey

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Purpose: Previous studies have investigated the effect of single or Received 6 August 2023
combined caffeine (CAF) and L-theanine (THE) intake on attention Accepted 3 October 2023
performance. However, its effect on shooting performance and KEYWORDS
cognitive performance in a sport is unknown. The aim of this Caffeine; L-Theanine; curling;
study was to investigate the hypothesis “Does single or combined cognitive performance
CAF and THE supplementation have an effect on shooting and
cognitive performance in elite curling athletes?.” It is predicted
that over the next decade, studies based on nutritional ergogenic
supplements in the developing sport of curling will continue to
increase, leading to a significant increase in studies examining the
effects of CAF and THE supplementation, alone or in combination,
on throwing and cognitive performance in elite curling athletes.
Methods: In this double-blind, randomized controlled crossover
study, twenty-two elite national curling athletes (age 20.20 ± 1.61
and sports age 6.20 ± 0.51 years, height 174.10 ± 7.21 cm, BMI
21.80 ± 3.47 kg/m2) were randomly assigned to CAF (6 mg/kg single
dose CAF), THE (6 mg/kg single dose THE), CAF*THE (6 mg/kg CAF
and 6 mg/kg THE combined) and PLA (400 mg maltodextrin) groups
at each of four sessions. 60 minutes after taking the supplement,
the athletes were first given the Stroop test and then asked to
shoot.
Results: Our main findings have shown that the performance of
athletes in guard (F=3.452, P < .001, ηp2 = .842), draw (F=1.647, P < .001,
ηp2 = .485), and take-out (F=3.121, P < .001, ηp2 = .743) shot styles sig­
nificantly improved when comparing the combined intake of CAF and
THE to the PLA. Regarding cognitive performance evaluation through
the Stroop test, during the NR task (F=4.743, P = .001, ηp2 = .653), the
combined intake of CAF and THE significantly improved reaction times

CONTACT Yusuf Buzdagli yusuf.buzdagli@erzurum.edu.tr Faculty of Sports Sciences, Erzurum Technical

University, Floor1 Room No:140, Yakutiye 25500, Erzurum
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted
Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
880 U. YILMAZ ET AL.

compared to the intake of single CAF, THE, or PLA. The best reaction
times during the CR and ICR (respectively; F=2.742, P = .004, ηp2 = .328;
F = 1.632, P < .001, ηp2 = .625) tasks were achieved with the combined
CAF and THE intake, showing a significant improvement compared to
PLA. During the NER (F=2.961, P < .001, ηp2 = .741), task, the combined
intake of CAF and THE significantly improved error rates compared to
the intake of CAF, THE, or PLA single. The best accuracy rates during
the CER and ICER (respectively; F=4.127, P < .001, ηp2 = .396; F=3.899, P
< .001, ηp2 = .710) tasks were achieved with the combined CAF and
THE intake, leading to a significant reduction in error rates compared
to PLA. Based on these findings, it has been demonstrated in this study
that the best shooting scores and cognitive performance were
achieved, particularly with the combined intake of CAF and THE.
Conclusions: Based on these findings, it has been demonstrated in
this study that the best shooting scores and cognitive performance
were achieved, particularly with the combined intake of CAF and
THE. The combined use of these supplements has been found to be
more effective on shooting and cognitive performance than their
single use.

1. Introduction
Curling is a team sport played on ice, characterized by competition and strategy. Despite
being perceived as slow-paced, this sport places great importance on physical skills and
precise shots [1]. This sport requires physical endurance, balance, coordination, and
delicate touch. As curling is played on an ice rink, having a stable stance and movement
skills are crucial [2]. However, the most distinct and significant feature of curling is the
great importance placed on precise shots. Shots must be made with the right speed,
angle, and trajectory. This relies on curling athletes’ abilities to make fine adjustments,
hand-eye coordination, and strategic thinking skills. Since each shot can influence the
team’s chances of winning, making the right shot at the right time provides a significant
advantage. Additionally, with long matches and consecutive shots, athletes must main­
tain their energy levels and concentration [3]. To succeed in curling, athletes must not
only have physical and shooting prowess but also maintain critical cognitive performance
levels. They must move harmoniously with their teammates, jointly plan strategies, and
swiftly execute decisions. This aspect is of paramount importance as it plays a crucial role
in their ability to succeed in curling.
In curling, cognitive performance plays a significant role in various aspects. Cognitive
performance is related to athletes’ mental processes, decision-making abilities, focus, and
strategic thinking skills. Athletes need to process information quickly, predict future
moves, and act in line with the team’s strategy. As curling is a team sport, the cognitive
performance of team members can significantly impact the team’s success [4]. With the
increasing popularity of this discipline worldwide, curling athletes have started using
various ergogenic supplements in competitions to enhance their cognitive and shooting
performance and gain an advantage over their competitors. However, it is not clear which
supplements athletes should use.
Caffeine (CAF) (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is among the most commonly used supple­
ments by athletes in all sports modalities [5–7]. Since caffeine was removed from the list of
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SPORTS NUTRITION 881

