i An update to this article is included at the end

Energy 77 (2014) 871e879

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Performance study of a packed bed in a closed loop thermal energy

storage system
Lei Chai, Liang Wang, Jia Liu, Liang Yang, Haisheng Chen*, Chunqing Tan
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In order to reduce the cost of thermal energy recovery, a packed bed closed loop thermal energy storage
Received 21 November 2013 system has been proposed and is investigated. The main components of the system include a closed air
Received in revised form cycle, a heat exchanger, and a packed bed storage column. This paper is aimed at analyzing the per-
22 September 2014
formance of the packed bed in the system. Packed bed column experiments have been carried out to
Accepted 27 September 2014
provide a basic understanding of the thermal energy storage process in the closed loop system with
Available online 23 October 2014
different flow directions in the packed bed and different energy storage temperatures. The detailed
temperature distributions in the interior of the packed bed and the temperature differences along the
Keywords:
Thermal energy
axial and radial directions are presented. The influence of flow direction within the packed bed and
Packed bed structure of the gas distributer on the temperature distribution are also analyzed. The performance of
Closed loop packed beds in the closed loop thermal energy storage system is then evaluated based on energy and
Energy efficiency exergy analyses. These experimental results would be useful in the optimal design of the structure of
Exergy efficiency packed bed columns and thus closed loop thermal energy storage systems.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In energy systems, where a temporal difference exists between
the supply of energy and its utilization, thermal energy storage is
necessary to ensure the continuity of many thermal processes, and
is of particular interest and significance in solar thermal applica-
tions [1,2]. Thermal energy storage systems are classified into three
types: sensible heat storage, latent heat storage, and thermo
chemical heat storage. Among the three types of thermal energy
storage, sensible heat storage is the most simple and inexpensive.
Although phase change energy storage has a few advantages over
sensible heat storage, the technological and economic aspects of
sensible heat storage make it superior [2,3]. Sensible heat storage
systems commonly use rocks, water, oil, or salt as the storage
medium and are available for short and long-term storage [4]. For a
material to be useful in a sensible heat energy storage application, it
must be inexpensive and have a good thermal capacity. In addition
to the density and specific heat of the storage material, other
properties key to sensible heat storage include: operational tem-
peratures, thermal conductivity and diffusivity, vapor pressure,
chemical compatibility of the materials, stability, heat loss
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 10 82543148.
E-mail address: chen_hs@iet.cn (H. Chen).
coefficient as a function of the surface area to volume ratio, and cost
[5e7].
Herrmann [5] and Hasnain [8] reviewed the development of
available sensible heat energy storage materials and techniques.
Sensible heat storage is divided into two classifications based on
heat storage media: liquid media storage (such as water, oil based
fluids, molten salts etc.), and solid media storage (such as rocks,
metals and others). In liquid media storage, water has a higher
specific heat than other materials, and while it is cheap and widely
available, it cannot be used above 100
C due to its high vapor
pressure. Silicone oil is quite expensive, though it does have the
environmental benefit of being a non-hazardous material while
synthetic oils usually fall under the hazardous materials classifi-
cation. And the expense would decrease significantly by the oil/
pack bed system. Mawire [9] experimentally measured the volu-
metric heat transfer coefficient between oil and glass pebbles. At
present, molten salt is considered a mature energy storage tech-
nology with well understood costs. Unfortunately, the costs for a
molten salt thermal energy storage system are still high. Moreover,
molten salt is highly corrosive and can be difficult to contain at high
temperatures; an important factor as utilities tend to be notoriously
reticent when it comes to investing in high risk projects [10,11]. In
addition, molten salt generally has a higher melting point, and
parasitic heating is required to keep it liquid at night, during low
insolation periods, or during plant shutdowns. In solid media

