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I
A SYNOPSIS
ELEMENTAEY EESULTS
Part I. of Vomme I., now ready, contains the following sections, which
may be purchased separately, in stiff paper covers, at the prices annexed :—
s. d.
Section I.—Mathematical Tables ; including Measures
in C. G. S. units. Burckhardt's Table
of Least Factors of numbers from 1 to
99000. Legendre's Values of the
Gamma-function, &c Price 2 0
„ II.—Algebra 2 6
„ III.—Theory of Equations and Determinants... 2 0
„ IV.—Plane Trigonometry ( together ; with ) _ .
„ V.— Spherical do. ( 22 diagrams. )"
„ VI.—Elementary Geometry ; with 47 diagrams.. 2 6
„ VII.—Geometrical Conics ; with 35 diagrams ... 2 0
Price of Part I. complete, Cloth, Eoyal 8vo, 280 pages 12 0
LONDON:
C. F. HODGSON AND SON, GOUGH SQUARE,
FLEET STREET.
1880.
(All rights reserved.)
t -a
/
A SYNOPSIS
ELEMENTABY BESULTS
ABRIDGED DEMONSTRATIONS.
BY
G. S. CAER, B.A.,
1ATE PKIZEMAN AND SCIIOLAE, OF OONVIL1E AND CAIUS COLLEGE, CAMBEIDGE.
VOL. I.
LONDON:
C. F. HODGSON AND SON, GOUGH SQUARE,
FLEET STREET.
1880.
(AH riff/its reserved.)
4£^ k
lOIfDOlT :
* See " Factor Table for the Fourth Million." By James Glaisher, F.R.S.
London : Taylor and Francis. 1880. Also Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc, Vol. III.,
Pt. IV., and Nature, No. 542, p. 462.
PREFACE. IX
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• i 333,
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it
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10284.
ii 481, it 6, i »-3 ,, n-1.
ii 614, it 4, applying Descartes' rule Dele.
,, 517, tt 3, , «3 ,i *3-
ii 644, tt 1, Transpose J^and/.
ii 651, tt 1. ,i A , -»•
»» tt tt 9, , o— » ,, O — K.
„ 704, , (11, 12) , (9, 10, 1).
» 729, i (940) ,, (960).
Article 112 should bo as follows: —
1 1+2./3 + y2 ^ 1 + 2^/3 + ^2 (l + 2y3 + y2HH-4y3)
1 + 2^3 T.y/2 (1 + 2 ^3)3-2 11+4^/3 73
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PABT I.
SECTION I.—MATHEMATICAL TABLES. Paso
Introduction. The C. G. S. System op Units—
Notation and Definitions of Units .. . ... ... ... 1
Physical Constants and Formulas ... ... ... ... 2
Table I.—English Measures and Equivalents in C. G. S. Units 4
II.—Pressure of Aqueous Vapour at different temperatures 4
III.—Wave lengths and Wave frequency for the principal
lines of the Spectrum ... ... ... ... ... 4
IV.—The . Principal Metals — Their Densities ; Coeffi
cients of Elasticity, Rigidity, and Tenacity ; Expan
sion by Heat ; Specific Heat ; Conductivity ; Rate
of conduction of Sound ; Electro-magnetic Specific
Resistance ... ... ... ... ... ... 5
V.—The Planets — Their Dimensions, Masses, Densities,
and Elements of Orbits ... ... ... ... 5
VI.—Powers and Logarithms of v and e ... ... ... 6
VII.—Square and Cube Roots of the Integers 1 to 30 ... 6
VIII.— Common and Hyperbolic Logarithms of the
Prime numbers from 1 to 109... ... ... ... 6
IX,—Factor Table—.
Explanation of the Table ... ... ... ... 7
The Least Factors of all numbers from 1 to 99000... 8
X.—Values op the Gamma-Function 30
No. of
Article
Lowest Common Multiple ... 33
Evolution—
Square Root and Cube Root 35
Useful Transformations 38
Quadratic Equations 45
Theory of Quadeatic Expressions 50
Equations in one Unknown Quantity.—Examples 54
Maxima and Minima by a Quadratic Equation 58
Simultaneous Equations and Examples ... 59
Ratio and Proportion G8
The h Theorem 70
Duplicate and Triplicate Ratios 72
Compound Ratios 74
Variation ... 76
Arithmetical Progression 79
Geometrical Progression 83
Harmonical Progression 87
Permutations and Combinations 94
Surds ... 108
Simplification of </a-\- */b and va+ Vb 121
Simplification of Va+ »/b ... ... 124
Binomial Theorem ... 125
Multinomial Theorem 137
Logarithms ... 142
Exponential Theorem 149
Continued Fractions and Convergents ... 160
General Theory of same 167
To convert a Series into a Continued Fraction 182
A Continued Fraction with Recurring Quotients 186
Indeterminate Equations ... 188
To reduce a Quadratic Surd to a Continued Fraction 195
To form high Convergents rapidly 197
General Theory 199
Equations—
Special cases in the Solution of Simultaneous Equations 211
Method by Indeterminate Multipliers 213
Miscellaneous Equations and Solutions 214
On Symmetrical Expressions 219
Imaginary Expressions 223
Method of Indeterminate Coefficients ... 232
Method of Proof by Induction 233
Partial Fractionsi.—Four Cases ... 235
convergency and divergency of series ... 239
General Theorem of ^> (x) ... 243
CONTENTS. X1U
No. of
Article
Expansion of a Fraction 248
Recurring Series ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 251
The General Term 257
Case of Quadratic Factor with Imaginary Roots... ... 258
Lagrange's Rule ... ... ... ... ... ... 263
Summation op Series bt the Method of Differences 264
Interpolation of a term ... ... ... ... ... 267
Direct Factorial Series ... ... ... ... ... ... 268
Inverse Factorial Series 270
Summation by Partial Fractions ... ... ... ... ... 272
Composite Factorial Series ... ... ... ... ... 274
Miscellaneous Series—
Sums of the Powers of the Natural Numbers ... ... 276
Sum of a+(a+d)r+(a + 2d)iJ + &o 279
Sumof nr-n(n— l)r+&c 285
Polygonal Numbers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 287
Figurate Numbers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 289
Hypergeometrical Series ... ... ... ... ... ... 291
Proof that e" is incommensurable .. . ... ... ... 295
Interest 296
Annuities 302
Probabilities... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 309
Inequalities 330
Arithmetic Mean > Geometric Mean ... ... ... 332
Arithmetic Mean of mth powers > wth power of A. M. ... 334
Scales of Notation 342
Theorem concerning Sum or Difference of Digits ... 347
Theory of Numrers ... ... ... ... ... ... 349
Highest Power of a Prime p contained in | m ... ... 365
Fermat's Theorem ... ... ... ... ... ... 369
Wilson's Theorem 371
Divisors of a Number ... ... ... ... ... 374
Sr divisible by 2n + l 380
No. of
Article.
Limits, qf the Roots. .. .... 448
Newton's Method 452
Rolle'a Theorem ... ... ... ... ... ... 454
Newton's Method op Divisors ... ... ... ... ... 459
Reciprocal Equations 466
Binomial Equations 472
Solution of «"±1 =.0. by De Moivro's Theorem 480
Cubic Equations 483
Cardan's Method 484
Trigonometrical Method ... ... ... ... ... 489
Biquadratic Equations—
Descartes' Solution ... ... ... ... ... ... 492
Ferrari's Solution ... ... ... ... ... ... 496
Euler's Solution 499
Commensurable Roots 502
Incommensurable Roots—■
Sturm's Theorem ..' 506
Fourier's Theorem ... ... ... ... ... ... 518
Lagrange's Method of Approximation ... ... ... 525
Newton's Method of Approximation ... ... ... 527
Eourier's Limitation to the same ... ... ... ... 528
■Newton's Rule for the Limits of the Roots ... ... 530
Sylvester's Theorem.... 532
Horner's Method 533
Symmetrical Functions of the Roots of an Equation—
Sums of the Powers of -the Roots ... ... ... ... 534
Symmetrical Functions not Powers of the Roots... ... 538
The Equation whose Roots are the Squares of the
Differences of the Roots of a given Equation ... 541
Sum of . the mth Powers of the Roots of a Quadratic
Equation . ... ... ... ... ... ... 545
Approximation to the Root of an Equation through the
Sums of the Powers of the Roots ... ... ... 548
Expansion of an Implicit Function of a 551
Determinants—
Definitions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 554
General Theory ... ... ... ... ... ... 556
To raise the Order of a Determinant ... ... ... 564
Analysis of a Determinant ... ... ... ... ... 568
Synthesis of a Determinant ... ... ... ... 569
Product of two Determinants of the «.th Order ... ... 570
Symmetrical Determinants .. ... ... ... ... 574
Reciprocal Determinants ... ... ... ... ... 575
Partial and Complementary Determinants ... ... 576
CONTENTS. XV
No. of
Article.
Theorem of a Partial Reciprocal Determinant 577
Product of Differences of n Quantities 578
Product of Squares of Differences of same 579
Rational Algebraic Fraction expressed as a Determinant 581
Elimination—
Solution of Linear Equations 582
Orthogonal Transformation 584
Theorem of the to— 2th Power of a Determinant 585
Bezout's Method of Elimination ... 586
Sylvester's Dialytic Method 587
Method by Symmetrical Functions 588
Elimination by Highest Common Factor 593
No. of
Article.
Polyhedrons 906
The five Regular Solids 907
The Angle between Adjacent Faces ... ... ... 909
.Radii of Inscribed and Circumscribed Spheres ... ... 910
* See " Factor Table for the Fourth Million." By James Glaisher, F.R.S.
London : Taylor and Francis. 1880. Also Gamb. Phil. Soc. Froc, Vol. III.,
Pt. IV., and Nature, No. 542, p. 462.
PEEJFACE. II
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„ 333, It 3,
ii P^P^ last line but one , ,
ii
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QiQiQa-
PATtT I.
SECTION I.—MATHEMATICAL TABLES. Pap>
Introduction. The C. G. S. System or Units—
Notation and Definitions of Units ... ... ... ... 1
Physical Constants and Formulae ... ... ... ... 2
Table I.—English Measures and Equivalents in C. G. S. Units 4
II.—Pressure of Aqueous Vapour at different temperatures 4
III.—Wave lengths and Wave frequency for the principal
lines of the Spectrum ... ... ... ... ... 4
IV.—The . Principal Metals — Their Densities ; Coeffi
cients of Elasticity, Rigidity, and Tenacity ; Expan
sion by Heat ; Specific Heat ; Conductivity ; Rate
of conduction of Sound ; Electro- magnetic Specific
Resistance ... ... ... ... ... ... 5
V.—The Planets — Their Dimensions, Masses, Densities,
and Elements of Orbits ... ... ... ... 5
VI.—Powers and Logarithms of x and e ... ... ... 6
VII.—Square and Cube Roots of the Integers 1 to 30 ... 6
VIII.— Common and Hyperbolic Logarithms of the
Prime numbers from 1 to 109... ... ... ... 6
IX.—Factor Table—.