banned substances for sports in 2004, caffeine supplementation has reached a prevalence
rate of 76% among international competitive athletes [8]. The first studies investigating
the effects of caffeine on sports performance began to emerge in the 1970s. These studies
identified an improvement in time to exhaustion during endurance tests. Such ergogenic
effects have been attributed to increased lipolysis and preservation of muscle glycogen
[9]. Currently, the ergogenic capacity of caffeine is explained by its blocking effect on
adenosine receptors [10] A1, A2A, and A2B due to caffeine’s similar chemical structure to
adenosine [11]. By blocking adenosine receptors at the neuromuscular level [7], caffeine
enhances neuromuscular recruitment [12]. Additionally, caffeine enhances the Na+-K+
pump [13] and increases Ca2+ bioavailability in the myoplasm by inducing the release of
Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and inhibiting its reuptake [14], resulting in the
translocation of glycogen phosphorylase-b to its active form, glycogen phosphorylase-a
[15]. Furthermore, caffeine maximizes glycolytic activity through increased activity of
phosphofructokinase [16]. This suggests that caffeine has ergogenic effects in various
sports activities, with peak blood levels occurring after 60 minutes of caffeine supple­
mentation [12,17]. Studies examining this topic so far have focused primarily on the
physical performance benefits of caffeine, while its effects on cognitive performance
have received less attention. Considering the importance of cognitive performance as
a crucial factor in improving shooting performance for curling athletes, the need to
investigate the effects of this supplement on cognitive performance has been
highlighted.
L-theanine (THE) is an amino acid naturally found in green tea leaves [18]. In recent
years, the effects of THE on exercise performance have started to be investigated [19–21].
THE is known for its stress-reducing effects. It is believed to promote relaxation by
increasing serotonin, dopamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid levels in the brain. Due
to these effects, THE can enhance concentration and improve mental suitability [22,23].
For exercise performance, this means achieving a more focused mental state and higher
levels of concentration. THE also have the potential to reduce stress hormones such as
cortisol and adrenaline. Balancing cortisol levels with THE supplementation may lead to
improved endurance during exercise [24,25]. Additionally, it has been suggested that THE
can enhance the activation of alpha brain waves, promoting better focus and reducing
distraction during exercise [26–28]. However, more research is needed to fully understand
the effects of THE on exercise performance. There are currently a limited number of
studies on THE and exercise-related issues and results are inconsistent. Currently, there
are limited studies on this topic, and the results are inconsistent.
In conclusion, in curling, where cognitive performance and precise shots come
together, athletes’ mental processes, decision-making abilities, focus, and strategic think­
ing skills have a significant impact on winning the game. Considering the mechanisms to
enhance these abilities, the intake of single or combined CAF and THE is seen as
a promising supplement strategy. This study aims to investigate the effects of single or
combined CAF and THE supplementation on shooting and cognitive performance in elite
curling athletes. In this context, in order to evaluate whether CAF and THE supplementa­
tion single or combination have an effect on shooting and cognitive performance in elite
curling athletes, one hypothesis was formed to evaluate our main hypothesis. This
hypothesis was designed “CAF and THE supplementation single or combination has no
effect on shooting and cognitive performance in elite curling athletes.”
882 U. YILMAZ ET AL.

