CHAPTER 4

Optical, Pressure and

Temperature Sensors

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 Optical Sensor Basics and Applications
• An optical sensor converts light rays into an electronic
signal.
• Optical sensors detect light, typically at a specific range of
the electromagnetic spectra (ultraviolet, visible, and
infrared).
• The sensor detects either wavelength, frequency, or
polarization of light and converts it into electric signal due
to photoelectric effect.
• The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or
other free carriers when light shines on a material.
• They are used for contact-less detection, counting or
positioning of parts.
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 Photoconductive Cell
• Electrical conduction in semiconductor materials occurs when
free charge carriers, e.g., electrons, are available in the
material when an electric field is applied.
• In certain semiconductors, light energy falling on causes
release of charge carriers which increase flow of current
produced by an applied voltage.
• This is due to covalent bond breaking by the light energy.
• The increase of current with increase in light intensity with the
applied voltage remaining constant means that the resistance
of semiconductors decreases with increase in light intensity.
• Therefore, these semiconductors are called photoconductive
cells or Photo-Resistors or sometimes Light Dependent
Resistors (LDR), since incident light effectively varies their
resistance.
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 Photoconductive Cell
• The two most commonly used photoconductive semiconductor
materials are Cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium selenide
(CdSe).
• When the cell is kept in darkness, its resistance is called dark
resistance.
Applications
 In light-sensitive alarms  Lightning control
 Automatic street lights  Detecting the location of aircraft
and ships

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 Photovoltaic Cell
• Photovoltaic cells generate a voltage which is proportional to EM
radiation intensity. They are called photovoltaic cells because of
their voltage generating characteristics.
• The cell is a giant diode, constructing a PN junction between
appropriately doped semiconductors
• Photons hitting the cell pass through the thin p-doped upper and
are absorbed by electrons in the n-doped layer.
• This causes conduction electrons and holes to be created.

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 Photovoltaic Cell
• The voltage output of this transducer is quite low and
amplification is needed before it could be used.
• The current is a function of the cell incident luminous flux.

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 Fiber optic Sensors
• Fiber optic sensor measures physical quantity based on its
modulation on intensity, spectrum, phase or polarization of
light traveling through the optical fiber system.
• It consists of light source, optical fiber, sensing element or
transducer and a detector.
• The working operation of fiber optic sensor is that transducer
modulates some parameter of optical fiber system.
• As the angle of incidence is increased, a point is reached when
the beam is totally internally reflected.
n <n
2 1

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 Fiber optic Sensors
• There are two basic types of fiber optic sensors which are :
a) Pure fiber sensors: These sensors for their response depend upon
on environmentally induced changes in light as it travels through
the fiber.
b) Remote optic sensors: The use optical fibers to carry light to a
separate device that responds to light stimuli
• Optical fibers consists of two concentric layers called the core and
the cladding as shown below. The core, cladding along with the
surrounding protective jacket constitute the fiber cable.
• Used in measurement of physical quantities like pressure,
temperature, sound, displacement and level.

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 Pressure Sensors
• Most pressure measuring devices use elastic members at
the primary stage for sensing of pressure.
• These elastic members are of many types and convert the
pressure into displacement.
• The fluid whose pressure is to be measured is made to
press the pressure sensitive element and since the element
is an elastic member, it deflects and the deflection is
proportional to the applied pressure.
• Some of the common pressure sensing devices are :
Bourdon tubes
Diaphragms
Bellows
Piezoelectric.
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 Bourdon Tubes
• The Bourdon tubes are made out of an elliptically sectioned
flattened tube shapes.
• One end of the tube is sealed or closed and physically held. The
other end is open for the fluid to enter.
• When the fluid whose pressure is to be measured enters the tube, the
tube tends to straighten out on account of the pressure. This causes
the movement of the free end which is measured.

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 Diaphragms
• The movement of a diaphragm is a convenient way of sensing a
pressure.
• The unknown pressure is applied to one side of the diaphragm.
• The edge of the diaphragm is rigidly fixed and this causes a
deflection.
• The displacement of the center of the diaphragm may be measured
in order to know the value of the pressure, because the deflection is
directly proportional to the pressure.

