Lesson 1: Classification & Organization of Data
Data Management - It is development, execution, and
supervision of plans, policies, programs, and practices that
control, protect, deliver, and enhance the value of data and
information assets.
➢ It is administrative process by which the required
data is acquired, validated, stored, protected, and
processed. And by which it accessibility, reliability
and timeliness is ensured to satisfy the needs of
data users.
Statistics - The word statistics originated from the word
“status” meaning “state”.
➢ It is the science that deals with the collection,
classification. Analysis and interpretation of
numerical facts or data, in such a way that valid
conclusions and meaningful predictions can be
drawn from them.
General Purposes of Statistics - Statistics are used to
organize and summarize the information so that the
researcher can see what happened in the research study
and can communicate the results to other
➢ Statistics help the researcher to answer the
questions that initiated the research by determining
exactly what general conclusions are justified based
on the specific results that were obtained.
Methods of Data Gathering
➢ Direct or interview method
➢ Indirect or questionnaire method
➢ Registration method
➢ Observation method
➢ Experimental method
Direct or interview method
➢ it is a person to person encounter between the
source of information, the interviewee, and the one
who gathers information, the interviewer.
Indirect or questionnaire method
➢ It is the technique in which a questionnaire is used to
elicit the information or data needed.
Registration method
➢ It obtains data from the records of government
agency authorized by law to keep such data or
information and made these available to
researchers.
Example: Registration of birth, Registration of
Marriage, Registration of Death
Observation method
➢ It is the technique in which data particularly those
pertaining to the behaviors of individuals or group of
individuals during the given situation.
➢ To notice using a full appropriate senses. To see,
hear, feel, taste, and smell
➢ This is also used when the respondents cannot read
nor write
Experimental
➢ It is a system used to gather data from the results of
performed series of experiments on some controlled
and experimental variables. This is commonly used
in scientific inquiries.
➢ Independent variable (IV) - The independent
variable in an experiments is the variable that is
systematically manipulated by the investigator
(CAUSE)
➢ Dependent variable (DV) - The dependent variable
in an experimental is the variable that the
investigator measures to determine the effects of the
independent variable (EFFECT)
Scientific Method - the data from the experiment force a
conclusion consonant with reality. Thus scientific
methodology has a build-in safeguard for ensuring that the
truth assertions of any sort about reality must conform to
what is demonstrated to be objectively true about the
phenomena before the assertions are given the status of
scientific truth.
➢ Descriptive Statistics - It involves the collection
and classification of data.
A bowler wants to find his bowling average for the
past 10 games
A teacher wishes to determine the percentage of
students who passed the examination
➢ Inferential Statistics - It involves the analysis and
interpretation of data
➢ A manager would like to predict based on previous
years’ sales, the sales performance of a company
for the next five years.
➢ A politician would like to estimate, based on an
opinion poll, his chance for winning in the upcoming
senatorial election.
Population - a population is the set of measurements
corresponding to the entire collection of units about which
the information is sought. It is the group of objects/subjects
about which conclusions are to be drawn.
Example:
A. The score of entire students of Senior High School in
EAC-Cavite.
B. All children of any age who have older or younger
siblings in Barangay Lucsuhin.
Sample - a sample is a set of individuals selected from a
population, usually intended to be represent the population
in a research study
Example:
A. The scores of 50 students of Senior High School in
EAC-Cavite.
B. The 40 children who actually participated in one
specific study about siblings in Barangay Lucsuhin.
Sample Determination Formula Data - are measurement or observations. A data set is a
collection of measurements or observations
Datum - is a single measurement or observation and is
commonly called a score or raw score.
➢ The measurements that are made on the subjects of
Where: an experiment are also called data.
➢ Usually data consist of the measurements of the
n = Sample size
dependent variable or of other subject
N = Population size characteristics, such as age, gender, number of
e = Desired margin of error (usually 0.05 or 5%) subjects, And so on. The data as originally
Example Problem measured are often referred to as raw or original
Compute the sufficient sample size of a target population scores.
consisting of 1 524 sixth-graders in a given school district Types of Data
using sample determination formula Qualitative Data - Data that deal with categories or
Given: attributes
N = 1 524 Example
e = 0.05 ➢ Color of Skin
➢ Course in Computer Engineering
Quantitative Data - Data that deal with numerical
Example
➢ Number if units in one semester
➢ Grade point average

Discrete and Continuous Data

➢ Discrete Date - Data that are obtained by Counting
Determine the sample size for each grade level given in the
Example
table below
➢ Number of students in the classroom
➢ Number of cars in the parking lot
➢ Continuous Data - Data that are obtained by
measuring
Example
➢ Are of mango farm in Pampanga
➢ Volume of water in a pool in Pansol, Laguna
Classification of Quantitative Data
➢ Continuous Data - It can assume any of infinite
number of values and can be associated with points
on a continuous line interval.