2. Method
2.1. Participants
Twenty-two elite Curling national team athletes (age: 20.20 ± 1.61 years, sports age: 6.20
± 0.51 years, height: 174.1 ± 7.21 cm, body mass: 66.6 ± 10.05 kg) participated in this
study. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (a) being over 18 years old, and (b) having
at least five years of experience as a competitive athlete in the national Curling team and
participating in national and international competitions. The exclusion criteria were as
follows: (a) consuming any substances within the last three months that could affect
hormone levels or sports performance, such as nutritional supplements or steroids, (b)
using stimulants, narcotics, and/or psychoactive substances during the testing or supple­
mentation phase, and (c) identifying any orthopedic, neurological, cardiovascular, pul­
monary, or metabolic conditions that could impair performance in various tests. Before
filling out the informed consent form, participants were provided with information about
the research protocol, timeline, and the types of exercises and assessments they needed
to complete. All protocols and procedures were conducted in accordance with the
Helsinki Declaration.

2.2. Study design

This study was designed as a double-blind, randomized, crossover trial. A total of five
experimental trial sessions were conducted, including exercise sessions and anthropo­
metric measurements. The experimental trials consisted of separate sessions for CAF,
THE, the combination of CAF and THE (CAF*THE), and placebo (PLA).To prevent bias
resulting from circadian rhythm interference associated with supplement intake, parti­
cipants attended four sessions within a 72-hour window at the same time frame (±0.5
hours) [7,29]. During each of the four sessions, participants were randomly given one of
the following supplements: PLA, CAF, THE, or CAF*THE. All test measurements were
performed between 9:00 and 11:00 a.m., with randomly assigned participants at the
same time three days apart. Before starting the tests, the ice surface was prepared for
shots by a trained ice technician. The evaluation of shot performance was done without
the sweeping effect. Before each session, a neuro-psychological test called the Stroop
test was conducted to assess cognitive performance. Subsequently, the athletes per­
formed Guard, Draw, and Take-out shots sequentially, with one-minute intervals
between each type of shot. In each shot style, athletes made eight shots with 30-
second intervals between each shot.

2.3. Supplementation protocol

The dosages were determined using a sensitive analog scale (EJ-303 Precision Scale,
External Calibration 310 g × 0.001 g) and all supplements were given as powder. The
compounds were dissolved in 500 ml of tap water after being placed in unidentifiable
containers. Maltodextrin in the PLA was 400 mg, but the amounts in the CAF, THE, and
CAF*THE groups were 6 mg/kg. The doses were calculated using a sensitive analog scale
and all supplements were provided in powder form. After being placed in
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SPORTS NUTRITION 883

Figure 1. Experimental representation of the test protocol.

indistinguishable containers, the compounds were swallowed with 500 ml of tap water.
The PLA contained 400 mg of maltodextrin, while the CAF, THE, and CAF*THE groups
contained 6 mg/kg of CAF and 6 mg/kg of THE (Figure 1).
All supplements were provided by the same company (My Protein, Manchester, United
Kingdom). The supplements were taken 60 minutes before the start of the experimental
session. The dosage of CAF was selected based on the recommendations of the
International Society of Sports Nutrition [30]. The dosage of THE was chosen due to its
characteristic dosage found in green tea, which is already available in the market [31]. The
60-minute window was selected to allow direct comparisons with previous research and
to generally reflect the highest plasma presence of both THE [32] and CAF [30].
Furthermore, the consumption of coffee, tea, and stimulant medications was limited
up to 48 hours before the experimental session to prevent potential interactions with
supplement elimination. To ensure this, a list was prepared for participants, advising them
to avoid caffeine-rich foods and beverages such as coffee, tea, mate, energy drinks, soft
drinks, chocolate beverages, and chocolate.

Figure 2. Positional display and scoring of shots.

884 U. YILMAZ ET AL.

2.4. Stroop Test

The Stroop test is a neuropsychological test that reflects frontal lobe activity. In this test, it
has been discovered that saying the names of objects or colors takes longer than reading
words associated with them, and this phenomenon is referred to as the “Stroop interfer­
ence effect” [33]. The Stroop task consists of three categories: neutral, congruent, and
incongruent. Participants were asked to press the “←” or “→” arrow key on a keyboard with
their right index and ring fingers. Reaction times and error rates were measured. The Stroop
task consisted of 3 blocks with 30 neutral, 30 congruent, and 30 incongruent trials in total.
Baseline measurements were taken for 30 seconds at the beginning and end of the task.
The stimuli remained on the screen until a response was made or until 2000 ms elapsed.
The stimuli were presented at intervals of 1000 ms. Responses were given within 200 to
2000 ms after the presentation of the stimulus was considered acceptable. Responses that
did not fall within this time range (i.e. 200–2000 ms) and responses where the participant
pressed the wrong color button were considered incorrect. All words were written in
Turkish characters. The Stroop task was designed using Psychtoolbox in MATLAB 2018.