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 Bellows
• Bellows are thin-walled metallic cylinders, of which one end is
sealed and the other end remains open. The closed-end can move
freely while the open-end is fixed.
• When pressure is applied to the closed-end, the bellows will be
compressed. The closed-end will move upwards and the link, which
is the rod in between the closed-end of the bellows and the
transmission mechanism, will go up and rotate the pointer.
• Bellows is essentially a pressure activated spring.

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 Piezoelectric
• Piezoelectricity is the charge created across certain materials when
a mechanical stress is applied.
• Piezoelectric pressure sensors measures the voltage across a
piezoelectric element generated by the applied pressure.
• They are very robust and are used in a wide range of industrial
applications. When a force is applied to a piezoelectric material, an
electric charge is generated across the faces of the crystal.
• This can be measured as a voltage proportional to the pressure.

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 Tactile Sensor
• A Tactile sensor is a touch sensor. It provides information about the
object which has made contact with the sensor.
• The information can be in the form of the shape of the object, size
of the object or even the type of the material.
• This sensor is sensitive to the touch, pressure or any force on its
surface.
• Works based on capacitance change, resistivity change and change
in intensity of light. The change is detected by the use of this sensor.
• Then this change is used to form a virtual image.
• The virtual image contains information like how much pressure is
exerted from foreign body interference on all points it has made
contact with the sensor, how is the shape of the foreign body, what is
the size of the foreign body.

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 Temperature Sensor
• A temperature sensor detects and measures hotness and
coolness and converts it into an electrical signal.
• There are four types of temperature sensors that are most
commonly used:
 Semiconductor based integrated circuits (IC).
 Thermocouples
 RTDs (resistance temperature detectors),
 Thermistors, and
• A temperature sensor is a key component of any process
heating application as it provides temperature feedback
about the process, which can be used to monitor or control
the process.
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 IC Temperature Sensor
• An IC Temperature Sensor is a two terminal integrated
circuit temperature transducer that produces an output
current proportional to absolute temperature.
• The most common temperature range is 55 to 150°C.
• Semiconductor-based temperature sensors (IC sensors)
have a dual integrated circuit (IC) containing two similar
diodes.
• The diodes and temperature-sensitive voltage measure the
temperature.
• These sensors give a reasonably linear output; however,
they are less accurate between 1 and 5 °C.

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 IC Temperature Sensor
• As temperature increases, more electrons gain energy to
jump from the valence band to the conduction band, thus
changing the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor.
• When a diode is forward biased, the voltage across the
junction varies linearly with temperature, allowing it to act
as a temperature sensor.

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 Thermistor
• A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is strongly
dependent on temperature, more so than in standard resistors.
• The main use of a thermistor is to measure the temperature of
a device. In a temperature controlled system, the thermistor is
a small but important piece of a larger system.
• A temperature controller monitors the temperature of the
thermistor.
• Thermistors are generally composed of semi-conductor
materials.
• They are sensitive to small changes in temperature.
• They can measure liquid, gas, or solids, depending on the type
of thermistor.

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 Thermistor
• Thermistors are available in two types: those with Negative
Temperature Coefficients (NTC thermistors) and those with Positive
Temperature Coefficients (PTC thermistors).
• NTC thermistors' resistance decreases as their temperature increases,
while PTC thermistors’ resistance increases as their temperature
increases. Most thermistors have a NTC coefficient.
• Thermistors are widely used in applications which involve
measurements in the range of - 60°C to 15°C.
• The resistance of thermistors ranges from 0.5 Ω to 0.75 MΩ.

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 RTD
• An RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a sensor whose
resistance changes as its temperature changes.
• The resistance increases as the temperature of the sensor
increases.
• The resistance vs temperature relationship is well known and is
repeatable over time. An RTD is a passive device.
• It works following a basic principle of when the temperature of
a metal increases, the resistance to the flow of electricity
increases as well.
• The amount of change seen in the resistance value of the
material caused due to per degree rise in temperature is
measured and the sensor is calibrated accordingly.

