1.

How do electric vehicle chargers impact grid operations in terms

of load management and distribution?
As the number of electric vehicles and charging infrastructure
continues to grow, the impact on the power distribution grid is also
increasing. Factors such as the size and proximity of charging stations
to the grid, as well as the integration of distributed generation, can
result in voltage fluctuations, harmonic distortion, power quality
issues, and increased load capacity demands.
i) Impact on supply and demand balance
Unregulated EV charging can amplify the peak demand on the grid,
particularly when vehicle charging coincides with the existing peak
loads. This may overburden the transmission system and critical
components of the distribution network, such as transformer and
cables. The additional strain on the system would necessitates
increased electricity generation, raising the power tariffs. Moreover,
such uncontrolled charging may strain the system by exceeding
established ramp limits.
ii) Impact on voltage fluctuations of power distribution grid.
The simultaneous connection of a large number of EVs to the grid can
have a significant impact on voltage fluctuations in the distribution
grid. Vehicle charging involves the parallel operation of multiple non-
linear loads. The use of unsafe chargers can result in load-induced
fluctuations in direct current (DC) voltage and power factor operation.
The voltage of uncontrolled rectifier chargers f fluctuates greatly
during the charging process, but when pulse width modulation (PWM)
rectifiers are used, the voltage variation in the distribution grid is
minimal. EV charging causes larger voltage fluctuations compared to
traditional charging methods. Additionally, the proximity of each
distribution node to the EV charging points affects the efficiency of the
grid, with closer distances leading to larger voltage fluctuations.
iii) Impact on harmonics of power distribution grid.
EV charging also has a notable impact on harmonics in the power
distribution grid. Harmonics not only affect voltage variations but also
compromise the compatibility of the grid. The presence of harmonics
constitutes a form of pollution in the power distribution grid,
degrading the operating environment of electrical equipment,
generating excessive harmonics, and potentially causing line short
circuits and even power outages
iv) Impact on other power quality aspects of power distribution grid
During the EV charging process, high-performance transformer
switches continuously toggle, generating a large amount of high-
frequency currents and noise harmonics, which severely affect power
quality and the electromagnetic environment of the grid.
 v) Phase unbalance
Charging EV using single-phase chargers may lead to unbalanced
phase voltages and current loading. It can result in higher power
losses and violate the voltage limits in the system
vi) Impact on power distribution grid’s load capacity.
The rapid development of electric vehicles (EVs) presents significant
challenges to the planning and construction of urban power
distribution grids due to the substantial increase in charging load.
The types of charging in the distribution grid have also changed, with
the introduction of new loads such as electric heating and EVs
connecting to the grid, leading to increased demand. If the structure
of the distribution grid is incompatible with the penetration rate, the
connection of these loads poses a significant risk to the safe operation
of the distribution grid

