Trade Distortions and

Marketing Barriers

PROTECTION OF LOCAL INDUSTRIES

 According to a survey of more than 28,000 people in twenty-three countries, even
well-educated workers in poorer countries are against free trade.
 Workers in the industries that face foreign competition tend to be against free
trade. On the other hand, well-educated people in well-educated countries are
more likely to favor trade.
 Why do nations impede free trade when the inhibition is irrational? One reason
why governments interfere with free marketing is to protect local industries,
often at the expense of local consumers as well as consumers worldwide.
 Arguments for the protection of local industries usually take one of the following
forms: (1) keeping money at home, (2) reducing unemployment, (3) equalizing
cost and price, (4) enhancing national security, and (5) protecting infant
industry.

KEEPING MONEY AT HOME

 Trade unions and protectionists often argue that international trade will lead to an
outflow of money, making foreigners richer and local people poorer.

REDUCING UNEMPLOYMENT
 It is standard practice for trade unions and politicians to attack imports and
international trade in the name of job protection.
 Import reduction will create more demand for local products and subsequently
create more jobs.

EQUALIZING COST AND PRICE

 Some protectionists attempt to justify their actions by invoking economic theory.
They argue that foreign goods have lower prices because of lower production
costs.
 Therefore, trade barriers are needed to make prices of imported products less
competitive and local items more competitive.
  This argument is not persuasive to most analysts for two reasons. (1) To
determine the cause of price differentials is unusually difficult. Is it caused by
labor, raw materials, efficiency, or subsidy? (2) Even if the causes of price
differentials can be isolated and determined, it is hard to understand why price
and cost have to be artificially equalized in the first place.

ENHANCING NATIONAL SECURITY

 Protectionists often use the patriotic theme. They usually claim that a nation
should be self-sufficient and even willing to pay for inefficiency in order to
enhance national security.
 Opponents of protectionism dismiss appeals to national security. A nation can
never be completely self-sufficient because raw materials are not found in the
same proportion in all areas of the world.

PROTECTING INFANT INDUSTRY

 The necessity to protect an infant industry is perhaps the most credible argument
for protectionist measures. Some industries need to be protected until they
become viable.
 In practice, it is not an easy task to protect industries. (1) The government must
identify deserving industries. (2) Appropriate incentives must be created to
encourage productivity. (3) The government has to make sure that the resultant
protection is only temporary.

GOVERNMENT: A CONTRIBUTION TO PROTECTIONISM

 Government can be considered to be the root of all evil – at least as far as
international trade is concerned.
 A government’s mere existence, even without tariffs or any attempt to interfere
with international marketing, can distort trade both inside and outside of its
area. At the international level, different governments have different policies
and objectives, resulting in different rates for income and sales taxes.
 Governments everywhere seem to be the main culprits in distorting trade and
welfare arrangements in order to gain some economic and political advantage
or benefit. These governments use a combination of tariff and non tariff
methods.
MARKETING BARRIERS: TARRIFS
 Tariff, derived from a French word meaning rate, price, or list of charges, is a
customs duty or a tax on products that move across borders.
 Tariffs may be classified in several ways. The classification scheme used here is
based on (1) direction, (2) purpose, (3) length, (4) rate, and (5) distribution
point.

DIRECTION: IMPORT AND EXPORT TARIFFS

 Tariffs are often imposed on the basis of the direction of product movement; that
is, on imports or exports.
 When export tariffs are levied, they usually apply to an exporting country’s
scarce resources or raw materials (rather than finished manufactured products).

PURPOSE: PROTECTIVE AND REVENUE TARIFFS

 Tariffs may be classified as (1) protective tariffs and (2) revenue tariffs. This
distinction is based on purpose.
 The purpose of a protective tariff is to protect home industry, agriculture, and
labor against foreign competitors by trying to keep foreign goods out of the
country.
 The purpose of a revenue tariff, in contrast, is to generate tax revenues for the
government.
 Compared to a protective tariff, a revenue tariff is relatively low.

LENGTH: TARIFF SURCHARGE VERSUS COUNTERVEILING DUTY

 Protective tariffs may be further classified according to length of time. A (1) tariff
surcharge is a temporary action, whereas a (2) countervailing duty is a
permanent surcharge.