2.5. Guard shot

The Guard shot is a strategic technique in curling where a stone is positioned in the Free
Guard Zone (FGZ) without touching the scoring area to set up the game. The FGZ consists
of four regions. Athletes were given 5 minutes for warm-up and familiarization with the
ice before the shot performance. To evaluate the shot performance, a total of 8 shots were
made into the designated 4 regions. The scoring for the shots is as follows: 1st region − 4
points, 2nd region − 3 points, 3rd region − 2 points, 4th region − 1 point, and stones that
remained outside the designated areas were not scored (Figure 2).

2.6. Draw shot

The Draw shot is a technique in curling where the stone is aimed directly toward the
center of the house. The main objective of this shot is to make the closest shot to the
center of the house and accumulate the highest possible score. The scoring for the shots
is as follows: shots to the center of the house − 4 points, shots to the four-foot circle − 3
points, shots to the eight-foot circle − 2 points, shots to the twelve-foot circle − 1 point,
and stones that remained outside the designated areas were not scored (Figure 2).

2.7. Take out shot

The Take-out shot is performed to remove the opponent’s stones from play by
pushing them out of the playing area. In the study, a stone was positioned at the
center of the house, and the athletes’ goal was to hit this stone and either keep it
at the center of the house or place it with minimal deviation. The scoring for the
shots is as follows: shots to the center of the house − 4 points, shots to the four-
foot circle − 3 points, shots to the eight-foot circle − 2 points, shots to the twelve-
foot circle − 1 point, and stones that remained outside the designated areas were
not scored (Figure 2).
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SPORTS NUTRITION 885

3. Familiarization
Each participant in this study was carefully selected. Due to their elite athlete status,
participants were already familiar with the protocols of guard, draw, and take-out
shots. However, to ensure no issues arose, all participants were informed about the
practice/trial process and the cognitive performance tests and shots that would be
performed. Subsequently, three days before the start of the experimental sessions, all
participants took part in a familiarization session where the test protocols were
explained to them. This way, they became acquainted with the procedures and trial
process beforehand. A pre-determined, visually illustrated experimental flowchart was
created for this study.

3.1. Statistical analyses

The mean and standard deviation (SD) of the data are presented. To ascertain whether all
the acquired variables displayed a normal distribution, the Shapiro-Wilk test was applied.
Repeated measurements were conducted using an analysis of variance over time
(ANOVA-RM). Using the Mauchly test, Greenhouse-Geiser corrections for asymmetric
distributions were assessed, and Bonferroni corrections were used for post hoc compar­
isons. 0.25, 0.26–0.63, and > 0.63 were determined as the small, medium, and large effect
sizes, respectively, for the ANOVA-RM, according to the partial eta squared calculation
[34]. IBM Corp., Armonk, New York, USA, provided the IBM SPSS Statistics for 25.0 for use in
the tests. P 0.05 was used as the significant level. These images were produced by the
applications GraphPad (10.0.2, Windows and Mac), and Biorender (GraphPad, San Diego,
CA, USA; accessible at: https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/randomize1.cfm and
https://www.biorender.com/accessed on 1 July 2023). These images were produced by
the applications GraphPad and Biorender (GraphPad, San Diego, USA; accessible at:
https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/randomize1.cfm).