2. What are the challenges associated with integrating a large

number of electric vehicle chargers into existing grid
infrastructure?
 Battery degradation: In order to participate in V2G, the battery
has to undergo many charging-discharging cycles. The impact
on battery health due to V2G operation has been studied.
Experimental results show that discharging an EV battery to the
grid can negatively affect battery life and performance. Lithium-
ion battery aging model validated using real-world data,
minimization battery degradation and better battery
management in EVs are still the ongoing issue which needs a
further research.
 Power Electronics: Power Electronics has a significant role in the
grid integration of EVs. The bidirectional interface between the
EV and the grid charges the EV battery with the required
capacity and also feeds the power back to the utility, following
all power regulations and standards. This bidirectional unit can
be made using two unidirectional converters or with a single
bidirectional converter, Unidirectional converters result in more
cost and weight concerns; hence, in V2G systems, bidirectional
converters are now preferred. High DC link voltage systems,
which are in development for EVs offer savings in charging time,
a reduction in weight, and increased efficiency. Higher initial
development costs are a disadvantage; however, over the long
term, this can be reduced. To increase bus voltage levels
demands the use of BDCs with better voltage conversion
efficiency and output voltage stability. Nonlinear modelling and
control of BDC and designing an optimal switching frequency
while keeping the balance between power density and EMI is
 another area of research needed in the direction of wide-band
gap converters.
 Impacts on grid power quality: The charging of EVs influences
the power quality of the distribution grid. The impacts on
various parts of the distribution grid. Non-coordinated charging
of EVs gives rise to unplanned, undesired peaks in the grid
demand. Also, the presence of non-linear components in the
charging infrastructure and fast charging introduce harmonic
content in the grid voltage. This also leads to voltage instability,
power loss, transformer over-loading, and degradation of
reliability indices. Furthermore, in places where EVs are
charged from already existing connections, this causes voltage
instability in the host establishments
 Communication: Successful implementation of V2G demands a
reliable real-time communication system. The Control Centre
communicates charging rate, power commands, time, etc. to the
aggregator. The aggregator sends charging details, charging
station details, charger details, power commands, etc. to the
EVs. Furthermore, the aggregator informs the Control Centre
about the EVs at the station, station location, charging time
details, power level, etc. Considering the huge volume of data
transmission, the mobility of EVs, and the need for fast
response, V2G communication demands fast authentication and
encryption/decryption. Furthermore, the communication
requirements differ for EV fleets and dispersed EVs. For a group
of EVs in a parking lot, the communication protocol could be
simple. Each parking lot could have its own telecommunication
devices. A more extensive and distant communications link
would be required for dispersed V2G sources.
 Environmental concern: Although the adoption of EVs and V2G
technology offers a lot of environmental benefits, they are not
free of environmental concerns. The BEV manufacturing
process produces considerable pollution to the environment.
This also includes the extraction and refining of rare earth
minerals, which have a significant impact on the environment.
With the advancement of EV and V2X technologies, the demand
for lithium (Li) batteries is increasing. The process of Li
extraction and separation involves a lot of chemical procedures
and poses a severe danger to the environment. Careless disposal
of these batteries can cause toxic materials to reach the ground
and can also lead to fire hazards. The manufacturing process
and the chemicals involved in it can lead to health hazards.
Hence, it is essential to have a well-defined, environment-
friendly end-of-life (EOL) strategy for the batteries
  Initial cost: With the modified charging structure and the
potential benefits, EVs with grid integration capabilities can be
more expensive compared to conventional vehicles.
 Availability and suitability of EVs: The suitability of EVs for grid
integration is a factor delaying the adoption of large-scale
vehicle-grid integration. At present, only a few EV models are
V2G-capable. For the nationwide adoption of V2G to be
successful, more EVs with V2G capability should be brought to
the market.
 Charging infrastructure: Unlike internal combustion engine (ICE)
vehicles that can refuel in a few minutes, charging EVs takes
longer. Inadequate charging station infrastructure is a
significant barrier to plug-in EV market penetration. The
infrastructure of public charging stations is critical in
decreasing range anxiety and increasing consumer confidence.
The value of public charging station infrastructure can be
quantified to inform investment decisions and anticipate its
impact on future EV sales.
 Non-cooperation from EV owners: Consumer distrust in the
utility or any agency implementing the grid integration program.
EV owners in the country have concerns about trust, privacy,
and loss of control. Range anxiety refers to the worry of EV
drivers that their battery will be depleted before arrival at their
destination or the closest charging station Some consumers in
the country face difficulty understanding concepts like
‘improving the efficiency of grid’ or ‘reducing environmental
impact’. Also concerns about battery degradation are another
factor in non-cooperation.

3. How does the demand from electric vehicle chargers affect overall
grid stability and reliability?
Voltage stability issue: EV charging demands higher power than
residential loads, making distribution network more susceptible to
voltage sags. The reason beyond thiss is the high resistance to
inductance ratios of the distribution lines. Additionally, there is
uncertainty in consumer’s charging requirements. The customers may
charge their vehicles during peak hours and at different locations,
further aggravating the voltage stability issue. Figure 1 represents a V-
P curve (or nose curve) showing the relationship between the active
power and voltage of a bus. Here, each bus has a critical voltage based
on the line resistance and reactance corresponding to the maximum
active power that can be drawn from the bus, and any further
increase in load at the bus will lead to voltage collapse. The ratio of
change in voltage due to change in active power is termed the Voltage
Sensitivity Factor (VSF). A high VSF means that even for small
changes in active power, there is a significant drop in voltage and vice
versa.