Explanation of the Table ... ... ... ... 7
The Least Factors of all numbers from 1 to 99000... 8
X.—Values op the Gamma-Function 30
No. of
Article
Lowest Common Multiple ... 33
Evolution—
Square Root and Cube Root 35
Useful Transformations 38
Quadratic Equations 45
Theory of Quadratic Expressions 50
Equations in one Unknown Quantity.—Examples 54
Maxima and Minima by a Quadratic Equation 58
Simultaneous Equations and Examples ... 59
Ratio and Proportion 08
The k Theorem 70
Duplicate and Triplicate Ratios 72
Compound Ratios 74
Variation 70
Arithmetical Progression 79
Geometrical Progression 83
Harmonical Progression 87
Permutations and Combinations 94
Surds 108
Simplification of va+ «/b and va+ Vb 121
Simplification of Va+ \/b ... 124
Binomial Theorem ... 125
Multinomial Theorem 137
Logarithms ... 142
Exponential Theorem 149
Continued Fractions and Convergents ... 160
General Theory of same 167
To convert a Series into a Continued Fraction 182
A Continued Fraction with Recurring Quotients 186
Indeterminate Equations ... 188
To reduce a Quadratic Surd to a Continued Fraction 195
To form high Convergents rapidly 197
General Theory 199
Equations—
Special cases in the Solution of Simultaneous Equations 211
Method by Indeterminate Multipliers 213
Miscellaneous Equations and Solutions 214
On Symmetrical Expressions 219
Imaginary Expressions 223
Method of Indeterminate Coefficients ... 232
Method of Proof by Induction 233
Partial Fractions*—Four Cases ... 235
Convergency and Divergency of Series ... 239
General Theorem of </> (x) ... 243
CONTENTS. Xlll
No. of
Article
Expansion of a Fraction 248
Recurring Series ... 251
The General Term ... 257
Case of Quadratic Factor with Imaginary Roots 258
Lagrange's Rule 263
Summation of Series by the Method of Differences 264
Interpolation of a term . 267
Direct Factorial Series ... 268
Inverse Factorial Series . 270
Summation by Partial Fractions ... ... 272
Composite Factorial Series 274
Miscellaneous Series—
Sums of the Powers of the Natural Numbers , 276
Sum of a+(a + d)r+(a + 2d) r*+&o. 279
Sum of n' — n(n— l)r + &c. ... 285
Polygonal Numbers , 287
Figurate Numbers ... . 289
Hypergeometrical Series . 291
m
Proof that e" is incommensurable ... , 295
Interest . 296
Annuities . 302
Probabilities... , 309
Inequalities ... . 330
Arithmetic Mean > Geometric Mean . 332
Arithmetic Mean of mth powers > «ith power of . M. 334
Scales of Notation , 342
Theorem concerning Sum or Difference of Digit , 347
Theory of Numrers , 349
Highest Power of a Prime p contained in | m . 365
Fermat's Theorem ... , 369
Wilson's Theorem ... . 371
Divisors of a Number , 374
Sr divisible by 2n + l , 380
No. of
Article.
Limits qf the Roots. . . ... . 448
Newton's Method . 452
Rolle'a Theorem . 454
Newton's Method of Divisors . 459
Reciprocal Equations . 466
Binomial Equations . 472
Solution of ^"±1 =.0. by De Moivre's Theorem . 480
Cubic Equations . 483
Cardan's Method . 484
. Trigonometrical Method . 489
Biquadratic Equations — • ■
Descartes' Solution ... . 492
Ferrari's Solution . 496
Euler's Solution . 499
Commensurable Roots . 502
Incommensurable Roots—■
Sturm's Theorem . 506
Fourier's Theorem ... . 518
Lagrange's Method of Approximation . 525
Newton's Method of Approximation . 527
Fourier's Limitation to the same ... . 528
■Newton's Rule for the Limits of the Roots . 530
Sylvester's Theorem .... . 532
Horner's Method . 533
Symmetrical Functions of the Roots of an Equation—
Sums of the Powers of -the Roots ... . 534
Symmetrical Functions not Powers of the Roots... . 538
The Equation whose Roots are the Squares of the
Differences of the Roots of a given Equation 541
Sum of. the mlh Powers of the Roots of a Quadratic
Equation 545
Approximation to the Root of an Equation through the
Sums of the Powers of the Roots 548
Expansion of an Implicit Function of a; 551
Determinants—
Definitions ... 554
General Theory 556
To raise the Order of a Determinant 564
Analysis of a Determinant... 568
Synthesis of a Determinant 569
Product of two Determinants of the nth Order 570
Symmetrical Determinants .. 574
Reciprocal Determinants ... 575
Partial and Complementary Determinants 576
CONTENTS. XV
No. of
Article.
Theorem of a Partial Reciprocal Determinant 577
Product of Differences of to Quantities 578
Product of Squares of Differences of same 579
Rational Algebraic Fraction expressed as a Determinant 581
Elimikation—
Solution of Linear Equations 582
Orthogonal Transformation 584
Theorem of the n — 2th Power of a Determinant 585
Bezout's Method of Elimination ... 586
Sylvester's Dialytic Method 587
Method by Symmetrical Functions 588
Elimination b? Highest Common Factor 593
r
Xvi CONTENTS.
No. of
Article.
Gregory's Series for 0 in powers of tan d... ... ... 791
Formulae for the calculation of x ... ... ... ... 792
Proof that rr is incommensurable ... ... ... ... 795
Sin x = n sin (x + ft) .— Series for* ... ... ... 796
Sum of sines or cosines of Angles in A. P. ... ... 800
Expansion of the sine and cosine in Factors ... ... 807
Sinw0 and cos n<j> expanded in Factors ... ... ... 808
SinO and cosfl in Factors involving 0 ... ... ... 815
e*— 2 cos 6 + e~" expanded in Factors ... ... ... 817
De Moivre's Property of the Circle ... ... ... 819
Cotes's Properties ... ... ... ... ... ... 821
Additional Formula 823
Properties of a Right-angled Triangle ... ... ... 832
Properties of any Triangle... ... ... ... ... 835
Area of a Triangle ... ... ... ... ... ... 838
Relations between a Triangle and the Inscribed,
Escribed, and Circumscribed Circles ... ... 841
Other Relations between the Sides and Angles of a Triangle 850
Examples of the Solution of Triangles ... ... ... 859
x
CONTESTS. XV11
No. of
Article.
Polyhedrons 906
The fivo Regular Solids 907
The Angle between Adjacent Faces 909
Radii of Inscribed and Circumscribed Spheres . 910
No. of
Article.
Constant product of anti-similitude ... ... ... 1043
Circle of similitude ... ... ... ... ... 1045
Axes of similitude of three circles ... ... ... 1046
Gergonne's Theorem ... ... ... ... ... 1049
Anharmonic Ratio and Pencil 1052
Homographic Systems op Points 1058
Involution 1066
Projection 1075
On Perspective Drawing ... ... ... ... ... 1083
Orthogonal Projection ... ... ... ... ... 1087
Projections of the Sphere .. . ... ... ... ... 1090
Additional Theorems—
Squares of distances of P from equidistant points on a
circle 1094
Squares of perpendiculars on radii, &c. .. . ... ... 1095
Polygon with inscribed and circumscribed circles. Sum
of perpendiculars on sides, &c... ... 1099
No. of
Article.
<iV>=4PS.PV 1239
■ OQ.OqiOQ' :Oq = PS:F8
1242
' Parabola two-thirds of circumscribing parallelogram 1244
Methods of Drawing a Conic 1245
To find the axes and centre 1252
To construct a conic from the conjugate diameters 1253
Circle of Curvature 1254
Chord of curvature = QV2 -4- PV ult 1258
Semi-chords of curvature, CD* CD* CZ? 1259
CP' PF' AC
In Parabola, Focal chord of curvature = 4SP ... 1260
do. Radius of curvature = 2SP2 -f- 8Y 1261
Common chords of a circle and conies are equally i
clined to the axis 1263
To find the centre of curvature ... 1265
Miscellaneous Theorems'.. 1267
INDEX TO PROPOSITIONS OF EUCLID
REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK.
Tho references to Euclid are made in Roman and Arabic numerals ; e.g. (VI. 19).
BOOK I.
I. 4.—Triangles are equal and similar if two sides and the included
angle of each are equal each to each.
I. 5.—The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal.
I. 6. — The converse of 5.
I. 8.—Triangles are equal and similar if the three sides of each are
equal each to each.
I. 16.—The exterior angle of a triangle is greater than the interior
and opposite.
I. 20.— Two sides of a triangle are greater than the third.
I. 26.—Triangles are equal and similar if two angles and one corres
ponding side of each are equal each to each.
I. 27. —Two straight lines are parallel if they make equal alternate
angles with a third line.
I. 29.— The converse of 27.
I. 32. —The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the two interior
and opposite ; and the three angles of a triangle are equal
to two right angles.
Cor. 1.—The interior angles of a polygon of « sides
= (w-2) rr.
Cor. 2. —The exterior angles = 2 jr.
I. 35 to 38.—Parallelograms or triangles upon the same or equal
bases and between the same parallels are equal.
I. 43.—The complements of the parallelograms about the diameter
of a parallelogram are equal.
I. 47. —The square on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is
equal to the squares on the other sides.
I. 48.— The converse of 47.
XX11 INDEX TO PROPOSITIONS OF EUCLID
BOOK II.
II. 4.—If a, b are the two parts of a right line, (a+6)1 = a' + 2ab + b*.
If a right line he bisected, and also divided, internally or
externally, into two nneqnal segments, then—
II. 5 and 6. —The rectangle of the nneqnal segments is eqnal to the
difference of the squares on half the line, and on the line
between the points of section; or (a + b) (a — b) = a'— b1.
II. 9 and 10. — The squares on the same unequal segments are together
double the squares on the other parts ; or
(a+by+(a-by = 2a? + 2b\
II. 11.— To divide a right line into two parts so that the rectangle
of the whole line and one part may be equal to the square on
the other part.
II. 12 and 13.—The square on the base of a triangle is equal to the
sum of the squares on the two sides plus or minus (as the
vertical angle is obtuse or acute), twice the rectangle under
either of those sides, and the projection of the other upon it ;
or ai = V + ci-2bcaosA (702).
BOOK III.
III. 3.—If a diameter of a circle bisects a chord, it is perpendicular to
it : and conversely.
III. 20.—The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the
ciroumference on the same arc.
III. 21.—Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
III. 22.— The opposite angles of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle
are together equal to two right angles.
III. 31.—The angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
III. 32.—The angle between a tangent and a chord from the point of
contact is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.
III. 33 and 34.—To describe or to cut off a segment of a circle which
shall contain a given angle.
III. 35 and 36.—The rectangle of the segments of any chord of a
circle drawn through an internal or external point is equal
to the square of the semi-chord perpendicular to tho
diameter through the internal point, or to the square of the
tangent from the external point.
III. 37. —The converse of 36. If the rectangle be eqnal to the square,
the line which meets the circle touches it.
REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK. XX1U
BOOK IV.
IV. 2.—To inscribe a triangle of given form in a circle.
IV. 3.—To describe the same about a circle.
IV. 4.—To inscribe a circle in a triangle.
IV. 5.—To describe a circle about a triangle.
IV. 10.—To construct two-fifths of a right angle.
IV. 11.—To construct a regular pentagon.
BOOK VI.
VI. 1.—Triangles and parallelograms of the same altitude are
proportional to their bases.
VI. 2.—A right line parallel to the side of a triangle cuts the other
sides proportionally ; and conversely.
VI. 3 and A.—The bisector of the interior or exterior vertical angle of
a triangle divides the base into segments proportional to
the sides.