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 RTD
• The requirements of a conductor material to be used in RTDs
are :
1) The change in resistance of material per unit change in
temperature should be as large as possible.
2) The material should have a high value of resistivity so that
minimum volume of material is used for the construction of
RTD.
3) The resistance of materials should have a continuous and stable
relationship with temperature.
• The most common RTDs are made of either platinum, nickel or
nickel alloys.
• Platinum is best choice, as it can withstand high temperatures
while maintaining excellent stability.
• All metals produce a positive change in resistance with
temperature, hence RTD also. 21
RTD

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 Thermocouple
• A thermocouple is a sensor that measures temperature. It
consists of two different types of metals, joined together at
one end( junction).
• When the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled, a
voltage is created that can be correlated back to the
temperature.
• A thermocouple consists of a welded 'hot' junction between
two dissimilar metals - usually wires - and a reference junction
at the opposite end.
• Thermocouple Types:
o Type J o Type R
o Type K o Type S
o Type N o Type B
o Type T o Type C
o Type E 23
 Thermocouple
• Thermocouples have a fast response time. Thermocouples are
very accurate at a wide operating range.
• Thermocouples have extreme durability. Thermocouples are
passive, so they do not require a current or voltage source.
• Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas
turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes

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Comparison

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 Acoustic Sensors
• These sensors convert sound waves into electrical signals, which
can then be analyzed, processed, and used for various
applications
• Acoustic proximity sensors use sound waves to detect objects
within a range by measuring the time taken for ultrasonic
waves to reflect back.
• These sensors offer advantages like non-contact detection,
material independence, and resistance to environmental
factors
• They are used widely in sectors like automotive, robotics, and
agriculture.
• However, they do have limitations such as sensitivity to
temperature and interference from external noise
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 Acoustic Sensors
• Acoustic sensors can be employed to monitor noise pollution
levels, condition monitoring and fault detection in machinery
and equipment.
• Unusual sounds emitted by machinery can indicate potential
malfunctions or maintenance needs.

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 Flow Measurement
• Flow meters are widely used to quantify the amount of fluid
flowing through pipe in combustion chamber, boiler, oil and
gas, process and chemical industries, thermal power plant,
milk and dairy.
• Flow rate measurement helps us to control and monitor the
rate of liquid flow within applications and ensure that fluid
control processes are running safely and cost-effectively

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 Flow Measurement
• The electromagnetic flowmeter works on the principle of
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. This law states
that when the conductive liquid passes through the magnetic
field, the voltage induces across the conductor.
• The more rapid the fluid flow, the more the voltage generated.
• By decreasing the diameter of the pipe, we can increase the
volume flow rate, or the velocity of the fluid which passes
through the pipe according to the continuity equation.
• Increasing or decreasing the length of the pipe has no effect on
fluid velocity.
• Therefore, the correct way is to decrease the diameter of the
pipe.

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 Level Measurement
• Level measurement is the linear distance between the top
surface of a liquid or solid and a predetermined reference point
like in a tank.
• There are many types of level measurement instrumentation
tools used in industrial processes.
• Level measurements are classified into two types– direct and
indirect level measurements or performed by contact or non-
contact transmitters.
• Point level measurement sensors are used to mark a single
discrete liquid height–a preset level condition.
• Generally, this type of sensor functions as a high alarm,
signaling an overfill condition, or as a marker for a low alarm
condition.
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 Radiation Sensors
• Radiation Detector is an instrument used to detect high-energy particles, such
as those produced by nuclear decay, cosmic radiation, or reactions in a particle
accelerator. There are three types of radiations
Alpha Radiation
 They are the fast-moving helium atoms.
 They have high energy ranging in MeV.
 They have low penetration depth.
Beta Radiation
 They are fast-moving electrons.
 Their energy ranges from hundreds of KeV to several MeV.
 They have better penetration depth due to their comparatively lighter mass.
Gamma Radiation
 They are the stream of photons.
 Typical energy ranges from Several KeV to Several MeV.
 They have comparatively very low mass. Thus, possess good penetration depth.
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 Radiation Sensors
• When radiation passes inside a detector, it causes ionization of
gas atoms, separating atoms into positive ions and electrons.
• Separated electrons and positive ions are attracted to the
electrodes, causing a current to flow.
• This is converted into electric signals, which are then measured
as the amount of radiation.