Overloading of power distribution components: The coincidence of EV

charging with the peak load may cause the overloading of power
distribution components like distribution transformers, cables, etc.
This overloading can lead to a significant reduction in equipment's
lifespan, thereby reducing energy transmission efficiency.
Frequency disturbance: In electric power systems, it is crucial to
maintain a real-time balance between generation and load. Any
deviation from this equilibrium may lead to the departure of the grid
frequency from the standard value. Introducing a substantial charging
load from EVs to the grid necessitates increased power generation to
uphold the grid frequency within acceptable limits. EV charging is a
typical non-linear load based on rectifier circuits and power converters
that draw non-sinusoidal current from a sinusoidal voltage, causing
voltage and current waveforms to have different shapes. Also, large
frequency deviations correspond to large power imbalances, which
threaten system stability and may lead to large-scale blackouts.
Harmonic Distortions: EV chargers incorporate nonlinear power
electronic converters that act as a nonlinear load within the system
and inject voltage and current harmonic distortions into the power
distribution network. The extent of distortion is directly related to the
concurrent operation of multiple EV chargers in the distribution
network. There is minimal impact on power quality harmonic
distortion with low EV penetration and slow charging rates.
Conversely, high EV penetration and rapid charging rates cause
significant voltage and current harmonic distortions. Additionally, the
random charging patterns of EVs may deviate from the typical level of
voltage harmonics.
4. What strategies are implemented by grid operators to manage the
increased demand caused by electric vehicle charging?
Charging stations are classified into various levels, where slow
charging, semi-fast charging, fast charging, and ultra-fast charging
are all available. Level 1 charges are typically used at residential
buildings, while Level II, Level III and Level IV chargers exist in private
and public areas, with varying charging capabilities.
Ultra-fast-charging (FCS) employ high DC voltage and current to
enable faster charging simultaneously accommodate a larger number
of vehicles. However, compared to slow overnight charging, FCS has
distinct characteristics, including high charging power, centralized
load demand, predominantly daytime charging, and a more pulsating
load due to fast charging and higher power consumption. These
specific features of FCS can create significant challenges in power
quality like voltage fluctuations, unstable harmonics and increased
harmonic emissions. These following issues should be addressed to
allow reliable and powerful FCS operation and maintain grid power
quality.
Various strategies implemented to address the mentioned issues
are follows:
a. Battery swapping technology: Replacing the fully discharged or
almost depleted batteries in fully charged electric vehicles is
called battery swapping. As electric vehicles become increasingly
widespread, establishing battery swap stations becomes critical.
Optimal battery swap station models within distribution
systems has been proposed. A modified differential evolution
algorithm is used to solve the proposed method.
b. Charging station that operates solely on grid electricity : as the
electric vehicles market experiences rapid growth, there is an
imperative need to establish fast DC charging stations. These
stations are comparable to traditional petroleum refuelling
stations, enabling electric vehicle charging within minutes,
making them the fastest charging option. Given the surge in
demand for electricity the grid supplies, meticulous planning in
designing these charging stations is crucial.
c. Charging stations utilizing an energy storage system and grid
electricity: The distribution network faces an enormous issue
because of the rising demand for electrical power at charging
stations. Consequently, the requirement for electrical energy
has increased, resulting in the adaption of Energy Storage
System (ESS). ESS cannot only enhance the distribution
network’s effectiveness. As a step toward implementation. ESS
has been integrated into fast charging stations as a prototype.
 d. Charging stations utilize both grid and renewable energy:
Electricity demand has increased due to the rapid growth of
electric vehicles. To address this growing energy requirement,
charging stations that harness both power grid and renewable
energy sources (RES) are being developed. The goal is to achieve
an optimal and reliable power exchange. In this context, fast
charging stations have been seamlessly integrated with the grid.
A solar energy production plant with a station for fast charging
is needed to implement a successful energy management
strategy.
e. Integrated station i.e., grid power, RES and ESS: The increasing
demand for electricity at charging stations has the potential to
influence grid performance considerably. As a result, it becomes
imperative to integrate RES into charging stations to bolster the
grid’s capacity, especially during peak demand periods. ESS is
incorporated into these charging stations to solve the problems
with the electrical grid. ESS installations serve to store and
release energy, effectively mitigating grid-related issues.
Furthermore, integrating ESS into charging stations reduces the
unpredictability of renewable energy generation, with batteries
being the primary storage medium.
f. Charging station off the grid: Instead of using the conventional
utility grid, distributed energy sources provide power for off-grid
charging stations. Consequently, developing and placing off-grid
stations into operation requires meticulous attention. An
optimal algorithm is introduced for designing and implementing
off-grid charging stations catering to electric and fuel cell
vehicles. This algorithm addresses uncertainties in parameters
and station design through stochastic programming, and it
includes integrating a diesel generator to reduce costs. Another
approach, suggests implementing unconventional energy
sources in an electric vehicle charging station disconnected
from the grid (EVCS) for a village is proposed. This strategy
harnesses wind and solar energy and an Energy Storage System
(ESS) to eliminate the need for diesel generators. However, there
are various challenges when proposing a charging station that
relies on renewable energy sources.