Example: Height, Weight, Volume
➢ Discrete Data - It results from either a finite number
of possible values or a countable number of possible
values.
Example: number of students, number of books,
and number of patients.
Parameter - is a value, usually a numerical value that
describes a population.
➢ A parameter is usually derived from measurements
of the individuals in the population
Statistics - is a value, usually a numerical value that
describes a sample. A statistic is usually derived from
measurements of the individuals in the sample
.Sampling Error - is a naturally occurring discrepancy, or
error, that exists between a sample statistic and the
corresponding population parameter.
Variable - It is any property or characteristic of some events,
object, or person that may have different values at different
times depending on the conditions.
➢ Qualitative Variable - a qualitative variable
describes an object or individual by placing the
object or individual into a category or group.
Example are gender, nationality, color, types of
personality, and product brand.
➢ Quantitative Variable - a quantitative variable has a
value or numerical measurement for which operation
can be applied. Example age, height, and weight
are quantitative
Level of measurement ( The Hierarchy of Levels )
Nominal - labels qualitative data into mutually exclusive
categories
➢ At this level of measurement, the numbers in the
variable are used only to classify the data. Words,
letters, and alpha-numeric symbols can be used.
Example: Manila, Makati, Cavite
Ordinal - ranks qualitative data according to its degree
At this level of measurement, the numbers indicate an order
Example: Low, Average, High 1st, 2nd, 3rd
Interval - numerical data that has order and its differences
can be determined; do not have a “true” zero
➢ At this level of measurement, the numbers tell the
distances between the measurements in addition to
the classification and ordering.
Example: Temperature
Ratio - Numerical data that has order, differences can
be determined and has a “true” zero
➢ Has an absolute zero that is meaningful
Example: Speed, Height, Weight
Lesson 2: Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Central Tendency A single value that
describes the center of a distribution:
➢ Mean also known as the “average” or “arithmetic
mean”
➢ The sum of all values in a dataset divided by the
total number of observations
➢ Median the middlemost score
➢ Mode the most frequent score
Lesson 3: Measures Of Dispersion
Measures of Absolute Dispersion
Where:
➢ HS is the highest score
➢ LS is the lowest Score
Example: Find the range of the scores of 9 students in an
examination: 46 46 53 55 69 74 75 82 90
R = HS – LS
R = 90 – 46
R = 44
The range is 44
IQR (Interquartile Range)
Q1 – Lower Quartile
Q3 – Upper Quartile
The Interquartile Range and Semi- Interquartile Range
Example: Find the IQR of the scores of
9 students in an examination: 46 46 53 55 69 74 75 82 90
Q1 = (1/4) (n+1)
Q1 = (0.25) (10) = 2.5nd data point
Q1 = 46 + 0.5 (53 – 46)
Q1 = 46 + 3.5
Q1 = 49.5 lower quartile
Example: Find the IQR of the scores of 9
students in an examination: 46 46 53 55 69 74 75 82 90
Q3 = (3/4) (n+1)
Q3 = (0.75) (10) = 7.5th data pt
Q3 = 75 + 0.5 (82 – 75)
Q3 = 75 + 3.5
Q3 = 78.5 upper quartile
IQR = Q3 – Q1
IQR = 78.5 – 49.5 = 29
Outlier
➢ A value that "lies outside" (is much smaller or larger
than) most of the other values in a set of data.
➢ One way to determine if a data point is an outlier is
to use the interquartile range (IQR) method.
➢ Lower Boundary : Q1 – 1.5 IQR
➢ Upper Boundary : Q3 + 1.5 IQR
Example #3:
The following measures represent the raw scores of
39 students in a 100-point examinations in Statistics.
The raw scores were arranged from lowest to highest. 42 45
46 48 50 50 51 52 52 53 56 56 57 58 59 60 60 62 62 63 63
63 64 64 65 65 66 68 70 70 70 70 71 72 72 75 77 78 100
Determine if there are outliers in the set.