VI. 4.—Equiangular triangles have their sides proportional homo-
logously.
VI. 5. —The converse of 4.
VI. 6.—Two triangles are equiangular if they have two angles equal,
and the sides about them proportional.
VI. 7. —Two triangles are equiangular if they have two angles equal
and the sides about two other angles proportional, provided
that the third angles are both greater than, both less than,
or both equal to a right angle.
VI. 8.—A right-angled triangle is divided by the perpendicular from
the right angle upon the hypotenuse into triangles similar
to itself.
VI. 14 and 15. —Equal parallelograms, or triangles which have two
angles equal, have the sides about those angles reciprocally
proportional ; and conversely, if the sides are in this pro
portion, the figures are equal.
VI. 19.— Similar triangles are in the duplicate ratio of their homo
logous sides.
VI. 20.—Likewise similar polygons.
VI. 23. —Equiangular parallelograms are in the ratio compounded of
the ratios of their sides.
VI. B.—The rectangle of the sides of a triangle is equal to the square
of the bisector of the vertical angle plus the rectangle of
the sogments of the base.
XXIV INDEX TO PROPOSITIONS- OF EUCLID.
BOOK XL
XI. 4.—A right lino perpendicular to two others at their point of
intersection is perpendicular to their plane.
XI. 5.—Tho converse of 4. If the first line is also perpendicular to a
fourth at the same point, that fourth line and the other
two are in the same plane.
XI. 6.—Right lines perpendicular to the same plane are parallel.
XI. 8.—If one of two parallel lines is perpendicular to a plane, the
other is also.
XI. 20.—Any two of three plane angles containing a solid angle are
greater than the third.
XI. 21.—The piano angles of any solid angle are together less than
four right angles.
MATHEMATICAL TABLES.
INTRODUCTION.
Velocity in orbit = 2933000 centims. per sec. Obliquity, 23° 27' 16".*
Angular velocity of rotation = 1 -f- 13713.
Precession, 50"20.* Progression of Apse, H"-25. Eccentricity, e = -01679.
Centrifugal force of rotation at the equator, 3"3912 dynes per gramme.
Force of attraction upon moon, -2701. Force of sun's attraction, '5839.
Ratio of g to centrifugal force of rotation, g '. ri>? = 289.
Sun's horizontal parallax, 8"7 to 9'.* Aberration, 20"11 to 20"79*
Semi-diameter at earth's mean distance, 16' 1""82.*
Approximate mean distance, 92,000000 miles, or P48 centimetre-thirteens.t
Tropical year, 3652422 16 days, or 31,556927 seconds.
Sidereal year, 365-256374 „ 31,558150
Anomalistic year, 365-259544 days. Sidereal day, 86164 seconds.
TEE MOON.—Mass = Earth's mass X -011364 = 6-98 10'25 grammes.
Horizontal parallax. From 53' 56" to 61' 24".*
Sidereal revolution, 27d. 7h. 43m. lT46s. Lunar month, 29d. 12b. 44m. 2"87s.
Greatest distance from the earth, 251700 miles, or 405 centimetre-tens,
Least „ „ 225600 „ 363
Inclination of Orbit, 5° 9'. Annual regression of Nodes, 19° 20'.
Rule.— {The Year+l)s-\9. The remainder is the Gulden Number.
(The Golden Number— 1) x 11-4-30. The remainder is the Epact.
GRAVITATION.— Attraction between masses ) _ mm ,
m, rri at a distance I j p x 1*543 x 107
The mass which at unit distance (1 cm.) attracts an equal mass with unit
force (1 dn.) is = v/(l-543 x 107) gm. = 3928 gm.
WATER.—Density at 0°O, unity ; at 4°, 1000013 (Kupffer).
Volume elasticity at 15°, 2"22 X 1010.
Compression for 1 megadyne per sq. cm., 4'51 X 10"5 (Amaury and
Descamps).
The heat required to raise the temperature of a mass of water from 0° to
t° is proportional to t+ -00002*2 + 00000032" (Regnault).
GASES.—Expansion for 1° C, -003665 = l-f-273.
Specific heat at constant pressure 1.408
Specific heat at constant volume
Density of dry air at 0° with Bar. at 76 cm. = -0012932 gm. per cb. cm.
(Regnault).
At unit pres. (a megadyne) Density = "0012759.
Density at press, p = px 1-2759 X 10"9.
Density of saturated steam at t°, with p taken ") 7936098p
from Table II., is approximately j — (l+0036Ji) 10'"
SOUND.—Velocity = */ (elasticity of medium -4- density).
Velocity in dry air at t° = 33240 v/(l + -00360J) centimetres per second.
Velocity in water at 0° = 143000 „ „
LIGHT.—Velocity in a medium of absolute refrangibility /i
= 3-004 x 1010H-ju (Cornu).
If P be the pressure in dynes per sq. cm., and t the temperature,
,u-l = 2903 xlO-13P-f-(l + -003660 (Biofc & Arago).
* These data are from the "Nautical Almanack" for 1883.
f Transit of Venus, 1874, " Astrom. SSoc. Notices," Vols. 37, 38.
MATHEMATICAL TABLES.
Table I.
Various Measures and their Equivalents in C. G. S. units.
Dimensions. Pressure.
1 inch = 25400 cm. 1 gm.persq.cm.= 981 dynes per sq.cm.
1 foot = 30-4797 „ 1 lb. per sq. foot = 479 „
1 mile = 160933 „ 1 lb. persq. in. =68971 „
1 nautical do. = 185230 ,, 76 centimetres-)
1 sq. inch = G'4516 sq. cm. of mercury [ = 1,014,000 „
1 sq. foot : 92901 „ at 0° C. )
1 sq. yard = 8301-13 „ lbs, per sq. in. _ wvoa^ _ 1
1 sq. mile : 2-59 x 1010,, gms. per sq. cm. -014223
1 cb. inch : : 10-387 cb. cm. Force of Gravity.
1 cb. foot : : 28316 , upon 1 gramme = 981 dynes
1 cb. yard „ 1 grain = 63-56777
1 gallon 4541 „ 1 oz. = 2-7811x10*
277-274 cb. in. or the vo 1 lb. = 4-4497 x 105
lume of 10 lbs. of water 1 cwt. = 4-9837 xlO7
at 62° Fah., Bar. 30 in. 1 ton = 9-9674 xlO8
Mass. Work 0 = 981).
1 grain = -06479895 gm. 1 gramme-centimetre = 981 ergs
1 ounce = 28-3495 „ 1 kilogram-metre = 981 x 105
1 pound = 453-5926 „ 1 foot-grain = 1-937 x 10s
1 ton = 1,016047 „ 1 foot-pound = 1-356 x 107
1 kilogramme = 2-20402125 lbs. 1 foot-ton = 5-04 x 1010
1 pound Avoir. = 7000 grains 1 'horse power' p. sec. = 746 xlO9
1 pound Troy = 5760 „
Heat.
Velocity. 1 gramme-degree C. = 42 x 10° ergs.
1 mile per hour = 44- 704 cm. per sec. 1 pound- degree =191xl08 „
1 kilometre „ = 27777 „ 1 pound-degree Fah. = 106 x 108 „
%
£ s S fcnfed &3 at
Magn.
Elect. Resistance
Specific 9158 2081 96190 19850 1521 1615 —■ 9827 13360 5690
C.
0°
at
— — —
Conduction Sound in
sec.cm.per Density.
of
Rate of 0-25 2-01 0-97 1-00 0-72 0-24 0-13 0-15 0-27
105
2-69
X
1-74„ 1-23„ 2-61„ 374„ 3-56„ 4-32„ 5-06„ 5-22„ — — 4-53„
354936' 0-118 0-883 1-000 0132 338-034 101-064 14-789 24-648
Mass.
Relative Conduc
tivity.
381 1000 180 973 898 357 374 304 363
— — — —
Specific Heat
be c.
&
ioo Diameter
0
tween Miles. 888000 3000 7700 7926 4500 92000 75000 36000 35000
— — — — — — in
•0335 •0330 ■0557 •0949 •1098 •0927 •1770
Expansion betwe n &0
100C. 001260
Linear
s.m. 0 28 21 56
5 4 37 26 17
22 55 29
—
of Rotation.
Time
units..
8. •0 0875 ■0 1483 •0 2861 ■00196 •00175 •00193 •0 1 1 ■0 1258 ■00227 •00294 •00081
of degree
Expansion Volume per — —
000015
h.
600 24 23 23 24 9 10
C.
•000027 •0 0 45 ■0 0180 •0 0 86 •0 0 61 •0 0 54 •0 0 54 •0 0 3 •0 0 40 ■0 0 37 ■0 0 63 •0 0 8 Inclination of 7
0
8 31
3
23 51 1
1
5 1408 228 30 1
29 46 4596
Orbit Ecliptic.
to
.inC.G Tenacity. V.
Table
108
2-28
x —
_^ — 41-4„ 33-8„ 58-6„ 793„ 3-17„ 5-17„
'/O'
Sidereal Revolution
87-969 224-701 365256 686-980 43 2-585 10759-2 0 30686-821 60126-72
IV
Table Elasticityof
volume Days.
in
1012
0-542
x
_ — — — 1-684„ — 0-964„ 1-456„ 1-841„ — 0-415„
distance from
Sun. 030750 0-71840 0-9832 1-38160 4-95182 9-0 4 2 18-28916 29-7 506
Rigidity Least
n. — — — — 10"
4-47
x — 2-40„
3-66„ 532„ 7-69„ 8-19„
Gdriesataenscet
Earmeanth's
Young's Modulus xlO12'
•059 Sun.
from 0-46669 0-72826 1-01678 1-6 578 5-45378 10-07328 20-07612 30-298 8
d1.