5. How do time-of-use charging strategies help balance grid

operations and mitigate peak demand periods?
Time-of-use is a strategic and dynamic approach that aligns
the cost of charging with varying electricity demand throughout the
day. This pricing model involves adjusting the cost of electricity based
on specific periods, with higher tariffs during peak hours and lower
tariffs during non-peak hours. This approach allows users to benefit
 from lower electricity rates by scheduling their charging sessions
when demand on the grid is usually lower.

EVs are not just transportation tools but also resources of

energy. EVs with bidirectional chargers can be used to power a home,
power another EV, or even feed the utility grid. EVs can use energy
from the home or supply energy back to the home. When a PHEV is
combined with a rooftop Solar PV system, this can form a small micro-
grid and provide sufficient power backup for the home. This supports
off-grid operation by supplying the home loads in case of a grid power
outage
V2G is the most prominent and popular V2X technology due to
its capacity to supply power to the grid, thereby contributing to the
national energy market. This technology enhances the reliability and
stability of the power system. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) integration in EV
charging is a transformative concept beyond the conventional
charging paradigm. V2G enables EVs to draw power from the grid and
feed surplus energy back into it when needed. This bidirectional flow
of electricity allows EVs to act as mobile energy storage units. In times
of high energy demand or grid instability, these vehicles can discharge
stored energy back to the grid, providing crucial support to stabilize
the electrical infrastructure. V2G integration relies on smart charging
systems and advanced communication technologies, allowing EVs to
interact with the grid seamlessly. This dynamic interaction facilitates
grid balancing by adjusting power flow in response to fluctuations in
demand, contributing to overall grid resilience. V2G integration can
enhance grid reliability, reduce the need for additional grid
infrastructure investments, and foster a more sustainable and
responsive energy ecosystem by leveraging the collective energy
storage capacity of a fleet of EVs. This technology enhances the
reliability and stability of the power system. Furthermore, peak
shaving and load levelling is mitigated by following this control
strategy.