RATES: SPECIFIC, AD VALOREM, AND COMBINED

 Specific duties are a fixed or specified amount of money per unit of weight,
gauge, or other measure of quantity.
 Ad valorem duties are duties “according to value.” They are stated as a fixed
percentage of the invoice value and applied at a percentage to the dutiable value
 of the imported goods. This is the opposite of specific duties since the
percentage is fixed but the total duty is not.
 Combined rates (or compound duty) are a combination of the specific and ad
valorem duties on a single product. They are duties based on both the specific
rate and the ad valorem rate that are applied to an imported product.

DISTRIBUTION POINT: DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION TAXES

 Some taxes are collected at a particular point of distribution or when purchases
and consumption occur. These indirect taxes, frequently adjusted at the border,
are of four kinds: (1) single-stage, (2) value-added, (3) cascade, and (4) excise.
 Single-stage sales tax is a tax collected at only one point in the manufacturing and
distribution chain. It is not collected until products are purchased by final
consumers.
 A value-added tax (VAT) is a multi-stage, noncumulative tax on consumption. It
is a national sales tax levied at each stage of the production and distribution
system.
 Cascade taxes are collected at each point in the manufacturing and distribution
chain and are levied on the total value of a product, including taxes borne by
the product at earlier stages.
 An excise tax is a one-time charge levied on the sales of specified products.

MARKETING BARRIERS: NONTARIFF BARRIERS

 Tariffs, though generally undesirable, are at least straightforward and obvious.
Non tariff barriers, in comparison, are more elusive or nontransparent.

GOVERNMENT PARTICIPATION IN TRADE

 The degree of government involvement in trade varies from passive to active. The
types of participation include (1) administrative guidance, (2) state trading, and
(3) subsidies.

ADMINISTRATIVE GUIDANCE
 Many governments routinely provide trade consultation to private companies.
Japan has been doing this on a regular basis to help implement its industrial
policies.
GOVERNMENT PROCUREMENT AND STATE TRADING
 State trading is the ultimate in government participation, because the government
itself is now the customer or buyer who determines what, when, where, how,
and how much to buy.
 In this practice, the state engages in commercial operations, either directly or
indirectly, through the agencies under its control.

SUBSIDIES
 According to GATT, subsidy is a “financial contribution provided directly or
indirectly by a government and which confers a benefit.”
 Subsidies may take many forms – including cash, interest rate, value-added tax,
corporate income tax, sales tax, freight, insurance, and infrastructure. Sheltered
profit is another kind of subsidy. A country may allow a corporation to shelter
its profit from abroad.
 The Subsidies Code, technically named the Agreement on Interpretation and
Application of Article VI, XVI and XXIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade, recognizes that government subsidies distort the competitive forces
at work in international trade.
 The rules of the international agreement negotiated during the Tokyo Round of
Multilateral Trade Negotiations differentiate between export subsidies and
domestic subsidies.
 The Code’s rules also differentiate between subsidies paid on (1) primary
products (e.g., manufactures) and those paid on (2) non primary products and
(3) primary minerals.
 A primary product is any product of farm, forest, or fishery in its natural form or
that has undergone such processing as is customarily required to prepare it for
transportation and marketing in substantial volume in international trade (e.g.,
frozen and cured meat). The Code prohibits the use of export subsidies on non
primary products and primary mineral products.

CUSTOMS AND ENTRY PROCEDURE

 Customs and entry procedures may be employed as non tariff barriers. These
restrictions involve (1) classification, (2) valuation, (3) documentation, (4)
license, (5) inspection, and (6) health and safety regulations.
CLASSIFICATION
 How a product is classified can be arbitrary and inconsistent and is often based on
a customs officer’s judgment, at least at the time of entry. Product classification
is important because the way in which a product is classified determines its
duty status.

VALUATION
 Regardless of how products are classified, each product must still be valued. The
value affects the amount of tariffs levied.
 A customs appraiser is the one who determines the value. The process can be
highly subjective, and the valuation of a product may be interpreted in different
ways, depending on what value is used and how this value is constructed.

DOCUMENTATION
 Documentation can present another problem at entry because many documents
and forms are often necessary, and the documents required can be complicated.
 Without proper documentation, goods may not be cleared through customs. At
the very least, such complicated and lengthy documents serve to slow down
product clearance.

LICENSE OR PERMIT
 Not all products can be freely imported; controlled imports require licenses or
permits.

