What is RESEARCH?

Method top-down: bottom–up: the

● is systematic and objective creation of
the researcher researcher
knowledge.
tests the generates a new
● Coined from the French word “cerchier”, means
hypothesis and hypothesis and
seek, prefix “re” means repeat
theory with theory from the
● Literally, research is to repeat looking for
the data. data collected
something (Faltado et al. 2016)
Quantitative Research Focus Narrow-angle lens; Wide-angle lens;
● Uses quantities and numbers (scores, ratings, tests a examines the
frequencies, percentages, prices) to denote a specific breadth & depth
particular thing. hypotheses of
● Objective, systematic, empirical investigation of phenomena
observable phenomena through the use of
computational techniques.
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
● Highlights numerical analysis of data hoping that
the numbers yield unbiased results that can be 1. Objective
generalized to some larger population and - seeks accurate measurement and analysis of
explain a particular observation. target concepts.
- not based on mere intuitions or guesses.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative 2. Clearly Defined Research Questions
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE - the researchers know in advance what they’re
RESEARCH RESEARCH looking for.
- the research questions are well defined to
Purpose To test To understand & guide in data gathering
hypotheses, look interpret social 3. Structured Research Instruments
at cause interactions - data are gathered using a structured research
& effect, & make tools, eg. Questionnaires to collect
predictions measurable characteristics of the population
like age, number of children, etc.
Group Larger & randomly Smaller & not 4. Numerical Data
Studied selected randomly - data are in the form of numbers and statistics,
selected often presented in tables, charts, etc. that
consolidate large numbers of data to show
Variables Specific variables Study of the
trends, relationships, or differences among
studied whole, not
variables.
variables
5. Large Sample Sizes
Type of Data Numbers and Words, images, - prefer to use normal population distribution
Collected statistics or objects curves
- the research questions are well defined to
Form of Data Quantitative data Qualitative data guide in data gathering
Collected based on such as open-
Strengths of Quantitative Research
precise ended
measurements responses, ● Precision of numbers
using interviews, ● Level of significance (statistical) can be
structured & participant determined that results are not due to chance
validated data observations, alone
collection field notes, & ● Sample is less prone to sampling bias
instruments reflections ● Error can be computed, e.g., sampling error
Weaknesses of Quantitative Research
Objectivity & Objectivity is Subjectivity is
● Inadequacy of numbers for total picture and
Subjectivity critical expected
depth of analysis
Basis of Cause and effect Meaning and ● Less than 100% accuracy in sampling, instrument
knowing relationship discover construction and administration
● Assumptions in statistical methods
Scientific Confirmatory or Exploratory or
Kinds of Quantitative Research
 I. Experimental
1. True Experimental
● The sample groups must be assigned
randomly.
● There must be a viable control group.
● Only one variable can be manipulated and
tested.
● It is possible to test more than one, but such
experiments and their statistical analysis tend
to be cumbersome and difficult.
● The tested subjects must be randomly assigned
to either control or experimental groups
2. Quasi Experimental
● Constructions that already exist in the real
world.
● Categories fall short in some way of the
criteria for the true experimental group.
● Have some sort of control and experimental
group, but these groups are not necessarily
randomly selected.
3. Pre-experimental
● Employ a single group that receives the
"treatment," and there is no control group.
Pilot studies, oneshot case studies, and most
research using only one group, fall into this
category.
II. Non-Experimental
1. Descriptive - Systematic gathering of
information from respondents for the purpose
of understanding and/or predicting some
aspects of the behavior of the population of
interest.
2. Correlational - there are two (2) or more
quantitative variables from the same group of
subjects. It determines if there is a relationship
(or correlation) between the two (2) variables
(a similarity between them, not a difference
between their means).
3. Causal Comparative - It is also known as “ex
post facto” research. The basic causal-
comparative approach involves starting with an
effect and seeking possible causes (It starts
with cause and investigates its effects on some
variable).
4. Comparative - It examines the patterns of
similarities and differences across a moderate
number of cases. The typical comparative
study has anywhere from a handful to fifty or
more cases.