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.09.073
0360-5442/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
872 L. Chai et al. / Energy 77 (2014) 871e879
storage, rock is a good sensible heat storage material due to its wide
available temperature range, good mechanical properties, long
term stability under thermal cycling, compatibility with its
containment and, most importantly, low cost. Difficulties such as
the high vapor pressure of water and the limitations of other liquids
can be avoided by storing thermal energy as sensible heat in rocks.
Moreover, solids do not leak from their container [12].
Kelly [13] studied the thermal storage commercial plant design
of two-tank indirect molten salt systems and found that the costs of
two tank systems were dominated by the salt expense, which could
account for as much as 49% of the system's capital cost. In order to
reduce the cost of two-tank storage systems, several schemes
involving stratification in liquid tanks and packed beds have been
proposed [14e16]. In these storage systems, the molten salt flows
uniformly through the packed bed made up of randomly packed
particles, and then through a recovery operation. Considering the
potential for further cost reductions, we propose a closed loop
thermal energy storage system with a rock packed bed substituted
for the molten salt solar energy storage system. In the newly pro-
posed storage system, air is used as an intermediate heat transfer
fluid, and distributes the energy transferred from the primary HTF
(heat transfer fluid) throughout the storage volume at low veloc-
ities with the advantages of low expense (much lower cost of
thermal storage material), less pump power of HTF and high reli-
ability (no corrosion and blockage under low temperatures). In this
paper, we will begin with a brief description of the process using
the closed loop thermal energy storage system in the next section
and then examine the more comprehensive experimental infor-
mation regarding the temperature field of the interior of the packed
bed. Lastly, energy and exergy analyses are performed based on the
experiment's results, investigating the performance of the packed
bed.
2. Description of closed loop thermal energy storage system
with rock packed bed
The design of the thermal energy storage system under
investigation is described in Fig. 1(a). This figure shows the closed
Fig. 1. Thermal energy storage system: (a) closed loop, (b) Packed bed.
air cycle, the heat exchanger, and the packed bed storage column
as the three main components of the newly proposed storage
system. In the closed air cycle, the air is circulated by a centrifugal
fan to absorb the heat from the heat exchanger and carry the heat
into the packed bed storage column. The centrifugal fan with
frequency converter is used to adjust the speed of the closed air
stream and to increase the pressure of the closed air stream to
preserve the circulation in the cycle. A plate-fin heat exchanger is
used to transfer the heat from the primary heat transfer fluid to
the closed air cycle. The plate-fin heat exchanger uses plates and
finned chambers to transfer heat between fluids and is often
categorized as a compact heat exchanger to emphasize its rela-
tively high heat transfer surface area to volume ratio. The packed
bed storage column provides efficient thermal storage due to its
high heat transfer effectiveness, which is also simple in design and
relatively inexpensive. When the hot air flows through the packed
bed, heat is stored in its pebbles. Direct contact between the
pebble and the closed air minimizes the cost of heat exchange
with the solid storage medium. Furthermore, the use of rocks for
thermal storage provides advantages such as being both non-toxic
and non-flammable, as well as acting as both heat transfer surface
and storage medium.
The packed bed storage set-up used in this newly proposed
storage system is shown in Fig. 1(b). The cylinder was made of
stainless steel, had an interior diameter of 800 mm, an external
diameter of 820 mm, and a height of 1500 mm. The cylinder must
both contain the storage material and prevent the loss of thermal
energy. In order to decrease the heat loss and heat absorption of the
stainless steel wall, 100 mm thick magnesium silicate wool was
wrapped around the internal and external wall of the cylinder. In
addition, both sides of the thermal insulation layer were coated
with silver paper to reduce the radiation heat loss. Thus, the final
interior diameter of the packed bed column (bed area) used to
contain the porous media was 600 mm. The granite pebbles,
serving as the thermal energy storage medium, were packed into
the cylinder in a random manner. The thermal energy was stored in
the packed bed by forcing heated air into the bed, and was utilized
again by recirculating the cooled air back into the heated bed.
 L. Chai et al. / Energy 77 (2014) 871e879 873

3. Experimental setup

In order to test the performance of the packed bed in the newly

proposed storage system described in Section 2, an experimental
setup has been designed and fabricated as shown in Fig. 2. In the
thermal energy storage system, dry air was used as the primary
heat transfer fluid and an electric heater was used to simulate the
solar air heater which absorbed energy from the solar radiation. In
the thermal energy charging process, the primary dry air was
drawn into a compressor, flowed through an electric heater at the
prescribed temperature, transferred the heat to the closed air cycle,
and was then discharged directly into the atmosphere through a
throttling valve after being measured for temperature, pressure,
and volume flow rate. In the closed loop air cycle, the heated air
from the heat exchanger flowed through the packed bed and
transferred the heat to the granite pebbles. The cooled air from the
packed bed was then drawn into the vacuum centrifugal blower
and got power for recirculation. In the thermal energy discharging
process, the electric heater was closed and the primary dry air Fig. 3. Transient axial temperature distribution with hot gas upwards and cold gas
maintained temperature at the atmospheric level. The dry air from downwards as Tin,ex ¼ 75
C.