ista=nce
M. — — — 1-234„ 1-075„ 1-349„ 1-963„ 2-139„ — — 0-603„
13-596
11-35 10-47 8-843 8-471 7-235 7-677 7-849 7-29 7-19 2-942
DensityWater
1.= 19-26
Mercury Neptune
21 Venus Earth JupiterSaturn Uranus
Mars
Iron,
wrought Sun
Brass,
drawn
Glass,
flint
Iron,
cast cast Zinc,
Tin, cast
Platinum Mercury
Copper
Silver Steel
Gold Lead
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n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.00 97497 95001 92512 90030 87555 85087 82627 80173 77727
1.01 9.9975287 72855 70430 68011 65600 63196 60799 58408 56025 53648
1.02 51279 48916 46561 44212 41870 39535 37207 34886 32572 30265
1.03 27964 25671 23384 21104 18831 16564 14305 12052 09806 07567
1.04 05334 03108 00889 98677 96471 94273 92080 89895 87716 85544
1.05 9.9883379 81220 79068 76922 74783 72651 70525 68406 66294 64188
1.06 62089 59996 57910 55830 53757 51690 49630 47577 45530 43489
1.07 41469 39428 37407 35392 33384 31382 29387 27398 25415 23449
1.08 21469 19506 17549 15599 13655 11717 09785 07860 05941 04029
1.09 02123 00223 98329 96442 94561 92686 90818 88956 87100 85250
1.10 9.9783407 81570 79738 77914 76095 74283 72476 70676 68882 67095
1.11 65313 63538 61768 60005 58248 56497 54753 53014 51281 49555
1.12 47834 46120 44411 42709 41013 39323 37638 35960 34288 32622
1.13 30962 29308 27659 26017 24381 22751 21126 19508 17896 16289
1.14 14689 13094 11505 09922 08345 06774 05209 03650 02096 00549
1.15 9.9699007 97471 95941 94417 92898 91386 89879 88378 86883 85393
1.16 83910 82432 80960 79493 78033 76578 75129 73686 72248 70816
1.17 69390 67969 66554 65145 63742 62344 60952 59566 58185 56810
1.18 55440 54076 52718 51366 50019 48677 47341 46011 44687 43368
1.19 42054 40746 39444 38147 36856 35570 34290 33016 31747 30483
1.20 29225 27973 26725 25484 24248 23017 21792 20573 19358 18150
1.21 16946 15748 14556 13369 12188 11011 09841 08675 07515 06361
1.22 05212 04068 02930 01796 00669 99546 98430 97318 96212 95111
1.23 9.9594015 92925 91840 90760 89685 88616 87553 86494 85441 84393
1.24 83350 82313 81280 80253 79232 78215 77204 76198 75197 74201
1.25 73211 72226 71246 70271 69301 68337 67377 66423 65474 64530
1.26 63592 62658 61730 60806 59888 58975 58067 57165 56267 55374
1.27 54487 53604 52727 51855 50988 50126 49268 48416 47570 46728
1.28 45891 45059 44232 43410 42593 41782 40975 40173 39376 38585
1.29 37798 37016 36239 35467 34700 33938 33181 32439 31682 30940
1.30 30203 29470 28743 28021 27303 26590 25883 25180 24482 23789
1.31 23100 22417 21739 21065 20396 19732 19073 18419 17770 17125
1.32 16485 15850 15220 14595 13975 13359 12748 12142 11540 10944
1.33 10353 09766 09184 08606 08034 07466 06903 06344 05791 05242
1.34 04698 04158 03624 ' 03094 02568 02048 01532 01021 00514 00012
1.35 9.9499515 99023 98535 ! 98052 97573 9710o 96630 96166 95706 95251
1.36 94800 94355 93913 1 93477 93044 92617 92194 91776 91362 90953
1.37 90549 90149 89754 ' 89363 88977 88595 88218 87846 87478 87115
1.38 86756 86402 86052 ' 85707 85366 85030 84698 84371 84049 83731
1.39 83417 83108 82803 82503 82208 81916 81630 81348 81070 80797
1.40 80528 80263 80003 79748 79497 79250 79008 78770 78537 78308
1.41 78084 77864 77648 77437 77230 77027 76829 76636 76446 76261
1.42 76081 75905 75733 75565 75402 75243 75089 74939 74793 74652
1.43 74515 74382 74254 74130 74010 73894 73783 73676 73574 73476
1.44 73382 73292 73207 73125 73049 72976 72908 72844 72784 72728
1.45 72677 72630 72587 72549 72514 72484 72459 72437 72419 72406
1.46 72397 72393 72392 72396 72404 72416 72432 72452 72477 72506
1.47 72539 72576 72617 72662 72712 72766 72824 72886 72952 73022
1.48 73097 73175 73258 73345 73436 73531 73630 73734 73841 73953
1.49 74068 74188 74312 74440 74572 74708 74848 74992 75141 75293
Note.—This table is taken from Vol. II. of Legendre's work, and not
from Vol. I., as stated in the Pre'aee : the numbera given in Vol. I. being
inaccurate in the seventh decimal place. In Vol IT. the values are given to
twelve places of decimals. The figure here printed in the s.vcnth place is
LcgT(n). 31
n 0 1 a 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.50 9.9475449 75610 75774 75943 76116 76292 76473 76658 76847 77040
1.51 77237 77438 77642 77851 78064 78281 78502 78727 78956 79189
1.52 79426 79667 79912 80161 80414 80671 80932 81196 81465 81738
1.53 82015 82295 82580 82868 83161 83457 83758 84062 84370 84682
1.54 84998 85318 85642 85970 86302 86638 86977 87321 87668 88019
1.55 88374 88733 89096 89463 89834 90208 90587 90969 91355 91745
1.56 92139 92537 92938 93344 93753 94166 94583 95004 95429 95857
1.57 96289 96725 97165 97609 98056 98508 98963 99422 99885 00351
1.58 9.9500822 01296 01774 02255 02741 03230 03723 04220 04720 05225
1.59 05733 06245 06760 07280 07803 08330 08860 09395 09933 10475
1.60 11020 11569 12122 12679 13240 13804 14372 14943 15519 16098
1.61 16680 17267 17857 18451 19048 19650 20254 20862 21475 22091
1.62 22710 23333 23960 24591 25225 25863 26504 27149 27798 28451
1.63 29107 29767 30430 31097 31767 32442 33120 33801 34486 35175
1.64 35867 36563 37263 37966 38673 39383 40097 40815 41536 42260
1.65 42989 43721 44456 45195 45938 46684 47434 48187 48944 49704
1.66 50468 51236 52007 52782 53560 54342 55127 55916 56708 57504
1.67 58303 59106 59913 60723 61536 62353 63174 63998 64826 65656
1.68 66491 67329 68170 69015 69864 70716 71571 72430 73293 74159
1.69 75028 75901 76777 77657 78540 79427 80317 81211 82108 83008
1.70 83912 84820 85731 86645 87563 88484 89409 90337 91268 92203
1.71 93141 94083 95028 95977 96929 97884 98843 99805 00771 01740
1.72 9.9602712 03688 04667 05650 06636 07625 08618 09614 10613 11616
1.73 12622 13632 14645 15661 16681 17704 18730 19760 20793 21830
1.74 22869 23912 24959 26009 27062 28118 29178 30241 31308 32377
1.75 33451 34527 35607 36690 37776 38866 39959 41055 42155 43258
1.76 44364 45473 46586 47702 48821 49944 51070 52200 53331 54467
1.77 55606 56749 57894 59043 60195 61350 62509 63671 64836 66004
1.78 67176 68351 69529 70710 71895 73082 74274 75468 76665 77866
1.79 79070 80277 81488 82701 83918 85138 86361 87588 88818 90051
1.80 91287 92526 93768 95014 96263 97515 98770 00029 01291 02555
1.81 9.9703823 05095 06369 07646 08927 10211 11498 12788 14082 15378
1.82 16678 17981 19287 20596 21908 23224 24542 25864 27189 28517
1.83 29848 31182 32520 33860 35204 36551 37900 39254 40610 41969
1.84 43331 44697 46065 47437 48812 50190 51571 52955 54342 55733
1.85 57126 58522 59922 61325 62730 64140 65551 66966 68384 69805
1.86 71230 72657 74087 75521 76957 78397 79839 81285 82734 84186
1.87 85640 87098 88559 90023 91490 92960 94433 95910 97389 98871
1.88 9.9800356 01844 03335 04830 06327 07827 09331 10837 12346 13859
1.89 15374 16893 18414 19939 21466 22996 24530 26066 27606 29148
1.90 30693 32242 33793 35348 36905 38465 40028 41595 43164 44736
1.91 46311 47890 49471 51055 52642 54232 55825 57421 59020 60622
1.92 62226 63834 65445 67058 68675 70294 71917 73542 75170 76802
1.93 78436 80073 81713 83356 85002 86651 88302 89957 91614 93275
1.94 94938 96605 98274 99946 01621 03299 04980 06663 08350 10039
1.95 9.9911732 13427 15125 16826 18530 20237 21947 23659 25375 27093
1.96 28815 30539 32266 33995 35728 37464 39202 40943 42688 44435
1.97 46185 47937 49693 51451 53213 54977 56744 58513 60286 62062
1.98 63840 65621 67405 69192 70982 72774 74570 76368 78169 79972
1.99 81779 83588 85401 87216 89034 90854 92678 94504 96333 98165
the one nearest to the true value whether in excess or defect. This tahle, and
the tahle of Least Factors, have each heen subjected to two complete and in
dependent revisions before finally printing off.
ALGEBRA.
FACTORS.
-j-a26+a62)+6a6e.
= («+&+<?) («2+62+c2).
S9 fri»+A*<i+(iM"+<>Vi+<i&'+<i'A+3<iftc
= (o+6+c) (bc+ca+ab).
83 6<i»+AV+«i,+c*«+«V+«8ft+2o6c = (6+c)(c+a)(a+6)
84 bv*-\-btc+cai-\-cia+abi+(rb-2abc-as-bs-cs
= (b+c—a) (c-\-a—b) (a+6— c).
25 W-#e+fla«-tfa+aP—«rt = (6-c) (c—o) (a-b).
26 2&V+2cW+2a262-«4-64-c4
= (a+6+c) (b+c-a) (c+a-b) (a+b-c).
27 *»+arV+arjf»+y» = (*+y) (tf'+^+y2).
Generally for the division of (a: + ?/)" — (a.,B + y") by x2 + xy + y2
see (545).
\
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION. 35
1+0-3+2+1
1+0-2-2
1+0-3+2+1
_2-0+6-4-2
-2-0+6-4-2
1+0-5+0+7+2-6-2
Result a7-5as^ + 7a3bl+2aV-6abt- ■2V.
Result a?-2x-2.
Synthetic Division.
Ex. 3 : Employing the last example, the work stands thus,
1+0-5+0+7+2-6-2
-0 0+0+0+0
+3 +3+0-6-6
-2 -2+0+4+4
-1 -1+0+2+2
1+0-2-2
Result z>—2x—2. [See also (248).
Note that, in all operations with detached coefficients, the result must be
written out in successive powers of the quantity which stood in its successive
powers in the original expression.
36 ALGEBRA.
INDICES.
a— = — , a° = l.
EVOLUTION.