5. Evaluative - uses standard social research
methods for evaluative purposes, as a specific
research methodology, and as an assessment
process that employs special techniques
unique to the evaluation of social programs.
Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields
a. Discoveries - Ex. Newborn screening, cloning,
bioremediation (use of microorganisms to
remove contaminants from the polluted water).
b. Medicine - new experiments lead to a discovery
of new medicine that could heal/prevent such
disease.
c. Agriculture - experiment on the use of organic
and inorganic fertilizers.
d. GMOs positive and negative effect
e. Education - the effect of using computer-assisted
instruction to enhance students’ learning
VARIABLES
● Any factor or property that a researcher
measures, controls and/or manipulates.
● The changing quantity or measure of any factor,
trait or condition that can exist in differing
amounts or types.
● A logical set of attributes, characteristics,
numbers or quantities that can be measured or
counted.
● Also called a data item.
CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
1. NUMERIC VARIABLES
• These are variables with values that describe a
measurable numerical quantity and answer the
questions “how many” or “how much”.
• These values are considered quantitative data
a. Continuous Variables - can assume any value
between a certain set of real numbers and the
values depend on the scale used. Also called
interval variables.
Some examples: age time, temperature, height,
weight
b. Discrete Variables - can assume any whole
value within the limits of the given variables.
Some examples: no. of registered cars, no. of
business locations, no. of children in the family,
populations of students, no. of working faculty
2. CATEGORICAL VARIABLES
• With values that describe a quality or
characteristics of a date unit like “what type” or
‘which category”
a. Ordinal Variables - variables that can take up a
value which can be logically ordered or ranked.
Some examples: academic grade such as
A,B,C; clothing size such as X,L,M,S; and
measures of attitudes like strongly agree,
agree, disagree, or strongly disagree
b. Nominal Variables - values cannot be
organized in a logical sequence.
 Some examples: business types, eye color,
kinds of religions, various languages and types
of learners
c. Dichotomous Variables - represents only two
categories.
Some examples: gender (male and female);
answer (yes or no); veracity ( true or false)
d. Polychotomous Variables - have many
categories.
Some examples: educational attainment
(elementary, high school, college, graduate
and postgraduate), level of performance
(excellent, very good, good, satisfactory, or
poor)
3. EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES
• describes the factors that differ between the test
and the control samples, which you are investigating.
a. Independent Variable (IV)
● Suspected of being the cause in a causal
relationship.
● If you are asking a cause and effect question,
your IV will be the variable (or variables if more
than one) that you suspect causes the effect.
● Usually called predictor or criterion variables. It
is known as the CAUSE variable.
i. Active independent variables - are
interventions or conditions that are being
applied to the participants.
Examples: A special tutorial for the third
graders, a new therapy for clients, new training
program being tested on employees
ii. Attribute independent variables - are intrinsic
characteristics of the participants that are
suspected of causing a result.
Examples: if you are examining whether
gender — which is intrinsic to the participants —
results in higher or lower scores on some skill,
gender is an attribute IV
b. Dependent Variable (DV)
● Influenced by the independent variables. If you
ask, "Does A cause [or predict or influence or
affect, and so on] B?" then B is the dependent
variable (DV).
● Outcomes or results of the influence of the
independent variable.
● Receives the intervention
● OUTCOME or EFFECT variables.
c. Extraneous Variables (EV) - can be age, gender,
or personality traits may suddenly surface to
create effects on the relationship of the two
basic variables (IV & DV).
d. Intervening variable - a kind of extraneous
variable that directly establishes the link
between IV and DV. It is the primary cause of the
change in DV.
e. Confounding Variables - affect how IV acts on
DV, which can lead to a false result or effect on
DV.