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 Smart Sensors
• A smart sensor is a device that uses a transducer to gather
particular data from a physical environment to perform a
predefined & programmed function on the particular type of
gathered data then it transmits the data through a networked
connection.
• The features of the smart sensor are; self-identification,
digital sensor data, smart calibration & compensation, multi-
sensing capacity, sensor communication for configuration of
remote & remote monitoring.

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 Smart Sensors
• Smart Sensors can perform data conversion, digital processing,
and can communicate to external devices and the Cloud.
• Smart sensors are built as IoT components that convert the
real-world variable that they're measuring into a digital data
stream for transmission to a gateway.
• The application algorithms are performed by a built-in
microprocessor unit (MPU).
• Smart sensor technologies have been used for monitoring and
control mechanisms in a wide variety of environments,
including smart grids, level monitoring systems, traffic
monitoring and control, energy saving in artificial lighting and
equipment fault.

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 Film Sensors
• Thin film sensors are precise, stable, dependable and cheap,
offering numerous advantages over conventional sensors.
• Thin film sensors are produced by directly depositing material
onto fixtures in a vacuum deposition chamber by a process
known as sputtering.
• A sputtering system allows for process control so that films
may be produced with a high degree of repeatability.
• The film deposition rate is almost linear with input power, and
the rate may be slowed adequately so that very thin films can
be deposited.
• Thin film technology allows for a sensor element that is
especially small and compact, while retaining impressive
attributes in terms of precision and lasting stability.
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 Film Sensors
• Thin films can be deposited on and fused to many kinds of
substrate, including ceramic materials and high-grade
specialty steels.
• Thin film is more accurate, has a better temperature
coefficient and is more stable.

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 MEMS Sensors
• A MEMS (micro-electromechanical system) is a miniature machine
that has both mechanical and electronic components.
• The physical dimension of a MEMS can range from several
millimeters to less than one micrometer, a dimension many times
smaller than the width of a human hair.
• MEMS is a chip-based technology where sensors are composed of a
suspended mass between a pair of capacitive plates.
• When the sensor is tilted, a difference in electrical potential is
created by this suspended mass.
• The created difference is then measured as a change in capacitance
• Current MEMS devices include accelerometers, inkjet printer
heads, projection display chips, blood pressure sensors, optical
switches, microvalves, biosensors, etc.
• Advantages: Enable small-sized sensors , lower power
consumption, lower cost, increased reliability and robustness. 37
 Nano Sensors
• Nano sensors are used to detect and measure physical, chemical,
or biological phenomena at the nanoscale level, typically with
dimensions ranging from a few nanometers to a few hundred
nanometers.
• Nanoscale sensors can be based on different principles, such as
optical, electrical, magnetic, or mechanical, and can be fabricated
using a variety of materials, including metals, semiconductors, and
polymers.
• Nanoscale sensors have numerous potential applications in fields
such as biomedical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and
industrial process control.
• For example, they can be used to detect biomarkers for early
disease diagnosis, monitor pollutants in air and water, and optimize
production processes in the manufacturing industry.

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 LASER Sensors
• A LASER sensor is used to detect the presence, absence, or
distance of an object.
• A LASER sensor converts the physical measured value into an
electrical signal.
• LASER sensor uses LASER light/ rays to sense an object.
• If we talk about LASER sensors as transducers, LASER sensors
convert light energy into electrical energy.
• LASER sensor is used for contactless measurement.
• LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Simulated
Emission of Radiation.
• In a LASER, the energy is amplified to extremely high intensity.
LASER sensor generates energy in form of light which is close
to the optical portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
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 LASER Sensors
• LASER beam is incident on the object which is to be sensed.
• Some part of light would be reflected back by the object. This
reflected light is sensed by a receiver in the sensor, say a
photodiode.
• The sensor has internal circuitry that would do the signal
processing part.
• In signal processing, the time taken by the light to emit and
the time taken by the light to reflect back are calculated.
• The speed of LASER light emission is fixed.
• So, the object’s distance from the sensor can be calculated
simply by using speed and time.
• The sensor will generate an electrical signal according to the
distance sensed. This signal is either digital or analog.
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 ANY
QUESTIONS

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