INSPECTION
 Inspection is an integral part of product clearance. Goods must be examined to
determine quality and quantity.
 This step is closely related to other customs and entry procedures. (1) inspection
classifies and values products for tariff purposes. (2) inspection reveals whether
imported items are consistent with those specified in the accompanying
documents and whether such items require any licenses. (3) inspection
determines whether products meet health and safety regulations in order to
make certain that food products are fit for human consumption or that the
 products can be operated safely. (4) inspection prevents the importation of
prohibited articles.
 Inspection can be used intentionally to discourage imports.

HEALTHY AND SAFETY REGULATIONS

 Many products are subject to health and safety regulations, which are necessary
to protect the public health and environment.
 Health and safety regulations are not restricted to agricultural products.

PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS
 For goods to enter a country, product requirements set by that country must be
met. Requirements may apply to (1) product standards and (2) product
specifications as well as to (3) packaging, (4) labeling, and (5) marking.

PRODUCT STANDARDS
 Each country determines its own product standards to protect the health and
safety of its consumers. Such standards may also be erected as barriers to
prevent or slow down importation of foreign goods.

PACKAGING, LABELING, MARKING

 Packaging, labeling, and marking are considered together because they are
closely interrelated. Many products must be packaged in a certain way for
safety and other reasons.

PRODUCT TESTING
 Many products must be tested to determine their safety and suitability before they
can be marketed.
 Although products may have won approval everywhere else for safety and
effectiveness, such products as medical equipment and pharmaceuticals must
go through elaborate standard testing that can take a few years.
PRODUCT SPECIFICATION
 Product specifications, though appearing to be an innocent process, can wreak
havoc on imports. Specifications can be written in such a way as to favor local
bidders and to keep out foreign suppliers.
 GATT has established procedures for setting product standards using
performance standards rather than detailed physical specifications.

QUOTAS
 Quotas are a quantity control on imported goods. Generally, they are specific
provisions limiting the amount of foreign products imported in order to protect
local firms and to conserve foreign currency.
 Quotas may be used for export control as well. An export quota is sometimes
required by national planning to preserve scarce resources.
 From a policy standpoint, a quota is not as desirable as a tariff since a quota
generates no revenues for a country.
 There are three kinds of quotas: (1) absolute, (2) tariff, and (3) voluntary.

ABSOLUTE QUOTAS
 An absolute quota is the most restrictive of all. It limits in absolute terms the
amount imported during a quota period. Once filled, further entries are
prohibited.

TARIFF QUOTAS
 A tariff quota permits the entry of a limited quantity of the quota product at a
reduced rate of duty. Quantities in excess of the quota may be imported but are
subject to a higher duty rate.
 Through the use of tariff quotas, a combination of tariffs and quotas is applied
with the primary purpose of importing what is needed and discouraging
excessive quantities through higher tariffs.

VOLUNTARY QUOTAS
 A voluntary quota differs from the other two kinds of quota, which are
unilaterally imposed.
  A voluntary quota is a formal agreement between nations, or between a nation
and an industry. This agreement usually specifies the limit of supply by
product, country, and volume.
 Two kinds of voluntary quota can be legally distinguished: (1) VER (voluntary
export restraint) and (2) OMA (orderly marketing agreement).
 OMA involves negotiation between two governments to specify export
management rules, the monitoring of trade volumes, and consultation rights.
 VER is a direct agreement between an importing nation’s government and a
foreign exporting industry.

FINANCIAL CONTROL
 Financial regulations can also function to restrict international trade.These
restrictive monetary policies are designed to control capital flow so that
currencies can be defended or imports controlled.

EXCHANGE CONTROL
 An exchange control is a technique that limits the amount of the currency that
may be taken abroad.
 The reason exchange controls are usually applied is that the local currency is
overvalued, thus causing imports to be paid for in smaller amounts of currency.
 Exchange controls also limit the length of time and money an exporter may hold
for the goods sold.

MULTIPLE EXCHANGE RATES

 Multiple exchange rates are another form of exchange regulation or barrier. The
objectives of multiple exchange rates are twofold: (1) to encourage exports and
imports of certain goods, and (2) to discourage exports and imports of others.
 This means that there is no single rate for all products or industries, but with the
application of multiple exchange rates, some products and industries will
benefit and some will not.
 Multiple exchange rates may also apply to imports. The high rates may be used
for imports of particular goods with the government’s approval, whereas low
rates may be used for other imports.
  Since multiple exchange rates are used to bring in hard currencies (through
exports) as well as to restrict imports, this system is condemned by the
International Monetary Fund (IMF).
 According to the IMF, any unapproved multiple currency practices are a breach
of obligations, and the member may become ineligible to use the Fund’s
resources.