Result 4a— 3a + 4 i / i i
T = a— J-Za +l
LS 68 £ 0 0 0 41 695 0 0 0 61 ii 4 £i 19
£1 ess e* 0 4 0 ess £ te 88 0 65 0 0 II £ £1 iE ES £ 0 El
£6
£6Z ££l
0 £ II L
61 0 0 £ II 0 El 0 £S5 E£I £ 0 £1 El 0 0 II 0 6S 0 61 0 £ S8 EI
£El
0 ES
6S
0
£8 ££ 0 US 0
*8 6M
18 0 £1 £1 I* £ 0 0 II El £1 0 £ 19 n eoi £ 68 £SI 61 IE 0 £» £ 6*1 11 28 £85
£ 0 £1 0 II 0 0 £ es E6I IE £1
6S
8£ II
£* £ 0 6S
ES 11 0 61 £SS 0 0 0 0 £ 0 0 £0 11
£6 EI 0 0 ES £55 £*
El 61 £0 181 0 0 II £
£E
0
6i 6£t
0 I8S 0 El £ Ell 0 £l £ II EOI ES 0 0 0 £ 0 0 £ 0 0 0 ES 61 £l 91 £ 11 0 0 0 IE I* EE5 £1 68 E91 I9S £
91 £*
£ IE 6£ El 0 61 ES IIS It 68 £ 0 0 0 £ IE ES £ 0 El tei 61 11 HE
Si El 11 It 0
£9
161 £ II 0 0
£t US £1 6*1 21 £0E
99 0 £
£1
II 6£ S3 s:s £1
l£ It 0
£Sl
£ 61 £91 0 0 0 £ 11 601 te £ 0 i9 11 0 El
£6 £1 £ HE £61 0 £ 0 0
68
US ££S
89 ES
£61
61 £ El 19 0 0 0 0 £ ei ES 11 0 E£l
£91 6S
11
£1 0
IE £ Ell It £ 0 6*1 £1
6SS £9
0 El IIS 0
££
II £ 0
*9
0 61 £ iei 601 ei 11 0 £ 0 0 £ £1 ES 161 65 0 £1 £ £oe 0 £ 11 El £55 61 £ ISS 0 £Sl 6£
09 £9 0 0 ££I 6EI 19 £1
££S
£6
0 0 £ 0 0 El 0 0 0 61 ES £ ie £l £ El 0 11 61 0 0 0 El 0 0 6*1 £ 0 0 II 6£ 19 it £ ti
iS 6S £9 0 85 6ES
fS 0 EI
££ 0
£ 0 0
££
£ 61 0 0 II ie E3 £ 0 0 0 £ £0£
0 0 £l II
6S ss £ St 0 6tl II ES 69 0 0 E8 ei 0 £
II Et II 61 EI 0 £ II 0 0 ES IE 0 £ 61 0 0 i 0 0 iei 0 f.Z
££ £ 0 £ 68 0 £1 £t 0
0 0 0 ISS SS n
IS £55 6S
8* £ eu 0
6S
es 0 0 £ 11 0 0 £0 0 II Go £1 61 £0 £1
6£ 6ES 0 ie 11 6* Et 0 0
£01
£ 11 ES £
El 61
6S
0
6£l
s* II £
6S
0
£t
IE II 0 0
£1 0 0 0
£ es 0 0 11 £1 0 £ l£S 0 II £ 0 9* ei 0 68 ie 0 £ 0 et E£l £ 101 £1 ie
0 0 £1 £ t£ 0 63 0 £1 It £ 0 II 0 IE 0 ES £ £1 0 £ 181 11 0 0 0 0 0 £1 L 0
Sf ££ 6i
£0E
£01 6E Zf ££ £S5 6S
0 II 0 0 6t £ 0 11 65 0 0 is £ 0
£* £t
£0 0 it et 0 0 £
£61 0 0* es £ 0 0 It 6*1 £91 £1 £ 0 l£S II £51
6E
0 0 £ El ISS 0 601 0 65 II I£ £ £ IE 0 ii 61 II £ 0 EI
££ 6SS £ i* ESS £11 ES 0 £1
61 E* 0 0
98 6£I
£1 £E is £8 £9
es El 0
£5
II £ 0 0 0 £ 0 IE 695
£1 El £ 68 ££ 0 £ 0 u 0 it 19
6S
£ es 0 65 601 0
£01
0 £1 EES ESS I* £
££S n
0 ii 185 161 £ It IE £ £1 61 0 II 0 0 65 EI II £91 0 £ 0 0 £51 0 XS iSI 0 i il 0 Et i 0 0 It 0 ii
OS £* £91 £5
is /0 £3
ES 0 II 0 i it 0 it i
£91
iei 0 es 0 0 i £11 61 0 IE 0 0 l£
SS 0 £1 II 0 £ 101 0 £ 0
£1 £1 EtfS
LZ7.
0 £ 11 0 £1 0 65 ii 0 ES
£6 £1
E6I £ 63 0 0 0 68 61 £0 ES 0 ^ £1 SS ees 0 0 6£ Ii i It
£9 £1 £ £e 65
it
n
IE 0 0 £ ISS 0 £1 181 EI 661 £ 0 II Et 0 19 0 0 0 £ 0 II £ SS iei 0 61 EI II 0 0 0 fitl 0 0 i 0
IS £31 £5 ££
81 0 0 0 0 11 i 0 655 IE! 0 0 65 / ES IE i6 i 0 EI 0 6£
6EI
II i s:t
£1 61 65 £ Ei 0
£01 £l
0 II £ 6*1 68 0 0
£ i) I£ 61 0 II 0 IE E* et 61 I 0 0 0 £1 0 0 ti DEI it 101 £ 11 0 0 Et £ 0
SI £e EI £5
6£S
£8 £-' £9 91 £1 6S £11
SI II E55
£61 £S
£ 61 II 0 £ 0 ES 0 El 0 0 £ £95 II £01 i £6 ££ 0 II 0 0 ei £ 0 £1 0 £51 £3 65 lis 0 II 6*1 its i
60 0 0 0 655 0
£5
I 6£ 0 ^ IIS 661 0
£01
61 II El
£1 0
65 0 £
£E
0 61 0
01 £1
II £ 0 EI 0 £
£55
65 0 US EI 181
90 £ it 61 ie 0 0 Et £ 0 EE5 0 £ 0 £1 695 c £1 !£
£ II 0 0 65 ES 68 0 El 0 19 0 £
£8 £35
/0 i* te II CO
I
:o
80 e£ £ ei 0
£e 181 It 63 EOI EI 19 II
£91
£ 0 0 601 ES 0 0 £0 61 El £ 0 0 0 0 II ES £ 61 IE It £ 0 0 en
*0
0 0 0 £ 0 0 0 0 641 £ 0 0 Ell 0 0 0 et ii £ 0 es £ T6° 11 et 0 ISS 0 0 E6I es / 601
6 00 £61 £51 £9 £1 £6 £SS ££I
e* if e,f 8<3 69 19 49 14 84 60 81 61 \Z LZ IP 88 48 68
10
£0 11 SI il 61 83 6<" 18 £8 if U 64 88 68 16 4'i w
TO 80
£0
90000 — 99000.
Ohm to a> O o o ~* O CO o o o r* O o t^ —i rH O OBQ CO O CO Zi 1^. to O CO ft ft O — to r-i CO O
•* o-i o - tO m n tO tO OH OH C» eo —
00
i-h ft to
f— eo to
o o to ^- o eo to fh OJ i-h O CO
— *h oh •* CO
oh r* oh r- o
m eo oh
to. o ft CO O
«-( to
o CO to to
(N -*
m ■-■ O O ft —
i-> to O
OH CO
o- r- CN
ft O tO ft
CI
IN CO CO CM
OJ o o r» — CO o to CO cn t^ to ro O O r^ r-« r» o o o o tO to ft CO O OH ft to i-i ft O to O OH ro c O — to
ft m CN Cl f w CO oj eo rH O CN oh US CO ro to
CN 00
<— to eo O CO o eo O to to o oj r* eo ~* eo o o o r» eo — to CO to. o o — — O eo to — — to. O ro -h to co to
*** cm CO
CO
oh <N ■# * o
00
c» 00 CO (O-H to CO ■-< Xo
CN rn
oj- rn Tf ro CO
Cl CN
© -^ o to O O OJ o to © .-. co o © t^ oh — r- O o o to. OH ft CO O O CO o to eo to eo —i ft I- to CO O rH
(0 = CN .— «o ** 00
co
CO f- eo r- to. CM H O I>H
moo O ft to o eo o to o to c © eo oh t«. ro o eo to O CO r- ft OJ - to O o CO — — O. CO O ft O O to ft
«5 OH O tO co eo oh CM CO o- CO rH tO CM
CO O- C« e» d
o — © CO CO O to to o o to eo oj Oj O r» co O oh o O — to, O -H 1^ ft OJ — to O O O to ro o o- n o o to
^ « H oH CI rH) O CN O rH lo
CO
to co o O to O to o o —■ o r* — eo r*
W « JJfl eo ro — O O OJ
^ OJ ft
ft o CO to O lo to to to
CO ft — lo
CO
h i* o n io
oh ■* 00 CM
— O to t> CO ft
o- <N — CM -h
n on ohh r- O co r- oh o o t^ O H ft to -O to O O o eo to o o to
© O CO
O 00
.-« to
■# - CO
r» c» to- W OH
CO -H —
■* OH 2 ft ft r- rr
(N
to ro t^ -. OJ o r— r* oj eo o to, eo ft o o O O t> O- ft o to eo o to O ft — to CO
© O to
cn ft
i» r* *+ co O O
tO OH to CO CN - tO o- ,«: O rH CO t©
^ CN
to eo eo — O O eo to o to oh CO ft tO OH OH r>
o n s
to
— o OJ
o
OJ to o eo r- r- co ro O
<-" « o r-
OJ o o o o
ro tO rHl i— ct ■* eo
to
rH rH * lO OH ft CO rH
ft O O ro t> — CO to to ro to eo to ft CO O O O CO
« I- o»
-* d
O o
■* eo•■* to
Oj to ■-h
oj
o oi
t»
t* oh
—• oj
r>.
00 OH CI
l-o O
o o o - ro O I-
rH CI
1^.
■* CO CC CM
CM C*
o-t
cm M
!>«£>• ft o o O O O O O tN. o eo oh t>. oh O t> O ~ ft I"- Cl t~ o o O O to fo. -H O t- CO ■— CO r-
- lO —
i-h CN CO
r- 00 CO rH CO <~* r-t CO to rn
to O ft oj to O CO o oh o r* oh co O — eo r- — eo eo eo O to o o l- o o o ft O " ft ro O O O to ft ft
to Id CN OH « OH oh cd oh eo r* tO OH OH eo CM to
eo
O r-J O o o o to «-« n ft ft o i-> o h ro t^. oh o co o OJ ft to o — O to o O CO r- ft ft to rn o eo c eo
ro Oj CN oh tO « OH r-i ft — eo co o
CN CM CN ^
Oi O h eo to l^ O CO c* co oh r» o eo oh o O O ft t* to to o eo O to O o ft o o — o O O O rH to O
CI -■ — to
CN
to - IH -< ON d eo
CO CI
<N — o OH to.