6. What role do smart charging technologies play in optimizing grid

operations and minimizing disruptions?
The implementation of smart EV charging infrastructure can
mitigate the strain on the grid. Smart charging maximizes the
utilization of renewable energy generations, supports ancillary
services, and provides backup storage. This technology also allows for
dynamic load management, ensuring optimal electricity distribution
during peak and off-peak periods. Some of the key features of Smart
charging are:
 Load balancing:
 In smart charging, load balancing optimizes the distribution of
electricity demand across the grid and mitigates the risk of
overload during peak hours. This process involves the charger
autonomously analysing available capacity and determining the
power requirements of connected vehicles. After this analysis,
the charging units distribute control that depends on the
maximum capacity of the connection. This system allows
electric cars always be charged even if the installed charging
units have a limited capacity. Load balancing operates without
requiring input from electric vehicle drivers. Power supply
connections interconnect charging points within cluster,
designing one charging point as the Master unit that controls
the entire group. A charging point equipped with load balancing
adapts to supply the current demand of vehicles plugged into it,
following the limitations set by the Master unit. Initially, when a
vehicle accesses a charging point in the cluster, the maximum
power is dedicated to that electric vehicle, resulting in an
unbalanced load. However, as more vehicles connect and
require power, the Master unit dynamically manages the cluster
to prevent exceeding total consumption, potentially reducing the
power provided to the remainder of the cluster. Consequently,
the shared energy leads to a slower charging speed for the cars,
alternating between them every 15 minutes based on their
battery requirements. As the load diminishes on a charger in
the cluster, the Master unit dynamically monitors and manages
requirements, offering more power to the other chargers as
needed.
 Grid-friendly: Smart charging algorithms leverage real-time data
and dynamic decision-making to optimize the EV charging
process. It can adjust charging rates, allowing the system to
balance the demand for electricity with the available supply.
Smart algorithms can respond to grid load and congestion
fluctuations or even incorporate insights into electricity pricing
during different periods by dynamically regulating the charging
rate.
 Time-of use: It is a strategic and dynamic approach that aligns
the cost of charging with varying electricity demand throughout
the day. This pricing model involves adjusting the cost of
electricity based on specific periods, with higher tariffs during
peak hours and lower tariffs during non-peak hours. This
approach allows users to benefit from lower electricity rated by
scheduling their charging sessions when demand on the grid is
usually lower.
 Data analytics: Smart charging leverage sophisticated data
analytics tools and techniques to extract valuable insights from
 a wealth of information. These systems analyse real-time data
on electricity demand, grid conditions, charging processes by
processing this data. It can predict and adapt to patterns in
energy consumption. Data analytics enables the identification of
peak demand periods, allowing for strategic load balancing and
the effective allocation of resources. It also facilitates user-
centric features, such as personalized charging scheduled based
on individual preferences and cost considerations.

7. How do electric vehicle chargers interact with other grid-

connected devices and systems, such as renewable energy
sources and energy storage systems?
The most prominent role of EVs and V2G technology is to
support RES. The lack of an efficient storage system is a hindrance to
the acceptance of renewables in a power grid. RES like solar PV and
wind are intermittent in nature. Solar energy follows a daily cycle, and
energy output from solar peaks approximately four hours before peak
demand. Wind energy is very erratic and location-specific; a site may
have less wind for many days, while a cluster of sites spread out over
a greater area may be steadier.
In a system where RES contributes to more than 30% of the
total power, this intermittent nature is a serious concern. At this level
of penetration, distribution companies are facing issues due to the
intermittency of RES and the associated need for system flexibility. In
this regard, EVs may be used to store renewable energy, and by V2G
protocol, feed this energy to the utility grid. In the case of wind
turbine generators, the surplus energy generated during windy
conditions can be stored in EV batteries and can be provided to the
grid during a time of high load, thereby overcoming the problem of
intermittency associated with wind energy generation. With their high
power-to-energy ratio, PEVs contribute positively to the integration of
RES into the utility; however, it also depends on the characteristics of
the RES.
A scheme that provides distributed spinning reserves,
considering the unplanned intermittency of renewable resources and a
solar-Hydrogen-EV-integrated micro-grid utilizing V2G and power-to-
gas technology are proposed. A stochastic optimization strategy is
devised, aiming to reduce the operational cost. Results show that both
technologies combined reduced the operational cost, a Fuzzy-Logic-
Controller (FLC) is proposed for an EV-Wind integrated system that
considers the stochastic nature of the RES and the residential loads.
The proposed system was able to achieve reduced power losses, an
improved voltage profile, and a reliable supply. Moreover, smart
charging systems can be designed to prioritize EV charging during
optimal renewable energy production times, aligning the charging
 process with periods of abundant clean energy. This integration thus
serves as a dual benefit: supporting the transition to a greener
transport system and aiding grid stability by balancing demand with
the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources.