PRIOR IMPORT DEPOSITS AND CREDIT RESTRICTIONS

 Financial barriers may also include specific limitations on import restraints, such
as prior import deposits and credit restrictions. Both of these barriers operate by
imposing certain financial restriction on importers.
 A government can require prior import deposits (forced deposits) that make
imports difficult by tying up an importer’s capital. In effect, the importer is
paying interest for money borrowed without being able to use the money or
obtain interest earnings on the money from the government.
 Credit restrictions apply only to imports; that is, exporters may be able to obtain
loans from the government, usually at very favorable rates, but importers will
not be able to receive any credit or financing from the government. Importers
must look for loans in the private sector – very likely at significantly higher
rates, if such loans are available at all.

PROFIT REMITTANCE RESTRICTIONS

 Another form of exchange barrier is the profit remittance restriction.
 ASEAN countries share a common philosophy in allowing unrestricted
repatriation of profits earned by foreign companies.
 Other countries practice a form of profit remittance restriction by simply having
long delays in permission for profit expatriation.

PRIVATE BARRIERS
 Private barriers are certain business practices or arrangements between or among
affiliated firms.
 Japan’s keiretsu is a good example of private barriers. The keiretsu system deals
with cooperative business groups.
WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO)
 Virtually all nations seek to pursue their best interests in international trade. The
result is that sooner or later international trade and marketing can be disrupted.
 To prevent or at least alleviate any problems, there is a world organization in
Geneva known as the WTO (with General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) as its predecessor).
 Created in January 1948, the objective of GATT is to achieve a broad,
multilateral, and free worldwide system of trading.
 The four basic principles of GATT are: (1) Member countries will consult each
other concerning trade problems. (2) The agreement provides a framework for
negotiation and embodies results of negotiations in a legal instrument. (3)
Countries should protect domestic industries only through tariffs, when needed
and if permitted. There should be no other restrictive devices such as quotas
prohibiting imports. (4) Trade should be conducted on a nondiscriminatory
basis.
 The WTO has 148 members.

PREFERENTIAL SYSTEMS
GENERALIZED SYSTEM OF PREFERENCES (GSP)
 The US preferential system is known as the generalized system of preferences
(GSP). The US Congress passed the Trade Act of 1974, authorizing the
initiation of the GSP.
 The purpose of the act is to aid development by providing duty-free entry on
4000 products from more than thirty developing countries.

CARRIBEAN BASIN INITIATIVE (CBI)

 Another US preferential system is the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI).
 The Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act of 1983 provides trade and tax
measures to promote economic revitalization and expanded private sector
opportunities in designated countries in the Caribbean Basin region.
 The Customs and Trade Act of 1990 makes the CBI permanent and provides
additional trade benefits for the Caribbean countries.
  The Act provides a significant advantage to import from the region.The products
will benefit by cost reductions through tariff elimination compared with
imports from non-CBI countries.

OTHER PREFERENTIAL SYSTEMS

 The Andean Trade Preference Act, similar to the CBI, provides trade benefits to
Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
 The USA has passed the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) to
provide reforming African countries with the most liberal access to the US
market available to any country with which the USA does not have a free-trade
agreement.

SOME REMARKS ON PROTECTIONISM

 Protectionist policies rarely achieve their objectives. As noted by a deputy US
trade representative, “The price you pay for protection is inefficiency.”
 According to research, the protection of domestic economies against international
competition is responsible for major economic losses for most sub-Saharan
African countries.
 A country has a choice of opening or closing its borders to trade. If it adopts the
open system, it has a much better chance of fostering economic growth and
maximizing consumer welfare.
 Openness of an economy is the degree to which foreigners and nationals can
transact without government-imposed costs that are not levied on a transaction
between two national citizens. One should note that trade openness and
financial openness are complementary. This positive relationship applies both
to industrial and developing countries.

CONCLUSION
 This chapter discusses various barriers that can hinder international marketing
and impact the global economic well-being of consumers. It emphasizes that
these barriers, such as "performance requirements," where foreign suppliers
must use local materials or support the importing nation's exports, exist in
international marketing. Despite efforts by organizations like the World Trade
Organization (WTO) to reduce restrictions, many protective measures have
increased in recent years. The key message is that international marketers
should understand these challenges, even if they can't control them. By being
knowledgeable, marketers can better cope with these barriers, turning problems
into opportunities for additional profits.