4. Results
This study examined the effects of PLA, CAF, THE, and CAF*THE supplements on cognitive
performance and shot performance in elite curling athletes. The obtained data were
presented using tables and graphs.
The minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation values of the participants’
characteristics are shown in Table 1.
Supplement of different conditions between repeated measures one-way ANOVA,
as a result of guard shot (score) (F=3.452, P < .001, ηp2 = .842), draw shot (score) (F=1.647,
P < .001, ηp2 = .485), and take out shot (score) (F=3.121, P < .001, ηp2 = .743) revealed
a statistically significant difference in the variables (Table 2).
A one-way ANOVA test was applied to evaluate repeated measurements of different
supplementation protocols. As a result, NR (ms) (F=4.743, P = .001, ηp2 = .653), CR (ms)
(F=2.742, P = .004, ηp2 = 0.328), ICR (ms) (F=1.632, P < .001, ηp2 = .625), NER (error rate)
(F=2.961, P < .001, ηp2 = .741), CER (error rate) (F=4.127, P < .001, ηp2 = .396) and ICER (error
rate) (F=3.899, P < .001, ηp2 = .710) revealed a statistically significant difference in the
variables (Table 3).
886 U. YILMAZ ET AL.

Table 1. Characteristics of the participants.

Variables Mean ± SD Min-Max
Age (years) 20.20 ± 1.61 18–22
Sports age (years) 6.20 ± 0.51 5–8
Height (cm) 174.10 ± 7.21 160–178
Body mass (kg) 66.60 ± 10.05 58–79
BMI (kg/m2) 21.80 ± 3.47 18–25
Fat mass (%) 8.42 ± 5.12 5.9–25.5
Muscle mass (%) 91.58 ± 6.23 74.5–94.1
Abbreviations: BMI: Body mass index.

Table 2. Shooting points of curling athletes.

PLA CAF THE CAF*THE
Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD F P ηp 2
Guard Shot (score) 1.40 ± 2.22 14.10 ± 4.25 15.10 ± 3.90 18.10 ± 3.44* 3.452 <.001 .842
Draw Shot (score) 14.30 ± 5.16 18.50 ± 3.27 18.50 ± 5.33 24.70 ± 6.09* 1.647 <.001 .485
Take Out Shot (score) 14.20 ± 5.43 21.70 ± 4.27* 24.00 ± 4.52* 26.70 ± 5.51* 3.121 <.001 .743
Abbreviations: PLA: placebo, CAF: caffeine, THE: L-Theanine, mean±SD: mean±standard deviation, ηp2: partial eta square
coefficient, *: Significantly different according to PLA values (P < .05).

Table 3. Reaction times and error rates were obtained from measurements under different conditions.
PLA CAF THE CAF*THE
Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD F P ηp 2
NR (ms) 83.60 ± 11.52 741.00 ± 150.66 761.50 ± 113.87 568.50 ± 113.18*#Ϯ 4.743 <.001 .653
CR (ms) 72.00 ± 129.18 624.00 ± 114.81 616.00 ± 108.95 527.50 ± 122.27* 2.742 .004 .328
ICR (ms) 1025.00 ± 122.24 889.00 ± 160.51 902.50 ± 144.05 778.00 ± 144.89* 1.632 <.001 .625
NER (error rate) 9.20 ± 3.49 6.90 ± 1.85 7.40 ± 2.11 4.20 ± 2.34*#Ϯ 2.961 <.001 .741
CER (error rate) 6.00 ± 1.56 4.00 ± 2.21 4.20 ± 1.93 2.40 ± 1.07* 4.127 <.001 .396
ICER (error rate) 11.70 ± 3.52 7.30 ± 2.54 7.90 ± 2.18 5.30 ± 2.79* 3.899 <.001 .710
Abbreviations: PLA: placebo, CAF: caffeine, THE: L-Theanine, NR: Neutral reaction, CR: Congruent reaction, ICR:
Incongruent reaction, NER: Neutral error rate, CER: Congruent error rate, ICER: Incongruent error rate, mean±SD:
mean±standard deviation, ηp2: partial eta square coefficient, *: Significantly different according to PLA values (P < .05),
#
: Significantly different according to CAF values (P < .05), Ϯ: Significantly different according to THE values (P <0.05).