the electric heater flowed into the heat exchangers in the opposite
direction of the charging process, absorbed the heat from the closed
thermal energy storage cylinder. The Pt100 platinum-thermal re-
air cycle, and was then discharged directly into the atmosphere
sistors had an accuracy of ±0.1
C in the 200
C to 450
C range.
after being measured for temperature, pressure, and volume flow
The volumetric flow rates of the primary dry air and the closed loop
rate. In the closed loop air cycle, the direction of circulation of the
air were measured by two Collihigh vortex flow meters with a
closed air was in the opposite direction of the charging process. The
range of 36e320 m3/h and accuracy of ±1%. All gas flow rates and
cooled air from the heat exchanger was drawn into the vacuum
temperature signals were collected by a data acquisition system
centrifugal fan, got power for recirculation, flowed through and
(cDAQ, National Instruments) with four NI9203 series digital
absorbed the heat from the packed bed, and then transferred the
output and relay modules inside a PC.
heat to the primary dry air. In order to decrease heat loss to the
Prior to the performance study of the packed bed in the closed
surroundings, high quality heat insulation material was wrapped
loop thermal energy storage system, the thermal properties of the
around the heat exchanger, the electric heater, the tube down-
pebble in the packed bed were first measured. The average equiv-
stream of the electric heater, and the pipe of the closed loop.
alent diameter and specific surface area of the pebble analyzed by
The temperature profiles in the packed bed were measured with
the Germany Retsch Camsizer were 9 mm and 0.672 mm-1
Pt100 platinum-thermal resistors embedded at the proper loca-
respectively. The average pebble density was tested as 2688 kg/m3
tions as shown in Fig. 1(b). The top-most thermal resistor was
by a Mettler Toledo analytical balance. The relationship between
placed a distance of 188 mm below the top of the packed bed and
the specific heat capacity and temperature measured by the TA DSC
the bottom-most thermal resistor was placed a distance of 186 mm
Q2000 was as follows:
above the bottom of the packed bed, and the other thermal re-
sistors used in measuring the central axial temperature distribu-
cp ¼ 0:00248$T þ 0:691 (1)
tions were distributed at equal distances of 188 mm along the
height of the storage tank. For the radial temperature distributions, All the measured data points fell well within ±3% of the corre-
three thermal resistors were installed at equal distances of 150 mm lating equation.
in two planes at depths of 564 and 752 mm, respectively. Lastly, In the experiments, for better heat transfer characteristics, the
two thermal resistors were installed in the inlet and outlet of the heat exchanger adopted the counter flow style, the mass flux of the

Fig. 2. Experimental setup and apparatus.

874 L. Chai et al. / Energy 77 (2014) 871e879

primary heat transfer air and the closed loop air were both
133.55 kg/h. The gas inlet temperature of the heat exchanger (Tin,ex)
was set to 75, 110, and 145
C. The flow direction of the closed loop
air in the packed bed was either upwards or downwards.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Axial temperature profiles of the packed bed