Examples:
1. Title of Research: Competencies of Teachers and
Students’ Behavior in Selected Private Schools
IV: Competencies of Teachers
DV: Students’ Behavior
2. Title of Research : Conduct of Guidance
Counseling Programs and Degree of Absenteeism
and Dropout Rate Among Grade 12 Classes
IV: Conduct of Counseling Programs
DV: Degree of Absenteeism and Dropout Rate
3. Title of Research: An Experiment on the
Methods of Teaching and Language Achievement
Among Elementary Pupils
IV: Method of Teaching
DV: Language Achievement
EV: Ventilation facilities, physical ambiance
4. Title of Research: Use of the Gardening Tools
and Types of Fertilizers: Their Effect on the
Amount of Harvest
IV: Use of gardening tools and types of
fertilizers
DV: Amount of harvest
EV: Humidity level, types of seeds/plant
4. VARIABLES ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER BEING
STUDIED
a. Univariate Study - only one variable is being
studied
b. Bivariate Study - two variables are being
studied
c. Polyvariate Study - more than two variables
are being studied
THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY (CHAP 1)
Purpose
● Introduce the research problem
● Clarify important variables
● Discuss its delimitations
● Specify its significance to the field of study
Elements
1. Introduction
2. Statement of the Problem (SOP)
3. Scope and Delimitation
4. Significance of the Study
THE INTRODUCTION - very important in establishing
the cognitive setting of the research and it involves:
a. Discussing why there is a need to study the
problem.
 b. Clarifying the important terminologies for the
reader to easily understand what the research is
all about.
c. Establishing the degree of seriousness of the
problem which has prompted the researcher to
look for a solution.
The following questions will help the researcher in
formulating the introduction:
1. What is the rationale of the research problem?
2. What is the setting of the research problem?
3. What is the basic literature foundation of the
study?
4. How serious is the chosen research problem?
5. What is the general objective of the research
problem?
6. What is the overall purpose of the research
problem?
THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
● Stating the problem helps the researcher clarify
various essential elements of research such as
the major variables, the general and specific
objectives, and the appropriate methodology.
● The opening paragraph of this part of the
research paper contains the general problem of
the study. It has to be restated with the specific
details on the participants, setting, and period of
the study.
Important elements in the statement of the general
problem are:
1. Main task - they satisfy the questions “what to
do?” with the major variables.
2. Main or major objectives
3. Participants
4. The specific setting
5. Coverage date of the conduct of the study
The general problem is followed by an
enumeration of the specific problem. The specific
problems are usually stated as questions that the
researcher seeks to answer.
The specific problems must meet the following
criteria:
1. They must be in question form.
2. They must define the population and the sample
(respondent/subject) of the study.
3. They must identify the variables being studied.
4. They must be empirically tested.
THE SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
● Define the topic and boundaries of the research
problem to be investigated.
● Scope - details how in-depth your study is to
explore the research question and the
parameters in which it will operate in relation to
the population and timeframe.
● Delimitations - factors and variables not to be
included in the investigation. They are the
boundaries the researcher sets in terms of study
duration, population size and type of
participants, etc.
A good scope statement will answer the following six
questions:
● Why – general aims and objectives (purpose) of
the research.
● What – subject to be investigated, and the
included variables.
● Where – location or setting of the study, i.e.
where the data will be gathered and to which
entity the data will belong.
● When – timeframe within which the data is to be
collected.
● Who – subject matter of the study and the
population from which they will be selected. This
population needs to be large enough to be able
to make generalizations.
● How – how the research is to be conducted,
including a description of the research design,
methodology, research tools and analysis
techniques.
Guidelines on how to write delimitations:
● Since the delimitation parameters are within the
researcher’s control, readers need to know why
they were set, what alternative options were
available, and why these alternatives were
rejected.
● Your reasons should always be linked back to
your research question, as all delimitations
should result from trying to make your study
more relevant to your scope.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
● A written statement that explains why your
research was needed. It’s a justification of the
importance of your work and impact it has on
your research field, its contribution to new
knowledge and how others will benefit from it.
IN-TEXT CITATION - APA STYLE
Purposes of Citation
1. To give importance and respect to other people
for what they know about the field
2. To give authority, validity, and credibility to other
people’s claims, conclusions, and arguments.
3. To prove your broad and extensive reading of
authentic and relevant materials about your
topic.
4. To help readers find or contact the sources of
ideas easily.