5. Discussion
This study is the first to investigate the effects of individual and combined caffeine (CAF)
and theanine (THE) intake on cognitive and shooting performance in elite curling athletes
and to evaluate the impact of CAF and THE supplementation in curling. Our main findings
have shown that the performance of athletes in guard, draw, and take-out shot styles
significantly improved when comparing the combined intake of CAF and THE to the PLA.
Additionally, while an increase in performance was observed in guard and draw shots
with individual CAF and THE intake compared to PLA, this increase was not significant.
However, a significant difference in shooting performance was observed when comparing
individual CAF and THE intake to PLA in the take-out shot style. Regarding cognitive
performance evaluation through the Stroop test, during the NR task, the combined intake
of CAF and THE significantly improved reaction times compared to the intake of CAF, THE,
or PLA single. The best reaction times during the CR and ICR tasks were achieved with the
combined CAF and THE intake, showing a significant improvement compared to PLA
(Figure 3). During the NER task, the combined intake of CAF and THE significantly
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SPORTS NUTRITION 887

Figure 3. PLA: placebo, CAF: caffeine, THE: L-Theanine, NR: neutral reaction, CR: congruent reaction,
ICR: incongruent reaction. Stroop task accuracy (ms) in different supplement conditions. *: significantly
different according to PLA values, #: significantly different according to CAF values, Ϯ: significantly
different according to the values (P < .05).

improved error rates compared to the intake of CAF, THE, or PLA single. The best accuracy
rates during the CER and ICER tasks were achieved with the combined CAF and THE
intake, leading to a significant reduction in error rates compared to PLA (Figure 4). Based
on these findings, it has been demonstrated in this study that the best shooting scores
and cognitive performance were achieved, particularly with the combined intake of CAF
and THE.
For curling athletes to be successful, whether as part of a team or individually, it
is crucial to maintain their shooting performance throughout the competition. In
long-duration curling matches, it is essential to preserve the decline in physical
parameters that may occur due to fatigue and, most importantly, ensure the sustain­
ability of cognitive performance, including decision-making abilities, focus,

Figure 4. PLA: placebo, CAF: caffeine, THE: L-Theanine, NER: neutral error rate, CER: congruent error
rate, ICER: incongruent error rate. Stroop task accuracy (error rate) in different supplement conditions.
*: significantly different according to PLA values, #: significantly different according to CAF values,
Ϯ: significantly different according to the values (P < .05).
888 U. YILMAZ ET AL.

concentration, and strategic thinking. Cognitive performance is a fundamental ele­

ment for success in curling. As a result, the use of nutritional supplements that
directly impact these processes forms the unique nature of this study. These supple­
ments aim to support and sustain cognitive abilities, which play a critical role in
curling achievement.
In the current study, the most significant improvement in shooting scores and
cognitive performance was observed after the combined intake of CAF and THE.
When reviewing the literature, no previous studies were found that specifically
evaluated the effects of CAF and THE supplementation on shooting and cognitive
performance in any sport, including curling. Therefore, conducting a sport-specific
evaluation becomes challenging. However, previous research has reported
improvements in cognitive levels with the intake of CAF and THE, indicating
their potential positive effects on cognitive performance [19,24,35–38]. Caffeine
intake is based on the idea that it inhibits the release of inhibitory neurotransmit­
ters like adenosine and dopamine (an excitatory neurotransmitter) in the brain. The
antagonistic effects of caffeine can lead to the release of excitatory neurotransmit­
ters, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, which can result in central ergogenic
effects. The rationale for caffeine use is that it prevents the brain from releasing
inhibitory neurotransmitters like adenosine and dopamine, which is an excitable
neurotransmitter. Caffeine’s antagonistic actions may cause the release of excita­
tory neurotransmitters including dopamine and norepinephrine, which may have
ergogenic effects in the brain [7]. Accordingly, caffeine supplementation is thought
to promote a more positive mood [39,40], increase alertness, and reduce feelings
of fatigue [41,42]. These effects can be considered beneficial for athletes engaging
in sports with high physical and cognitive demands. In the current study, caffeine
intake resulted in higher shooting scores compared to the placebo, along with
faster reaction times and higher accuracy rates in cognitive performance. In various
studies, caffeine has been reported to have positive effects on response times in
tests such as the Stroop test and rapid visual information processing, as well as
improving word learning speed and delayed recall when administered before or
during exercise. Athletes who compete in high-demand physical and mental sports
might benefit from these impacts. Caffeine consumption in the current study led to
higher shooting scores as compared to the placebo, as well as quicker response
times and greater rates of cognitive performance accuracy. Caffeine has been
shown in several studies to improve word learning speed and delayed recall
when taken before or during exercise, as well as response speeds in tests like
the Stroop test and quick visual information processing [43,44]. Additionally, caf­
feine has been shown to improve reaction time, accuracy, and willingness to put
physical effort into exercise [45]. It is seen that the findings we obtained with
caffeine supplementation are similar to the literature.
The intake of THE supplementation has been suggested as a neuroprotective and
cognitive-enhancing supplement [46]. Both peripherally and centrally administered THE
has been shown to have effects on the brain [47,48], modulating monoamine levels in the
central nervous system [49,50] and neurotransmissions of glutamate and glycine [51,52].
Furthermore, it has been reported that THE affects hippocampal synaptic plasticity and
enhances cognitive performance. Additionally, THE is said to influence hippocampus
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SPORTS NUTRITION 889