By carefully placing thermal resistors in the interior of the

packed bed, detailed temperature distribution information is ob-
tained. In order to reduce the impact of heat absorption or release
due to the heat exchanger itself on the closed loop thermal energy
storage process, the heat exchanger was warmed up before the
charging process and cooled down before the discharging process.
Figs. 3 and 4 show the time evolutions of the axial temperature
profile at different axial positions in the packed bed with
Tin,ex ¼ 75
C. In the figures, the arrow indicates the flow direction
of the closed loop air in the packed bed: a solid black arrow in-
dicates the charging process, and a dashed red arrow indicates the
discharging process. The temperature difference between the
different axial positions at the initial stage of the charging process
results from the incomplete heat release of the previous dis-
charging process. For the charging and discharging processes, the
areas of the packed bed near the inlet quickly rise or drop in tem-
perature. However, with a different flow direction of the closed
loop air, the rate of temperature rise or drop and the final tem-
perature reached are different. This can be partially attributed to
the natural convection resulting from the motion of the air due to
density changes. The driving force for natural convection is buoy-
ancy, which leads to the presence of a proper acceleration such as
that arising from resistance to gravity or an equivalent force [17].
Therefore, hot gas flowing upwards and cold gas flowing down-
wards result in a higher flow velocity in the packed bed, while cold
gas flowing upwards and hot gas flowing downwards result in a
lower flow velocity in the packed bed. Thus, the rate of temperature
rise is greater when the hot gas flows upwards in the charging
process, and the rate of temperature drop is greater when the cold
gas flows downwards in the discharging process. From Figs. 3 and 4,
it can be observed that the temperature rise or drop occurs earlier
when the gas flows upwards than downwards. This can be mostly
attributed to the structure of the gas distributer. As shown in
Fig. 1(b), the distributer at the bottom is in direct contact with the
Fig. 5. Transient axial temperature difference for charging process as Tin,ex ¼ 75
C.
packed bed, resulting in a greater gas velocity at the center, while
the distributer at the top is separated from the packed bed,
improving the gas mixing effect and thus leading to a uniform
velocity distribution. Moreover, due to the natural convection, the
axial temperature is distributed more uniformly for the hot gas
upwards than downwards as the charging process finishes. As the
hot gas flows through the vacuum centrifugal fan, the heat loss to
the ambient atmosphere results in the drop in temperature of
several degrees for the hot gas flowing downwards in the charging
process, and as the cold gas flows through the vacuum centrifugal
fan, the compression heat leads to the rise in gas temperature of
several degrees.
To further illustrate the difference in temperature profile, Figs. 5
and 6 display the temperature difference between two adjacent
probes in the axial direction in the charging and discharging pro-
cesses, respectively, with Tin,ex ¼ 75
C. The temperature difference
is defined as DTxy ¼ Tx e Ty. As shown in Fig. 5, the temperature
differences increase with a steep gradient to their maximum and
decline with a slightly slower gradient to only slightly above the
original temperature difference. Along the hot gas flow direction,
the amplitude of temperature difference decreases gradually, but
the time interval becomes greater, with the changing trend being

Fig. 4. Transient axial temperature distribution with hot gas downwards and cold gas
upwards as Tin,ex ¼ 75
C. Fig. 6. Transient axial temperature difference for discharging process as Tin,ex ¼ 75
C.
 L. Chai et al. / Energy 77 (2014) 871e879 875