O O -h Oj r* eo eo c CO O ro l^ r- ro r^ to o r- O — to ft to
— o o o oh o O lo OJ a m» m o n to O OH
m co —< oj o O rH OH ZN rH CO CO >-* OH ^t CI l-H to — rH
CO
to to — oj a to r- r» o c- r« r^ O CO O oh t^ to. n r-l O OJ r^ CO rH O c; O. to CO O to O to « ft CO —
CO to to i-i CO CN o- r* tj< o OJ *• CO CN OH ft CN «-i CO to rH. -O OH rH ^
W o- CI CN
O OJ tx rH O O r> rn oj co o eo o O to o o to o O o o eo to ro ft O to r> o o
r- f co
as cn
f-< to Oi
_l (O
O
oh CO I> ■-" CJ
CN
- rH rH t> OH tO
o
ro o o o o- t^ eo -> o r» oj o i» — o o O O i^ o ro co |o t> rH — eo to ft O to to to O
f* ft I-
iO C'l rH
to —«
CO
CO
cn eo eo ~ CN 00 CO OH ^« rH O CO
CM
tO
rH
rH
o
o t» -» O ro to. O eo oh o O to lo. ro eo o ft o oh O to to O to r-
O t> OJ as Ok to to. o l^ O O Oi o O
■-> CD c* CO CO
•3 OH CO CI OH CO eo — o-
1.00 97497 95001 92512 90030 87555 85087 82627 80173 77727
1.01 9.9975287 72855 70430 68011 65600 63196 60799 58408 56025 53648
1.02 51279 48916 46561 44212 41870 39535 37207 34886 32572 30265
1.03 27964 25671 23384 21104 18831 16564 14305 12052 09806 07567
1.04 05334 03108 00889 98677 96471 94273 92080 89895 87716 85544
1.05 9.9883379 81220 79068 76922 74783 72651 70525 68406 66294 64188
1.06 62089 59996 57910 55830 53757 51690 49630 47577 45530 43489
1.07 41469 39428 37407 35392 33384 31382 29387 27398 25415 23449
1.08 21469 19506 17549 15599 13655 11717 09785 07860 05941 04029
1.09 02123 00223 98329 96442 94561 92686 90818 88956 87100 85250
1.10 9.9783407 81570 79738 77914 76095 74283 72476 70676 68882 67095
1.11 65313 63538 61768 60005 58248 56497 54753 53014 51281 49555
1.12 47834 46120 44411 42709 41013 39323 37638 35960 34288 32622
1.13 30962 29308 27659 26017 24381 22751 21126 19508 17896 16289
1.14 14689 13094 11505 09922 08345 06774 05209 03650 02096 00549
1.15 9.9699007 97471 95941 94417 92898 91386 89879 88378 86883 85393
1.16 83910 82432 80960 79493 78033 76578 75129 73686 72248 70816
1.17 69390 67969 66554 65145 63742 62344 60952 59566 58185 56810
1.18 55440 54076 52718 51366 50019 48677 47341 46011 44687 43368
1.19 42054 40746 39444 38147 36856 35570 34290 33016 31747 30483
1.20 29225 27973 26725 25484 24248 23017 21792 20573 19358 18150
1.21 16946 15748 14556 13369 12188 11011 09841 08675 07515 06361
1.22 05212 04068 02930 01796 00669 99546 98430 97318 96212 95111
1.23 9.9594015 92925 91840 90760 89685 88616 87553 86494 85441 84393
1.24 83350 82313 81280 80253 79232 78215 77204 76198 75197 74201
1.25 73211 72226 71246 70271 69301 68337 67377 66423 65474 64530
1.26 63592 62658 61730 60806 59888 58975 58067 57165 56267 55374
1.27 54487 53604 52727 51855 50988 50126 49268 48416 47570 46728
1.28 45891 45059 44232 43410 42593 41782 40975 40173 39376 38585
1.29 37798 37016 36239 35467 34700 33938 33181 32439 31682 30940
1.30 30203 29470 28743 28021 27303 26590 25883 25180 24482 23789
1.31 23100 22417 21739 21065 20396 19732 19073 18419 17770 17125
1.32 16485 15850 15220 14595 13975 13359 12748 12142 11540 10944
1.33 10353 09766 09184 08606 08034 07466 06903 06344 05791 05242
1.34 04698 04158 03624 ' 03094 02568 02048 01532 01021 00514 00012
1.35 9.9499515 99023 98535 : 98052 97573 9710o 96630 96166 95706 95251
1.36 94800 94355 93913 93477 93044 92617 92194 91776 91362 90953
1.37 90549 90149 89754 ' 89363 88977 88595 88218 87846 87478 87115
1.38 86756 86402 86052 85707 85366 85030 84698 84371 84049 83731
1.39 83417 83108 82803 82503 82208 81916 I 81630 81348 81070 80797
1.40 80528 80263 80003 79748 79497 79250 79008 78770 78537 78308
1.41 78084 77864 77648 77437 77230 77027 76829 76636 76446 76261
1.42 76081 75905 75733 75565 75402 75243 75089 74939 74793 74652
1.43 74515 74382 74254 74130 74010 73894 73783 73676 73574 73476
1.44 73382 73292 73207 73125 73049 72976 72908 72844 72784 72728
1.45 72677 72630 72587 72549 72514 72484 72459 72437 72419 72406
1.46 72397 72393 72392 72396 72404 72416 72432 72452 72477 72506
1.47 72539 72576 72617 72662 72712 72766 72824 72886 72952 73022
1.48 73097 73175 73258 73345 73436 73531 73630 73734 73841 73953
1.49 74068 74188 74572 74708 74848 74992 75141 75293
74312 j 74440
Note.—This table is taken from Vol. II. of Legendro's work, and not
from Vol. I., as stated in the Preface: the numbers given in Vol. I. being
inaccurate in the seventh deoimnl place. In Vol IT. the values aro given to
twelve places of decimals. The figure here printed in the s.vcnth placo is
Leg r (n). 31
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.50 9.9475449 75610 75774 75943 76116 76292 76473 76658 76847 77040
1.51 77237 77438 77642 77851 78064 78281 78502 78727 78956 79189
1.52 79426 79667 79912 80161 80414 80671 80932 81196 81465 81738
1.53 82015 82295 82580 82868 83161 83457 83758 84062 84370 84682
1.54 84998 85318 85642 85970 86302 86638 86977 87321 87668 88019
1.55 88374 88733 89096 89463 89834 90208 90587 90969 91355 91745
1.56 92139 92537 92938 93344 93753 94166 94583 95004 95429 95857
1.57 96289 96725 97165 97609 98056 98508 98963 99422 99885 00351
1.58 9.9500822 01296 01774 02255 02741 03230 03723 04220 04720 05225
1.59 05733 06245 06760 07280 07803 08330 08860 09395 09933 10475
1.60 11020 11569 12122 12679 13240 13804 14372 14943 15519 16098
1.61 16680 17267 17857 18451 19048 19650 20254 20862 21475 22091
1.62 22710 23333 23960 24591 25225 25863 26504 27149 27798 28451
1.63 29107 29767 30430 31097 31767 32442 33120 33801 34486 35175
1.64 35867 36563 37263 37966 38673 39383 40097 40815 41536 42260
1.65 42989 43721 44456 45195 45938 46684 47434 48187 48944 49704
1.66 50468 51236 52007 52782 53560 54342 55127 55916 56708 57504
1.67 58303 59106 59913 60723 61536 62353 63174 63998 64826 65656
1.68 66491 67329 68170 69015 69864 70716 71571 72430 73293 74159
1.69 75028 75901 76777 77657 78540 79427 80317 81211 82108 83008
1.70 83912 84820 85731 86645 87563 88484 89409 90337 91268 92203
1.71 93141 94083 95028 95977 96929 97884 98843 99805 00771 01740
1.72 9.9602712 03088 04667 05650 06636 07625 08618 09614 10613 11616
1.73 12622 1.3632 14645 15661 16681 17704 18730 19760 20793 21830
1.74 22869 23912 24959 26009 27062 28118 29178 30241 31308 32377
1.75 33451 34527 35607 36690 37776 38866 39959 41055 42155 43258
1.76 44364 45473 46586 47702 48821 49944 51070 52200 53331 54467
1.77 55606 56749 57894 59043 60195 61350 62509 63671 64836 66004
1.78 67176 68351 69529 70710 71895 73082 74274 75468 76665 77866
1.79 79070 80277 81488 82701 83918 85138 86361 87588 88818 90051
1.80 91287 92526 93768 95014 96263 97515 98770 00029 01291 02555
1.81 9.9703823 05095 06369 07646 08927 10211 11498 12788 14082 15378
1.82 16678 17981 19287 20596 21908 23224 24542 25864 27189 28517
1.83 29848 31182 32520 33860 35204 36551 37900 39254 40610 41969
184 43331 44697 46065 47437 48812 50190 51571 52955 54342 55733
1.85 57126 58522 59922 61325 62730 64140 65551 66966 68384 69805
1.86 71230 72657 74087 75521 76957 78397 79839 81285 82734 84186
1.87 85640 87098 88559 90023 91490 92960 94433 95910 97389 98871
1.88 9.9800356 01844 03335 04830 06327 07827 09331 10837 12346 13859
1.89 15374 16893 18414 19939 21466 22996 24530 26066 27606 29148
1.90 30693 32242 33793 35348 36905 38465 40028 41595 43164 44736
1.91 46311 47890 49471 51055 52642 54232 55825 57421 59020 60622
1.92 62226 63834 65445 67058 68675 70294 71917 73542 75170 76802
1.93 78436 80073 81713 83356 85002 86651 88302 89957 91614 93275
1.94 94938 96605 98274 99946 01621 03299 04980 06663 08350 10039
1.95 9.9911732 13427 15125 16826 18530 20237 21947 23659 25375 27093
1.96 28815 30539 32266 33995 35728 37464 39202 40943 42688 44435
1.97 46185 47937 49693 51451 53213 54977 56744 58513 60286 62062
1.98 63840 65621 67405 69192 70982 72774 74570 76368 78169 79972
1.99 81779 83588 85401 87216 89034 90854 92678 94504 96333 98165
the one nearest to the true value whether in excess or defect. This table, and
the table of Least Factors, have each been subjected to two complete and in.
dependent revisions before finally printing off.
ALGEBRA.
FACTORS.
1+0-3+2+1
1+0-2-2
1+0-3+2+1
-2-0+6-4-2
-2-0+6-4-2
1+0-5+0+7+2-6-2
Result a7-5asb2 + 7a"bi + 2aV-Gabt-2h7.
Synthetic Division.
Ex. 3 : Employing the last example, the work stands thus,
1+0-5+0+7+2-6-2
-0 0+0+0+0
+3 +3+0-6-6
-2 -2+0+4+4
-1 -1+0+2+2
1+0-2-2
Result se8— 2a— 2. [See also (248).
Note that, in all operations with detached coefficients, the result must be
■written out in successive powers of the quantity which stood in its successive
powers in the original expression.
36 ALGEBRA.
INDICES.
a— = — , ft° = l.
>
EVOLUTION. 37
EVOLUTION.
40 (x+yY+ix-y)2 = 2 (.*2+y).
41 (x+y)2 - (•* -yf = ^y-
EQUATIONS. 39
42 (x+yY = (*—y)2+4<xy.
43 (a? -?/)2 = (a? + ?/)2 - 4*y.
44 Examples.
vV-32 v/c2-da
[38
9 (c2-a)2) = 4 (V-tT)
» = v/5c2+4i2.
a?-ab + b* at + ab + b1
multiply the numerator and denominator by the L. C. M. of all the smaller
denominators.
Result (a?+ab + b2) +(a?-ab + b2) _ a2 + b2
(a2 + a& + 62)-(a2-a6 + i2) ab '
QUADKATIC EQUATIONS.
•k T, 2 i *. i a — 6 + vF-4ac
45 If aar+bx+c = 0, x= =-7i .
la
46 If ax*-\-2bx-{-c = 0 ; that is, if the coefficient of % be
an even number, x = -ft + — ^ft^-ac .
a
Divide by 2, *2 - | * + | = 0
40 ALGEBRA.
n i 4. «.
Complete the square, x', — -^x
7 -\- (-)
/7\2 = —
49 — ^
3 = t2
2 \4/ Id 2 i6
Take square root, x = ±-
4 4
7±5 1 Q
■ = — ^ or a-
6a;2 + 5a;-l
!zd + 6(3» + l) _ 14
3x+ 1 ^feM-S*- 1
Put 6:
y = ^t^l .(2)
3a;+l
EQUATIONS. 41
thus y H =14
V
yi-14y + 6 = 0
y having been determined from this quadratic, x is afterwards found from (2).
55 Ex. 2 : a* + I + x + 1 = 4.
(*+:t)2+(* + -t)=Q
Put x H = i/, and solve the quadratic in ?/.
2a2 + a; + 3/2^+^+2 = 2
2as2+as+2 + 3v/2as2 + as + 2 = 4
Put \/2#2+a; + 2 = j/, and solve tbe quadratic
</+3y = 4.
xf +. —
2 #f = —
16
+ 8 3
2n
A quadratic in y = x3.
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS.