8. What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of electric vehicle

chargers on grid operations?
During peak demand times, electric grids can be reinforced by
fleets of EVs powered by batteries, which support the electric grid and
provide power for the grid. There is a growing number of charging
solutions and battery-storage solutions coming online, and it is
evident that proven technologies are being repurposed to fulfil this
vision. A major driving force behind the rise of renewable energy
sources is the desire to reduce emissions as countries strive to use
more renewable energy sources. To meet the demands of millions of
EV owners, it will be crucial to manage the energy demands resulting
from the electrification of vehicles. As everyone’s chargers charge
simultaneously, the grid could be put under severe strain. There is a
challenge that arises with the grid’s peak capacity.
As a result of extreme weather events, the grid is put under
more strain. By using semiconductor technology, we may be able to
smooth out these peaks due to bidirectional V2G charging, which
would benefit everyone. EVs and their batteries can return power to
the grid when required. These technologies can be integrated into EVs
and their powertrains to create energy storage. Power management,
sensing and connectivity technologies with wide band gaps can
improve the reliability of a grid by optimizing power load management.
This will enable alternatives to fossil fuels to be explored more widely.
This can pave the way for the expansion of renewable energy sources
in the future
Some of the possible benefits of electric chargers are follows:
 Voltage profile and quality improvements: the voltage profile
and quality of the distribution grid is trying to be improved by
optimizing the sizing and location of charging stations, DGs, and
other renewable sources. The objective is to minimize voltage
fluctuations, improve thermal stability, and enhance the overall
voltage profile
 Improvement in reliability and reduction of energy losses: The
objective is to reduce active power losses and the energy not
supplied to the network while ensuring a reliable power supply
 Voltage stability and deviation: certain publications consider
voltage stability and deviation as the objective functions. The
 optimization frameworks aim to allocate DG modules, energy
storage systems (BESS), and EV charging systems in a way that
optimizes power loss, voltage stability, and voltage fluctuations in
the distribution grid.
 Installation and operation cost minimization: the minimization of
installation and operation costs is considered an objective function.
The optimization models aim to specify the optimal location and
sizing of DGs, EV charging systems, and other charging
infrastructure while considering factors such as investment costs,
maintenance costs, and additional conductors required for system
reconfiguration
Some of the drawbacks of electric chargers are follows:
 Harmonics
 Increased power demand
 Increased power loss
 Voltage fluctuations
 Equipment overloading
 V2G mode
 Integration with renewable sources
 Incorporation with smart grid

9. How do regulatory policies and standards influence the

integration and operation of electric vehicle chargers within the
grid?
1) Safety Standards: Regulations often include safety standards
that charging equipment must meet to ensure the safety of
users and the electrical grid. These standards may be set by
national or regional authorities.
2) Accessibility and Interoperability: Some regulations focus on
ensuring that EV charging stations are accessible to all users,
including those with disabilities, and that different charging
networks are interoperable, allowing users to access charging
stations from different providers with a single account or
payment.
3) Pricing and Billing: Regulations may govern the pricing of
electricity at charging stations and require transparent billing
practices. This can help prevent gouging and ensure fair pricing
for consumers.
4) Grid integration: Regulations often address the integration of EV
charging infrastructure with the electrical grid. This includes
requirements for grid management, load balancing and avoiding
grid overloads during peak charging times.
 5) Environmental standards: Some jurisdictions may have
regulations related to the environmental impact of EV charging
infrastructure, such as requirements using renewable energy
sources or minimizing emissions associated with charging.
6) Permitting and zoning: Local regulations can affect where
charging stations can be located and what permits are required
for installation. Streamlining these processes can encourage the
deployment of charging infrastructure.
7) Incentives and subsidies: Governments may provide incentives
and subsidies to encourage the installation of EV charging
stations. These can include tax credits, grants, or other
financial incentives.
8) Private vs. public charging: Regulations often differentiate
between public and private charging stations. Public stations
may be subject to more extensive regulations to ensure
accessibility and fair pricing.
9) Data privacy: Regulations may require the protection of user
data collected at charging stations to safeguard privacy.
10) Energy Marker integration: In some regions, regulations facilitate
the integration of EVs into the energy market, allowing them to
serve as distributed energy resources that can store and
discharge electricity to support the grid.