more apparent when the hot gas flows upwards than downwards.
These phenomena can be attributed to the thermal conduction of
the packed bed and the structure of the gas distributer. The thermal
conductivity of a packed bed is thus not merely a material property,
but depends on the flow and heat transfer conditions and the size
and shape of its particles as well [18]. Therefore, this property is
called ‘the effective thermal conductivity’, which contains the effect
of natural convection. When the hot or cold gas flows through the
packed bed, three regions take shape: a cold region, a hot region,
and a temperature gradient region. For the hot gas flowing upwards
case, the larger velocity resulting from the natural convection leads
to a larger Reynolds number and thus a higher forced convective
heat transfer coefficient, causing the temperature gradient region
to be thinner and the gradient larger. As the charging process
continues, in the presence of the temperature gradient, energy
transfer by conduction occurs in the direction of decreasing tem-
perature, and when the temperature gradient region becomes
thicker, the gradient becomes smaller and more gradual, and the
temperature difference decreases at a slightly slower rate. Fig. 7. Transient axial temperature distribution with hot gas upwards and cold gas
Furthermore, the structure of the distributer at the bottom better downwards as Tin,ex ¼ 110
C.
facilitates the temperature variation for the gas flowing upwards,
and as the variation tendency is in accord with that resulting from
natural convection in the charging progress, thus the changing hot gas flowing upwards and the cold gas flowing downwards
trend is more apparent in the hot gas flowing upwards than cases, the tendencies of temperature change at R ¼ 150 mm coin-
downwards case. In addition, mostly resulting from the natural cide closely with those at R ¼ 0; however, those at R ¼ 300 mm are
convection, the time for the charging process is shorter and the different. For the hot gas flowing upwards and the cold gas flowing
temperature difference along the axial direction becomes smaller downwards cases, the temperature at R ¼ 300 mm firstly changes
as the charging process finishes for the hot gas flowing upwards as the gas reaches it, but the overall temperature change is less than
case than downwards. As shown in Fig. 6, in the discharging pro- those at R ¼ 0 and 150 mm. As shown in Fig. 11, the direction of gas
cess, along the axial direction of cold gas flow, the amplitude of flow has significant influence on the transient radial temperature
temperature difference decreases gradually, and the time span profiles. For the hot gas flowing downwards and the cold gas
becomes larger, but the difference in trends between the gas flowing upwards cases, the temperatures at different radial loca-
flowing upwards and downwards cases is not pronounced. The tions change almost as soon as the gas reaches them, and, the rate
energy transfer by conduction with time results in the decline of of temperature decreases or increases, respectively, as the radius
the amplitude of temperature difference and the broadening of the increases. The above tendencies of temperature change can be
time span. For the cold gas flowing downwards case, the natural attributed to the combination of porosity distribution and the
convection results in a larger amplitude of temperature difference structure of the distributer. The disturbance of the statistical par-
and a narrower time span, but the structure of the distributer at the ticle arrangement adjacent to the wall creates a higher void fraction
top leads to a uniform velocity distribution, and thus limits the than that in the interior of the packed bed, according to the
above mentioned tendencies in contrast to those when the dis- experimental observations by Bey et al. [19] and Ding et al. [20].
tributer is at the bottom. For the cold gas flowing upwards case, This creates higher velocity conditions near the wall, which is of
while the effect of natural convection is weak, the structure of the importance to the local flow, heat, and mass transfer in this region
distributer at the bottom leads to a higher gas velocity at the center and thus leads to earlier temperature variation at R ¼ 300 mm
and results in a larger amplitude of temperature difference and a
narrower time span. Therefore, there is no significant difference
between the cold gas flowing upwards and downwards cases in the
discharging process.
The axial temperature profiles with respect to time for
Tin,ex ¼ 110 and 145
C are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. In
contrast with Fig. 3, where Tin,ex ¼ 75
C, while the variation ten-
dency of axial temperature is accordant, the rates of temperature
rise and drop differ. At higher energy storage temperatures, due to
the presence of a larger temperature gradient, a larger mass density
gradient arises and thus the natural convection has a more signif-
icant influence on the thermal energy storage process. Fig. 9 pre-
sents the temperature difference DT43 for different energy storage
temperatures. With an increase in energy storage temperature, the
axial temperature difference increases and the rate of temperature
rise and drop increases, but the time span of the temperature
gradient increases only slightly.