5. To permit readers to check the accuracy of your
work.
 6. To save yourself from plagiarism.
APA (American Psychological Association)
● First published in 1929.
● Rules of APA Style are drawn from an extensive
body of psychological literature, from editors and
authors experienced in scholarly writing, and
from recognized authorities on publication
practices.
● The most commonly used to cite sources within
the social sciences.
● Has a series of important rules on using author
names as part of the author-date system.
Note: APA style requires authors to use the present
tense, past tense or present perfect tense when using
signal phrases to describe earlier research.
Example: Jones (1998) finds
Jones (1998) found
Jones (1998) has found
Printed Book with One (1) Author
a. author is used as a subject (found usually at the
beginning of the paragraph)
Author’s family name (Year of Publication)
Ex. 1: Underwood (1990) explained that using
multimedia…
Ex. 2: According to Nordquist (2014), vocabulary
acquisition…
b. Author is cited at the end of the paragraph
(Author’s family name , Year of Publication).
Ex: Multimedia annotation is not limited to
textual information alone. It utilizes multiple
avenues to present vocabulary knowledge (Al-
Seghayer, 2001).
Printed Book with Two (2) Authors
a. authors are used as subjects (beginning of the
paragraph)
Last Name 1 and Last Name 2 (Year of
Publication)
Ex. Chun and Plass (1996) explained further that
associating lexical…
Remember: For more than one author, list the names
in the order they appear in the source.
b. Authors are cited at the end of the paragraph
(Last Name 1 & Last Name 2, Year of
Publication).
Ex: …by which all other skills are built (Chun &
Plass, 2002).
Printed Book with Three to Five (3-5) Authors
a. Authors are used as subjects (beginning of the
paragraph)
● List all the authors in the signal phrase or in
parentheses the first time you cite the
source.
● Use the word "and" between the authors'
names within the text.
Last name 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Year of Publication)
Ex: Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, and Wei (2015) stated
that…
● In subsequent citations, use only the first
author's last name followed by "et al." in the
signal phrase.
Last name 1 et al. (Year of Publication)
Ex: Kim et al. (2015) stated that…
b. Authors are cited at the end of the paragraph
● List all the authors in the signal phrase or in
parentheses the first time you cite the
source.
● Use the word “(&)" between the authors'
names in the parentheses.
Ex: …learning (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, Wei, &
Lee, 2015).
● In subsequent citations, use only the first
author's last name followed by "et al." in the
parentheses.
Ex: … acquisition (Kim et al.,2015).
Citing an E-book from an E-Reader
● E-book is a digital version of a book that can be
read on a computer, e-reader (Kindle, Nook,
etc.), or other electronic device.
Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work [E-
Reader Version]. Retrieved from URL or DOI
Ex: Eggers, D. (2008). The circle [Kindle Version].
Retrieved from http://www.amazon.com/
Citing a Book found in a Database
● A DOI (digital object identifier) is an assigned
number that helps link content to its location on
the Internet; It is therefore important. If one is
provided, to use it when creating a citation. All
DOI numbers begin with a 10 and are separated
by a slash.
Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work [E-
Reader Version]. Retrieved from URL or DOI
Ex: Sayre, Rebecca K., Devercelli, A.E., Neuman,
M.J., & Wodon, (2015). Investment in early
childhood development: Review of the world
bank’s recent experience. DOI: 10.1596/978-1-
4648-0403-8
Citing a Printed Magazine Article
 ● You can find the volume number with the other
publication information of the magazine.
● You can typically find page numbers at the
bottom corners of a magazine article.
● If you cannot locate an issue number, simply
don’t include it in the citation.
Author, A. (Year, month of Publication). Article
title. Magazine Title, Volume(Issue), pp.- pp.
Ex: Tumulty, K. (2006, April). Should they stay or
should they go? Time, 167(15), 3-40.
Citing an Online Magazine Article
● The volume and issue number aren’t always on
the same page as the article. Check out the other
parts of the website before leaving it out of the
citation.
Author, A. A. (Year, Month of Publication).