synaptic plasticity and improve cognitive function [53,54]. In behavioral experiments, THE
has also been suggested to exhibit anti-stress or antidepressant-like effects [55,56]. These
effects have been associated with an increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor
expression in the hippocampus [57]. Additionally, THE’s anxiolytic effects have been
observed to enhance hippocampal activity [58]. Moreover, studies have indicated that
THE supplementation modulates alpha activity and plays a significant role in tasks
requiring attention in electroencephalogram studies [59,60]. Furthermore, THE has been
reported to have beneficial effects on mental state [61], including sleep quality [62].
However, based on our knowledge, only acute effects of THE have been investigated in
healthy individuals. THE’s anti-stress effects (200 mg/day) have been observed following
both once-daily [63,64] and twice-daily [65] administrations, while attention-enhancing
effects were observed with four separate daily administrations of 100 mg/day [66].
Furthermore, a single administration of 200 mg/day was supported by decreased
responses in functional magnetic resonance imaging. Furthermore, reduced responses
in functional magnetic resonance imaging were maintained by a single dosage of 200
mg/day [67]. In terms of cognitive function, there are studies in the literature that suggest
THE may cause performance decrements when administered single [62,68] or have no
effect [69,70]. This circumstance indicates that regardless of the population or the
application, it will not have a good effect. In this study, THE consumption led to greater
shooting scores as compared to the placebo, as well as quicker response times and better
cognitive performance accuracy rates. This situation predicts that it does not have
a positive effect depending on the population or the application. In this study, THE intake
resulted in higher shooting scores compared to the placebo, along with faster reaction
times and higher accuracy rates in cognitive performance.
Several randomized controlled trials have reported improvements in cognitive perfor­
mance by examining the acute effects of the CAF and THE combination of different
aspects of cognitive functions [68,70–73]. The conducted studies and our findings have
shown similar results, but it is evident that there is limited information in the literature
regarding the sole supplementation of THE and its combined use with CAF. In contrast to
our findings, some studies have also demonstrated that THE may antagonize the physio­
logical effects of CAF [74,75]. In a meta-analysis study, Camfield, Stough [32], analyzed the
effects of the Theanine-Caffeine combination on various subjective and objective mea­
sures of attention during the first two hours after administration. The authors reported
a significant effect of the CAF*THE combination in improving subjective measures of
alertness and attentional switching, as well as the accuracy of visual and auditory atten­
tion. Compared to the PLA, increases in shooting and cognitive performance were
observed with both CAF and THE intake. However, the most notable and significant
improvements were observed during the combined intake of CAF and THE. The under­
lying mechanisms of the reported effects in the context of this study are not well under­
stood. At the neurochemical level, both CAF and THE are believed to directly or indirectly
affect various neurotransmitter systems, including dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and
GABA. However, as far as we know, the effects of the CAF*THE combination have not been
investigated at the receptor level. Further research is needed to uncover the exact
mechanisms underlying the effects of CAF*THE combination intake.
Compared to PLA, the CAF*THE combination has proven to be the most effective
supplement strategy for improving shooting and cognitive performance in curling
890 U. YILMAZ ET AL.

athletes. THE uptake appears to exert its effects primarily through glutamatergic mechan­
isms [76]. It acts as a glutamate reuptake inhibitor in the hippocampus and functions as
a competitive low-affinity glutamate receptor antagonist [46,76]. On the other hand, CAF
intake inhibits adenosine receptors (types A1 and A2A) in the brain, increasing dopami­
nergic and cholinergic transmission [7,32]. Consequently, the combined intake of
CAF*THE improved cognitive performance by improving athletes’ mental processes,
decision-making abilities, focus, and strategic thinking, ultimately contributing signifi­
cantly to shooting performance. It is believed that exploiting its synergistic effects may be
an appropriate ergogenic strategy, as neither CAF nor THE single shows more improve­
ment compared to their combined intake.