4.2. Radial temperature profiles inside the packed bed

The radial temperature profiles at L ¼ 564 and 752 mm for Fig. 8. Transient axial temperature distribution with hot gas upwards and cold gas
Tin,ex ¼ 75
C are shown in Figs. 10 and 11. As shown in Fig. 10, in the downwards as Tin,ex ¼ 145
C.
876
Fig. 9. Transient axial temperature difference as Tin,ex ¼ 75, 110, 145
C.
locations. As stated above, the effect of the distributer structure on
the temperature variation is another influencing factor resulting in
the different radial temperature profiles for the different directions
of gas flow. The difference in shape of the expansion geometry
leads to the different degree of fluctuation, attributed to the un-
steady nature of the jet, and the different contraction geometry
results in a different effect of the forward facing step [21,22].
To further illustrate the difference radial temperature profiles,
Figs. 12 and 13 display the temperature difference between two
radial adjacent probes for the charging and discharging cycles,
respectively, with Tin,ex ¼ 75
C. As shown in Fig. 12, as the hot gas
flows upwards, the DT3b and DT4d increase first and then decrease,
indicating that the isotherms in the interior of the packed bed are
convex, and that the convex arc becomes lower as the hot gas flows
upwards. Differing from the tendencies of DT3b and DT4d, DTba and
DTdc decrease first and then increase, which are resulted mostly
from the higher void fraction near the wall. As the charging process
finishes, the DT3b and DT4d are respectively larger than DTba and
DTdc, indicating that the isotherms in the interior of the packed bed
become flat, and that there is a heat diffusion process between the
packed bed and the insulation layer. For the hot gas flowing
downwards case, the main tendencies of temperature difference
Fig. 10. Transient radial temperature distribution with hot gas upwards and cold gas
downwards as Tin,ex ¼ 75
C.
L. Chai et al. / Energy 77 (2014) 871e879
Fig. 11. Transient radial temperature distribution with hot gas downwards and cold
gas upwards as Tin,ex ¼ 75
C.
are similar to those when the hot gas is flowing upwards. For
example, the DTba and DTdc decrease first and then increase under
the influence of higher void fractions near the wall, and the DT3b
and DT4d increase at first and then decrease. However, there are
some differences for different gas flow directions. For example,
DT3b and DT4d decrease more slowly than in the hot gas flowing
upwards case, and the minimum of DTba is smaller than that of DTdc,
indicating that the different structure of the distributer leads to a
different nature of jet and a different effect of the forward facing
step, and as such, different temperature and velocity profiles in the
packed bed. As shown in Fig. 13, in the discharging process, the
temperature difference profiles present more complexity, resulting
from not only the natural convection and the structure of the dis-
tributer, but also the residual temperature distribution from the
charging process. For the cold gas flowing downwards case, the hot
gas in the space between the distributer and the packed bed is
mixed by the cold gas and then pushed downwards, resulting in
DTba and DTdc decreasing noticeably at the beginning of the
discharge process. Then as the front of cold gas arrives, the DTba and
DTdc increase due to the higher velocity of the cold gas near the
wall. When the cold gas mainstream arrives, the isotherms change
gradually from convex to concave in the interior of the packed bed,
Fig. 12. Transient radial temperature difference for charging process as Tin,ex ¼ 75
C.
 L. Chai et al. / Energy 77 (2014) 871e879
Fig. 13. Transient radial temperature difference for discharging process as
Tin,ex ¼ 75
C.
and thus the temperature differences all decrease. For the cold gas
flowing upwards, the major difference in temperature difference
profile occurs at the beginning of the discharging process, which
has no the declining stage, resulting from the different structure of
the distributer. The bottom distributer is conical, and there is no
space between the distributer and the packed bed, which leads to a
higher velocity gas flow along the wall and in the center. Therefore,
there is very little declining stage at the beginning of the dis-
charging process and the rapid change of temperature difference
appears much earlier in the gas flowing upwards case than
downwards.
The radial temperature profiles with respect to time for
Tin,ex ¼ 110 and 145
C are shown in Figs. 14 and 15, respectively. In
general, the variation tendencies of the radial temperatures are in
accordance with those when Tin,ex ¼ 75
C due to the gas mass rate
and flow direction being the same. It also can be observed that the
temperature near the wall gradually becomes higher than that in
the interior of the packed bed in the discharging process; a pattern
that becomes more pronounced as the energy storage temperature
increases. This can be explained as follows: in the charging process,
Fig. 14. Transient radial temperature distribution with hot gas upwards and cold gas
downwards as Tin,ex ¼ 110
C.
877
Fig. 15. Transient radial temperature distribution with hot gas upwards and cold gas
downwards as Tin,ex ¼ 145
C.
there is a relatively slow heat diffusion process from the packed bed
to the insulation layer and a small amount of thermal energy has
been stored in the insulation layer. In the discharge process, when
the temperature of the packed bed is lower than that of the insu-
lation layer, heat transfers from the insulation layer to the packed
bed very slowly due to its very low thermal conductivity. At a
higher energy storage temperature, the temperature of the insu-
lation layer is higher and more thermal energy is stored there, so
the temperature difference near the wall is larger in the discharging
process after the cold gas arrives. Furthermore, Fig. 16 presents the
temperature differencesDT3b and DTba for different energy storage
temperatures. As shown in Fig. 16, as energy storage temperature
increases, the temperature difference patterns remain similar, but
the amplitude of variation becomes greater, with the temperature
differences also becoming greater as the charging and discharging
processes come to their conclusions.
4.3. Energy and exergy analyses of the packed bed
A powerful tool in evaluating the performance of a system is the
energy and exergy analysis pertaining to the first and second laws
Fig. 16. Transient radial temperature difference as Tin,ex ¼ 75, 110, 145
C.