-^-* = 2 or -
x—y 2
From which a; = 3y or — y
Substitute in (2) ; thus y = 2 and a: = 6
or 2/ = -|- and as = 2^7.
v«
(I C
68 li a : b :: c : d; then ad= he, and r = -;
o o
a+6 c+d a—b _ c— rf a+6 c-\-d
b d b d ' a—b c—d
an
69 rt
If ab = 1c = /e = &c-
s
; ^
then ba = a+c+e+&c.
b+d+f+&c:
General theorem.
(tee
70 If j = -j = -j. = &c. = k say ; then
k =- i P«"+gc"+ye"+&c. \ i
I »&"+od"+rP+&c. )
wlioro p, «, r, &c. are any quantities whatever. Proved as
in (71).
RATIO AND PROPORTION 45
VARIATION.
ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.
Generalform, of a series in A. P.
79 «> a+d, a+2d, a+3d, a-\-(n— l)d.
a= first term,
d= common difference,
I = last of n terms,
* = sum of n terms ; then
80 l = a+(n— l)d.
81 » = («+0g-
82 s={2a+(n-l)d}-.
Obtained by writing (79) in reversed order, and adding both
series together.
GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION.
*.
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS. 47
HARMONICAL PROGRESSION.
n i * «.
Complete the square, x', — -x
7 +, /7\2
(-] = 49
— — 3^ = t2
2 \4/ Id 2 J6
Take square root, x— - = ±-
4 4
7±5 = 3Q or _1
, = __
6a)2+5a!-l 6(3s + l) _ ,,
3*+l + 6a:2+5*-l
*- ^nsfr1 • «
EQUATIONS. 41
thus y H— =14
V
if- 14y + 6 = 0
y having been determined from this quadratic, x is afterwards found from (2).
55 Ex. 2 : ^ + or
1 + ^ + 1=4.
x
(*+^)2+(* + iH
Put x H = y, and solve the quadratic in y.
2x2+x + 3</2x2 + x + 2 = 2
2x* + x + 2 + 3s/2xi+x + 2 = 4
3 3
2n
A quadratic in y = a; 3 .
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS.
as— y 2
From which 7
* = 3y or -y
Substitute in (2) ; thus y = 2 and aj = 6
or ^ = — and x = 2v/7.
65 Ex.3: 3% + 5y= xy .
2x+7y = 3zy .
an
(2)3
Divide each equation by xy,
1+1=1 (3)
y x
1+1=3 (4)
y *
Multiply (3) by 2, and (4) by 3, and by subtraction y is eliminated.
44 ALGEBBA.
a c
68 If o : 6 :: c : <?; then ad= be, and r = -;
o a
a-\-b c-\-d _ a— 6 c—d a-\-b c+rf
6 d 6 rf ' a— b c—d
«« T^ a c e . ,. a a+c+e+&c.
69 K - = - = - = &c; then T =
b d f ' b b+d+f+&c.
General theorem.
70 If r = j = i. — &c. = A; say ; then
. _ f j?a*+gc*+re*+&c. ") i
' I pbn-\-qdn+rfn+&c. )
where p, q, r, &c. are any quantities whatever. Proved as
in (71).
RATIO AND PROPORTION. 45
VARIATION.
.
46 ALGEBRA.
ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.
Generalform of a series in A. P.
79 «> a+d, a+2d, a+3d, a-\-[n— l)d.
a = first term,
d = common difference,
I = last of n terms,
s = sum of n terms ; then
80 l = a-\-(n— 1) d.
81 • = («+0g-
n
82 * = {2a+(n—l)d}
2'
Obtained by writing (79) in reversed order, and adding both
series together.
GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION.
Generalform of a series in G. P.
83 a, ar, ar2, ars, ar"-1.
a = first term,
r = common ratio,
I = last of n terms,
* = sum of n terms ; then
84 I = ar*-1.
rn—l 1—r"
85 s — a
r— 1
or a
1—r
If r be less than 1, and n be infinite,
86 * = ^ > since r" = 0.
1—r
(85) is obtained by multiplying (83) by r, and subtracting
one series from the other. *:-
*.
"A
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS. 47
HARMONICAL PROGRESSION.
.&c.
SURDS.
HI 9=780 = ^taP=3(9+^0)
since (9- 780; (9+ 780) = 81 -80, by (1).
1 _ 1 + 273 + 2 3 + 273
112 1 + 273-72 (l + 273)2-2 11+4^3
_ (3 + 2/3) (11-473) _ 9 + 1073
121-48 73 '
11^ - 1
_ 3*-2»'
•L^** 73-72
Put &=x, 2i=y, and take 6 the L. C. M. of the denominators 2 and 3, then
_1_ = xs+x*y + x*tf+xy+xyl+y* . f« .
114 a/o —To* Here the result will be the same as in the last example
v"+ v<2
if the signs of the even terms be changed. [See 5.
119 If Va+Vb == Sx + Sy ;
then \/ft— Vb = 7« — Vy.
By squaring and by (118).
52 ALGEBEA.
BINOMIAL THEOKEM.
125 (o+6)» =
Ij 1"
126 General or (r+l)th term,
n(n-l)(n-2) ... (n-r+1) a„_yJP
I **
127 or—=5=— an~rbr
n —r r
if n be a positive integer.
If b be negative, the signs of the even terms will be changed.
54 ALGEBRA.
Examples.
/ 2x\43
Required the 40th term of (1 —J .
Here r = 39j o = l; b = -=§■; n = 42.
By (127), the term will be
1 42 / 2x\» 42.41.40 [2x\*> , ,a»
BINOMIAL THEOREM. 55
131 Required the greatest term in the expansion of -^-^—= when x=±i-.
(l+xy 11
1
n+xy = (!+»)• Here n = 5, a = 1, 6 = x in the formula
132 Find the first negative term in the expansion of (2(1 + 36)'*'.
We must take r the first integer which makes n — r+1 negative; there
fore r>» + l = Y + 1 = 6i» therefore r=7. The term will be
Y • Y ■ Y||jJLilrJO (2a)~* (3i)7 by (126)
»(»+*+i'){w«ffi)+H(T)'+
«3(|)"+s1(|)"+85(|)"+to }
The three terms last written being those which produce xM after multiplying
by the factor (l + 6x+%x*) ; for we have
f^x33(|)%6,x34(|)33+lx35(32a'.)M
ar
|2w + l— r |_r_ ' as" | 2»-rl— r |_r
Equate Am— 4r + 2 to 3m + 1, thus
4n— 3m + 1
r= 1
Substitute this value of r in the general term ; the required coefficient becomes
|2» + 1
4n + 3m+3 4h-3»j + 1
4 4
The value of r shows that there is no term in *s" * ' unless —'■—-; is an
4
integer.
MULTINOMIAL THEOREM.
Ex. 1.—To write the coefficient of a3bcs in the expansion of (a+b + c + dy.
Here put n=10, x= 1, p=3, 2=1, r=5, s=0 in (138).
[10 10 . 9 . 8
Result
L3 [6 1.2.3
1 0 1 2
0 2 0 2
0 1 2 1
0 0 4 0
£(-iO(-l)(-i)K)i^<^<-v-l
Eesnlt 22|
LOGARITHMS.
-\
EXPONENTIAL THEOREM. 59
EXPONENTIAL THEOREM.
Hencej by putting x = l,
151 e=l + l + l- + i+&c.
= 2-718281828 an incommensurable quantity.
See (295).
Pn anPn-in~Pn-2 p
qn " anqn-i+q»-2 " "'
■J CO V _— anPn-l~rPn-2
«» <7»-l + tf»-2
in which a'n is the complete quotient or value of the continued
fraction commencing with an.
187 H h— h—
«i+ ... + a»+
be a continued fraction, and
Si' s»
66 ALOEBBA.
INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS.
Example.—Given 5x + 3y = 112.
Then x = 20, y = 4 are values ;
sb = 20-3q
y= 4+50
The values of as and y may be exhibited as under :
t = -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x = 26 23 20 17 14 11 .8 5 2 -1
7/ = -6 -1 4 9 14 19 24 29 34 39
For solutions in positive integers t must lie between -^ = 6f and — f-;
that is, £ must be 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, giving 7 positive integral solutions.
x 7 -a;
and y+x + t = 1146, by (1),
y = 1146-7-2 = 1137 = 0.
The general solution will be
x = 7-13*,
y - 1137 + 17*.
Or, changing the sign of * for convenience,
x = 7 + 13*,
y = 1137-17*.
68 ALGEBBA.
195 Example :
^29 = 5 + ^29-5 = 5 + ■^29 + 5'
^29 + 5 _ Q y/29-3= 2+ 5
4 '4 " T ^29 + 3'
•v/29 + 3 _ j y/29-2 _ j 5
5 5 T v/29 + 2'
^29 + 2 = 1 .y/29-3 _ 1 4
^29 + 3'
^29 + 3 _ p v^29-5_ „ 1_
"4 ~ ^+ 4~~ ~ ^+ ^29 + 5'
^29 + 5 = 10+^29-5 = 10 +
^29 + 5'
The quotients 5, 2, 1, 1, 2, 10 are the greatest integers
contained in the quantities in the first column. The quotients
now recur, and the surd \/29 is equivalent to the continued
fraction
1 1 1 1 J^ 1111
5+2+ 1+ 1+ 2+ 10+ 2+ 1+ 1+ 2 + &c.
The convergents to \/29, formed as in (160), will be
^ 11 16 27 70 727 1524 2251 3775 9801
V 2' 3' 5' 13' 135' 283' 418' 701' 1820'
196 Note that the last quotient 10 is the greatest and twice
the first, that the second is the first of the recurring ones, and
that the recurring quotients, excluding the last, consist of
pairs of equal terms, quotients equi-distant from the first and
last being equal. These properties are universal. (See 204
—210).
multiple of that number, and let the mth convergent 'to \/Q be
represented by F„; then the 2mth convergent is given by the
198 F°r example, in approximating to v/29 above, there are five recurring
quotients. Take m = 2 X 5 = 10 ; therefore, by
F-~5- {'» + £]
•^lo = 1820' ihe 10th converSent-
Therefore P. = - [ _ + 29 x ^ j = 192119201
35675640 '
the 20th convergent to v/29 ; and the labour of calculating the intervening
convorgonts is saved.
GENERAL THEORY.
\
REDUCTION OF A QUADBATIG SURD. 71
C% ^1^*1 ^1
_ Q-d
210 Let am, rm, cm be the last terms of the first cycle ; then
a»-n »*»-i> Cm-i are respectively equal to a2, r2, c2 ; ■ am_2, rm_2,
cOT_2 are equal to az, r3, cs, and so on. By (187).
EQUATIONS.
214 ** ± 1 = 0.
Divide by Xs, and throw into factors, by (2) or (3). See also
(480).
215 *8-7^-6 = 0.
x = — 1 is a root, by inspection; therefore x + 1 is a factor.
Divide by x + 1, and solve the resulting quadratic.
» . 65 h . 65
*2+^ = ^ + T
x2 = 7x; .'. x = 7.
Kule. — Divide the absolute term (here 455) into two
factors, if possible, such that one of them, minus the square
of the other, equals the coefficient of x. Bee (483) for general
solution of a cubic equation.
L
74 ALGEBRA.
IMAGINARY EXPRESSIONS.
o
Assume l+2'+33+...+^ = w(w+1).(g»±D ■
6
PARTIAL FRACTIONS. 77
PARTIAL FRACTIONS.