Article title. Magazine Title,Volume(Issue).
Retrieved from URL
Ex: Tumulty, K. (2006, April). Should they stay or
should they go? Time, 167(15). Retrieved from
http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/
0,9171,1179361,00.html
Citing a Printed Newspaper Article
● Precede page numbers for newspaper articles
with p. (for a single page) or pp. (for multiple
pages).
● If an article appears on discontinuous pages, give
all page numbers, and separate the numbers
with a comma (e.g., pp. B1, B3, B5- B7).
Author, A. (Year, Month Date of Publication).
Article title. Newspaper Title, pp. xx-xx.
Ex: Rosenberg, G. (1997, March 31). Electronic
discovery proves an effective legal weapon. The
New York Times, p. D5.
Citing an Online Newspaper Article
● APA does NOT require you to include the date of
access for electronic sources. If you discovered a
newspaper article via an online database, that
information is NOT required for the citation
either.
● Multiple lines: If the URL runs onto a second line,
only break the URL before punctuation (except
for http://).
Author, A. (Year, Month Date of Publication).
Article title. Newspaper Title. Retrieved from
newspaper homepage URL
Ex: Rosenberg, G. (1997, March 31). Electronic
discovery proves an effective legal weapon. The
New York Times. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com
Citing a General Website Article with an Author
Author, A. (Year, Month Date of Publication).
Article title. Retrieved from URL
Ex: Simmons, B. (2015, January 9). The tale of
two Flaccos. Retrieved from
http://grantland.com/thetriangle/the-tale-of-
two-flaccos
Citing a General Website Article without an Author
Article title. (Year, Month Date of Publication).
Retrieved from URL
Ex: Teen posed as doctor at West Palm Beach
hospital: police. (2015, January 16). Retrieved
from
http://www.nbcmiami.com/news/local/Teen-
Posed-asDoctor-at-West-Palm-Beach-Hospital-
Police288810831.html
NOTE: IT WILL BE DISCOURAGED BECAUSE OF ITS
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY!
Citing a Printed Journal Article
Author, A. (Publication Year). Article title.
Periodical Title, Volume(Issue), pp.-pp.
Ex: Nevin, A. (1990). The changing of teacher
education special education. Teacher Education
and Special Education: The Journal of the
Teacher Education Division of the Council for
Exceptional Children, 13(3-4), 147-148.
Citing an Online Journal Article
● APA does NOT require you to include the date of
access/retrieval date or database information for
electronic sources.
● You can use the URL of the journal homepage if
there is no DOI assigned and the reference was
retrieved online.
Author, A. (Publication Year). Article title.
Journal Title, Volume(Issue), pp.-pp.
DOI:XX.XXXXX or Retrieved from journal URL
Ex: Jameson, J. (2013). E-Leadership in higher
education: The fifth “age” of educational
technology research. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 44(6), 889-915. DOI:
10.1111/bjet.12103
Citing a Film/Movie
Producer, A. (Producer), & Director, A.
(Director). (Released Year). Title of motion
picture [Motion Picture]. Country of Origin:
Studio.
Ex: Bender, L. (Producer), & Tarantino, Q.
(Director). (1994). Pulp fiction [Motion Picture].
United States: Miramax.
Citing a Film from YouTube
 Author, A. [screen name]. (Year, Month Date of
Publication). Title of video [Video file].
Retrieved from URL
Ex: Smith, Rick. (2013, September 20). Favre to
Moss!. [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gOP_L6hBj
n8

Citing a Printed Encyclopedia Entry

Author, A. (Publication Year). Entry title. In
Encyclopedia title, (Vol. XX, pp. XX). City, State
of publication: Publisher.
Ex: Kammen, C., & Wilson, A.H. (2012).
Monuments. In Encyclopedia of local history. (pp.
363-364). Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press

Keep In Mind!
● Bold the name/s of the author/s
● Observe proper indentation
● Remember when to italicize
● Always remember that the title of the
article/book/periodical must be capitalized in the
first letter only of the title.
● Always take note of the placement of the comma
and period or even the colon.