6. Conclusions
The analysis of the available data supports the first prediction. Breakthroughs in targeted
nutritional interventions and individualized intervention plans in our study on ergogenic
supplementation in curling will pave the way for more precise and effective nutritional
supplementation interventions. In conclusion, our current study demonstrated that CAF
and THE supplementation single or combination significantly improved shooting and
cognitive performance in elite curling athletes. The data largely support the hypothesis,
confirming that the intake of CAF and THE supplements single or combination indeed
leads to a significant improvement in curling and is in line with the expectations stated in
the initial prediction. While using these supplements alone was effective, it was not more
effective than using them together. Sports scientists and nutritionists may recommend
the combined use of CAF*THE in sports disciplines such as archery and curling where
shooting and cognitive performance are important. The experimental techniques used in
this study may also be recommended for use in other sports disciplines, such as curling,
where successful shooting depends on accuracy and cognitive function.
Combining 6 mg/kg CAF and 6 mg/kg THE consumption increased curling compe­
titors’ shooting and mental performance. Although using these supplements single
was effective, using them together was not more effective. Sports scientists and
nutritionists may advise utilizing CAF*THE combined in sports disciplines such as
archery and curling, where shooting and cognitive performance are crucial. The
experimental techniques used in this study may be advised for use in other sporting
disciplines, such as curling, where successful throws depend on accuracy and cognitive
function. In this context, in order to evaluate whether CAF and THE supplementation
single or combination have an effect on throwing and cognitive performance in elite
curling athletes, one hypothesis was formed to evaluate our main hypothesis. This
hypothesis was constructed as “CAF and THE supplementation single or combination
has no effect on throwing and cognitive performance in elite curling athletes.” As
a result of the study findings, this H0 hypothesis was rejected and the H1 hypothesis,
“CAF and THE supplementation single or combination has an effect on throwing and
cognitive performance in elite curling athletes.” was accepted. Combined intake of 6
mg/kg CAF and 6 mg/kg THE improved shooting and cognitive performance in curling
athletes. While it was effective to use these supplements separately, it was not more
effective than taking them in combination. In sports branches where shooting and
cognitive performance are at the forefront (archery, curling), sports scientists and
 JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SPORTS NUTRITION 891

dietitians may recommend using CAF*THE together. The experimental procedures

employed in this study can also be recommended for other sports disciplines, such
as curling, where accurate throws are crucial, and cognitive performance plays
a significant role in achieving success.

7. Limitations
The limited number of studies on cognitive function and shooting performance in curling
athletes and especially the fact that THE supplementation has been little studied in
previous studies were difficulties in the evaluation of the findings. In addition, the fact
that there is a limitation in finding a large number of participants due to the developing
curling sport is one of the other limitations of this study. In future studies, the limited
literature can be supported by focusing on these supplements in different branches or
with large participants.

Acknowledgments
As the authors, we would like to thank the athletes of the Turkish National Team and Kuzey Yamacı
FC and their coaches who participated in the measurements.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Funding
This research received no external funding. Institutional Review Board Statement The study was
conducted by the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Erzurum Atatürk University Ethics
Committee [E-70400699-060.10.06-3200456396].

ORCID
Yusuf Buzdagli http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1809-5194

Author contributions
“Conceptualization, U.Y., and Y.Buz.; methodology, U.Y., and Y.Buz.; software, Y.B; validation, Y.Buz.,
and M.L.P.; formal analysis, Y.Buz.; investigation, U.Y., and M.L.P.; resources, B.O and S.A.; data
curation, B.O. and S.A.; writing – original draft preparation, U.Y., and Y.B.; writing – review and
editing, U.Y., and H.U.; visualization, Y.Buz.; supervision, Y.Buz.; project administration, U.Y.; investi­
gation and writing, U.Y., and H.U. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
892 U. YILMAZ ET AL.

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