Solution to get Outliers
Step 1. The scores must be arranged from
lowest to highest. 42 45 46 48 50 50 51 52 52 53 56 56 57
58 59 60 60 62 62 63 63 63 64 64 65 65 66 68 70 70 70 70
71 72 72 75 77 78 100
Step 3. Find the lower quartile (Q1). Q1 = ¼ (n+1)
Q1 = 0.25 (39 + 1) = 10. The 10th score is 53
42 45 46 48 50 50 51 52 52 53 56 56 57 58 59 60 60 62 62
63 63 63 64 64 65 65 66 68 70 70 70 70 71 72 72 75 77 78
100
Step 4. Find the upper quartile (Q3). Q3 = ¾(n+1) Standard Score
Q3 = 0.75 (39 + 1) = 30. The 30th score is 70 It measures how many standard deviation is above or below
42 45 46 48 50 50 51 52 52 53 56 56 57 58 59 60 60 the mean. Note: Not really a measure of relative dispersion
62 62 63 63 63 64 64 65 65 66 68 70 70 70 70 71 72 72 75 but related
77 78 100 Example
Step 5. Calculating the lower boundary and upper boundary. Rowan got a grade of 75% in English and a grade of 90% in
Lower Boundary: Q1 – 1.5 IQR History. The mean grade in English is 65% and the standard
53 – 1.5 (70 – 53) = 27.5 Deviation is 10%, whereas in History, the mean grade is 80%
Upper Boundary: Q3 + 1.5 IQR and the standard deviation is 20% in which subject did
70 + 1.5 (70 – 53) = 95.5 Rowan
Since there is a score of 100, it is considered as
an outlier since it is outside of the upper boundary of 95.5 Lesson 4: Symmetric and Asymmetric Distribution
The Variance Symmetric Distribution
S² = ➢ Property of a distribution that has the mean as the
Where: center, acting as a mirror image of the two sides of
x – scores the distribution
x̄- mean ➢ Most of the data values are found near the mean,
n – number of samples tapering off on both sides of the mean. The mean is
The Standard Deviation equal to the median
S= Asymmetric Distribution
Where: ➢ Lack of symmetry
x – scores ➢ Can be right-skewed distribution or left-skewed
x̄- mean distribution
n – number of samples
Example:
The birth weights in pounds of five (5) babies born in a
certain hospital on a certain day are 9.2, 6.4,10.5, 8.1, and
7.8. Find the variance and standard deviation of the weights.
The variance can be found by following these four steps.
➢ Find the mean.
➢ Subtract the mean from each of the five
Right-skewed distribution
samples/observations.
➢ The scores of students who did not study for a major
➢ Squaring these deviations from the mean
examination
➢ Taking the average of these squared deviations.
➢ The household income of Filipinos in a certain area
Following the above steps yields:
in the National Capital Region
Left-skewed distribution
➢ The number of people buying Christmas presents
during December.
➢ The hours that children spend playing with their
gadgets
Skewness is a measure or a criterion on how asymmetric
the distribution of data is from the mean.
Pearson Coefficient of skewness
is a method developed by Karl Pearson to find skewness in
S² = = 2.375 Therefore, the variance is 2.375 a sample using descriptive statistics like the mean and
S = 1.5411 Therefore, the standard deviation is 1.5411 mode.
Where: is the sample mean
Measures of Relative Dispersion Md – is the median
These are unit-less and are used when one wishes to s – standard deviation
compare the scatter of one distribution with another Sk = 0, symmetrical
distribution. Sk = positive; positively skewed
Sk = negative;negatively skewed
Symmetrical distribution and mode occurs when the
values of variables occur at regular frequencies and the
mean, median at the same point.
Positively skewed (or right-skewed)
distribution is a type of distribution in which most values are
clustered around the left tail of the distribution while the right
tail of the distribution is longer.
Negatively skewed
is a type of distribution in which more values are
concentrated on the right side (tail) of the distribution graph
while the left tail of the distribution graph is longer
Example 1
• For 108 randomly selected high school students, the
following IQ frequency distribution were obtained. Find the
coefficient of skewness of the distribution
Measure of Kurtosis
➢ Kurtosis is a measure of whether the data are
heavy-tailed or light-tailed relative to a normal
distribution.
➢ That is, data sets with high kurtosis tend to have
heavy tails, or outliers. Data sets with low kurtosis
tend to have light tails, or lack of outliers.
Leptokurtic
➢ indicates a positive excess kurtosis. The leptokurtic
distribution shows heavy tails on either side,
indicating large outliers.
➢ (Leptokurtic Distribution High Degree of
Peakedness)
Platykurtic
➢ A platykurtic distribution shows a negative excess
kurtosis.
➢ The kurtosis reveals a distribution with flat tails.
➢ The flat tails indicate the small outliers in a
distribution
Measure of Kurtosis
➢ For ungrouped data
➢ For group data
Example 1
• For 108 randomly selected high school students, the
following IQ frequency distribution were obtained. Find the
coefficient of skewness & kurtosis of the distribution
Key Differences Between Skewness and Kurtosis
This is the fundamental differences between skewness
and kurtosis:
➢ The characteristic of a frequency distribution that
ascertains its symmetry about the mean is called
skewness. On the other hand, Kurtosis means the
relative pointedness of the standard bell curve,
defined by the frequency distribution.
➢ Skewness is a measure of the degree of
lopsidedness in the frequency distribution.
Conversely, kurtosis is a measure of degree of
tailedness in the frequency distribution
➢ Skewness is an indicator of lack of symmetry, i.e.
both left and right sides of the curve are unequal,
with respect to the central point. As against this,
kurtosis is a measure of data, that is either peaked
or flat, with respect to the probability distribution
➢ Skewness shows how much and in which direction,
the values deviate from the mean? In Contrast,
kurtosis explain how tall and sharp the central peak
is.