10. What are the implications of electric vehicle charging on long-

term grid planning and infrastructure development?
Charging infrastructure planning needs to consider the characteristics
of charging technologies, procurement, installation and operational
costs, location costs, user charging needs/usage scenarios, power grid
supply and compatibility with the charging power of vehicles, etc. The
decision of charging technologies influences the charging times of
vehicles, which in turn affects the availability of both chargers and
vehicles to serve customers.
Set covering: A capacitated set-covering model to plan the number and
locations of fast-charging stations for bus-line operations considering
daily customer demand is proposed. Realistic energy consumption
scenarios are considered to take into account the charging needs of
bus operations under different scenarios. fast-charging facilities for
an e-bus system at existing bus terminals to minimize the overall
investment, the maintenance costs of charging facilities, the access
costs for recharging, and the power-loss costs under charging load
capacity constraints is also proposed. Formulation is also done for a
variant of the set-covering model to jointly optimize bus charging-
station locations and fleet size by considering time-dependent energy
prices and stochastic bus charging demand.
Location-routing optimization: This approach formulates the charging
infrastructure planning problem as a joint optimization problem with
vehicle-route and/or fleet-size planning. Based on the characteristics
of demand, the proposed approaches can be further classified into
classical integer programming and stochastic/robust optimization to
address different sources of uncertainty. A multi-stage stochastic
optimization problem for charging-infrastructure planning of an
electric car-sharing system is proposed. The model takes into account
the joint optimization of long-term charging infrastructure planning
and short-term vehicle relocation and charging operations of the fleet
under uncertain multi-period demands. Random customer demand is
modelled using the scenario tree approach. The objective is to
minimize the overall system cost over multiple planning periods. Also
another proposal is made for a mixed-integer programing model for
charging infrastructure locations and electric bus line operation
optimization for a set of bus trips. The authors propose a sensitivity
analysis approach to identify persistent structures of the solutions
given uncertain input parameter distributions and configurations
based on realistic electric bus operation data.
Bi-level optimization-simulation approach: This approach considers a
bi-level modelling structure by iteratively optimizing the location and
number of charging stations at the upper level while simulating
charging operations at the lower level to obtain the system
performance in terms of charging operational delays or vehicle idle
times. This approach can flexibly take into account different sources
of uncertainty and explicitly considers charging waiting times based
on EV arrival and charging service rates at charging stations. A bi-
level optimization-simulation approach to locate e-taxi charging
stations is proposed in an urban area. The upper-level problem is
modelled as a multiple server location problem under the number of
charger installations at each candidate charging location. And a bi-
level optimization-simulation approach for charging-infrastructure
planning for electric micro-transit systems is proposed. They consider
the sub-problem of online vehicle–charger assignment optimization to
minimize the idle times of vehicles when recharging. A surrogate-
based optimization approach is proposed for its application in a
realistic simulation case study in Luxembourg. Also, an agent-based
simulation approach for charging-infrastructure planning under
different demand scenarios is proposed. The model allows considering
the number of charging stations and plugs, as well as the problem of
extensions of new charging infrastructure. The modelling framework
consists of generating customer demand, based on which EV charging
demand is explicitly simulated with queuing dependent on EV arrival
and service rates.