Hence 1 x+1 x
(aj2 + l)(a!2 + a! + l) a^ + z + l as'+l
Assume
40:c-103 Ax+B Cx + D Ex + F
(x + iy(x2-4x + H) (:c2-4a: + 8)s (a2-4z + 8)2 »2-4* + 8
242 To make the sum of the last series less than an assigned
quantity p, make x less than —*-r, k being the greatest co
efficient.
General Theorem.
243 If <p (x) be positive for all positive integral values of x,
and continually diminish as x increases, and if m be any posi
tive integer, then the two series
*(l)+f(2)+*(3)+*(4) +
# (l)+m<p (m)+rrii<p (m?)-\-ms<t> (m3)+
are either both convergent or both divergent.
EXPANSION OF A FRACTION.
— l-to+lhf-6*
4a—10a? = A+B<e+ Ox2 + Dz?+ Ex'+ Fxs+.
-6Ax- <oBtf- 6Gx3- GBx*- GEx*-.
+ UAx* + llBx* + IWx* + lWx* + .
- 6Ax>- 6Ba;4- 6C»6-.
Equate coefficients of like powers of x, thus
A = 0,
B- 6A = 4, .-. B = 4
G- 65 + 114 = -10, .-. 0= 14
D-6G+11B- 6A = 0, .-. £=40
E-6D + 110- 6B = 0, .-. 37=110
F-6E+1W- 6C = 0, .-. F = 304
RECURRING SERIES.
_ 4a— 10ai2
1- 6x+lW- 6xs'
the meaning of which is, that if this fraction be expanded in ascending
powers of x, the first six terms will be those given in the question.
256 To obtain more terms of the series, we may use the Scale of Relation ;
thus the 7th term will be
(6 x 854 - 11 x 304 + 6 x 110) x7 = 2440s7.
K ' +C(«-l,5)a»-6j35-...}.
V
in which 6 = tan-1 i—, ^ = tan-1 "
L + Ma
If n be not greater than 100, sin (n9—<j>) may be obtained
from the tables correct to about six places of decimals, and
accordingly the nth term of the expansion may be found with
corresponding accuracy. As an example, the 100th term in
the expansion of ~TX—- is readily found by this method
,
0 b, ~Wr
41824 99
Example.—To determine whether the series 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36,
45, is recurring or not.
Introducing x, we may write
S = 1 + Zx + 6x* + 10zs + 15a;4 + 21a5 + 28a;8 + 36a7 + 45z8. . .
N
90 ALGEBRA.
272 Ex. : To sum the same series by decomposing the terms into partial
fractions'. Take the general term in the simple form
1
(r— 2)r(r+2)
Resolve this into the three fractions
8Tb)-i + 8-(^2)b^235)-
Substitute, 7, 9, 11, &c. successively for r, and the given series has for
its equivalent the three series
8 I 5T7T9^ 11 + 13 ^2»i + 3)
, lf__2 _JL_.2_ A 2 2 )
8 (. 7 9 11 13 2w + 3 2» + 5)
+ .M l. + i. + J_+ . 1.1,17
8 I 9 "^ 11 "*" 13 "*" + 2« + 3 + 2» + 5 2w+7j
and the sum of n terms is seen, by inspection, to be
8l5 7 2w+5T2»+7i 4(5.7 (2« + 5) (2n + 7) 5
a result obtained at once by the rule in (271), taking » q for tfle firs*
t6rm' aDd •(2»-H3)(2w + 5)(2w+7) f°r '^ "* °r kst teim
FACTORIAL SERIES. 91
MISCELLANEOUS SERIES.
b
l+2«+33+ ... +ns =$n (w+1) ] 2 =SS
l_|_2*+34+...+«4 = OT(w+1)(2w+1)(3wa+TO~1) _ s4
1 r*
1 —W A ■*
(1 .17)
By making x = \ in (125).
94 ALGEBRA.
_«(n-l)(n-2)(n_8)f+AO|||
2» j }
POLYGONAL NUMBERS.
1 1 1111111
2 n 12 3 4 5 6 7
3 in 0-1) 13 6 10 15 21 28
4 »■ 14 9 16 25 36 49
5 |k(3k— 1) 1 5 12 22 35 51 70
6 (2k — 1) w 1 6 15 28 45 66 91
r » +. k(k — 1) .. ON
-*——i(r— 2) 1, r, 3 + 3(r-2), 4+6(r-2), 5 + 10(r-2),
6 + 15 (r-2), &c.
96 ALGEBRA.
FIGURATE NUMBERS.
289 The ?ith term of any order is the sum of n terms of the
preceding order.
The nth term of the rth order is
n(n+1)-;-^+r~2) = H(r,n-1) By (98).
1 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 1
2 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 n
3 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21 n(n + l)
1.2
4 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, 56 n(n + l)(n + 2)
1.2.3
5 1, 5, 15, 35, 70, 126 n(n + l) (n + 2) (n + S)
1.2.3.4
1, 6, 21, 56, 126, 252 n(n + l)(n + 2)(n + 3)(n + 4<)
6
1.2.3.4.5
EYPEBGEOMETBIGAL SERIES. 97
HYPBRGBOMETEICAL SERIES.
■» 1 + ffr + TOffiff*
«(a+l)(«+2)/8QB+l)08+2) ...
+ 1.2.3.y(y+l)(y+2) ^+&°-
is convergent if x is < 1 ,
and divergent if a? is > 1 ; (239 ii.)
and if x = 1, the series is
convergent if y — a— j3 is positive,
divergent if y — a— j3 is negative, (239 iv.)
and divergent if y— a— ]3 is zero. (239 v.)
where &x, &2, 7c3, &c, with z2r, are given by the formulae
~ (y+2r-2) (y+2r- 1)
. __ (fl+r) (y+r— o) g
2" - (y+2r-l)(y+2r)
x _ F(q+r,fl+r+l, y+2r+l)
F(a+r,0+r,y+2r)
The continued fraction may be concluded at any point
with lcir z2r. When r is infinite, z2r = 1 and the continued
fraction is infinite.
98 ALGEBRA.
293 Let
j^ ~4 a?6
f(y) = i + T^+i o 5.._^ + i o o .,"" 7v^+&0-
1^1.2.7(7+1)^1 .2.3 . y(7+l)(y+2)
X*
the result of substituting —5 for a; in (291), and making
(3 = a = qo . Then, by last, or independently by induction,
INTEREST.
±
INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 99
301 Discount = A— P.
ANNUITIES.
Ex. 2.—After the white ball has been drawn and replaced, a ball is
drawn again ; required the probability of the ball being black.
104 ALGEBRA.
Here JJ = £, « = |, ^,= 1.
The probability, by (325), will be
4.5.6 ^2.3.5 . 1.2.1
7.11.11 7.8.8 7.3.3 __ 58639
4.5 2_JJ 1.2 _ 112728
7.11 7.8 7.3
If the probability of the second ball being white is required, P1PtPi must
be employed instead of P[P'1P'i.
INEQUALITIES.
a+b ^ /-t
331
al+ai+...+an>«/a^ ^
332 n
or, Arithmetic mean > Geometric mean.
Proof.—Substitute both for the greatest and least factors
their Arithmetic mean. The product is thus increased in
value. Repeat the process indefinitely. The limiting value
of the Gr. M. is the A. M. of the quantities.
where * = ^-r.
a+b Employ
r J Bin. Th.
For x may be diminished until 1+nx is > (1— ma;)-1, and this
is > (1 +x)m, by last.
(£±»y
\m—a/
is < (2±sy
\n—a/
SCALES OF NOTATION. 107
SCALES OF NOTATION.
FIGURATE NUMBERS.
289 The 11th term of any order is the sum of n terms of the
preceding order.
The 71th term of the rth order is
*(*+1)|;i(l+r"^ = H(r,it-l) By (98).
1 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 1
2 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 n
3 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21 n(n + l)
1.2
4 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, 56 n(n + l)(n+2)
1.2.3
5 1, 5, 15, 35, 70, 126 n(n+l) (n+2)(n+S)
1.2.3.4
6 1, 6, 21, 56, 126, 252 n(n + l)(n + 2)(n + 3)(n+4)
1.2.3.4.5
ETPERGEOMETRICAL SERIES. 97
HYPERGEOMETRICAL SERIES.
is convergent if a; is < 1,
and divergent if x is > 1 ; (239 ii.)
and if x = 1, the series is
convergent if y— a— /3 is positive,
divergent if y— a— /3 is negative, (239 iv.)
and divergent if y— a— /3 is zero. (239 v.)
1 — /13 I ~~ "2r-l
1— &c... 1— A;2r*2r
where Jc1} kt, Jc3, &c, with z2r, are given by the formulas
, _ (a+r-l)(y+r-l-fi)x
(y+2r-2)(y+2r-l)
7. __ (P+r) (y+r—a) x
2r - (y+2r-l)(y+2r)
F(a+r, 0+r+l, y+2r+l)
*2r =
F(a+r,/3+r,y+2r)
The continued fraction may be concluded at any point
with k2r z2r. When r is infinite, z2r = 1 and the continued
fraction is infinite,
0
98 ALGEBRA.
293 Let
/(r)-1 + T^+1.2.y(y+l) + 1.2.3.y(y+l)(y+2)+ °'
the result of substituting —5 for x in (291), and making
aP
/3 = a = 00 . Then, by last, or independently by induction,
/(y+l) __ L_ £l_ £2_ ht.
f(y) -1+1+1+...+1 + &C.
a?
mth Pm = (y+m-1) (y+m)
294 In this result put 7 = i and -|- for a?, and we obtain by
Exp. Th. (150),
ev e-v w w2 w2 , «, , • t/a
= *?— 2— 2— . the rh component being - a -
ev+e~v 1+ 3+ 5 + &c. F 5 2r-l
Or the continued fraction may be formed by ordinary division
of one series by the other.
INTEREST.
301 Discount = A— P.
ANNUITIES.
Ex. 2.—After the white ball has been drawn and replaced, a ball is
drawn again ; required the probability of the ball being black.
104 ALGEBRA.
Here JJ = £ «« f. Pi=-|.
The probability, by (325), will be
4.5.6 2.3.5 1.2.1
7.11.11 7.8.8 7.3.3 58639
4.5 2.3 1.2 — 112728
7.11 7.8 7.3
If the probability of the second ball being white is required, PlPlPa must
be employed instead of PjPiPi.
INEQUALITIES.
. m ,. m
m , , 'hi
«1 +«2 +•■•+«„ > Z^ + Og +... + « A"
334 «
excepting when m is a positive proper fraction,
p
106 ALGE2RA.
336 If « and «» are positive, and z and mjr less than unity ;
then (1 + x)— > 1 — nur. (125, 240).
SCALES OF NOTATION.
346 Ex.—In what scale does 2/7 represent the number 475
in the scale of ten ?
Solve the equation 2.5 + 10r+7 = 475. [178.
Result r = 13.
THEORY OF NUMBERS.
Therefore a and 6 are equimultiples of aH and fe„ ; that is, a is not prime to 6
if any fraction exists in lower terms.
neither greater nor les3 than -r- ; that is, it is equal to it. Therefore, &c.
by (96). ^
102 ALGEBRA.
Ex. 2.—After the white ball has been drawn and replaced, a ball is
drawn again ; required the probability of the ball being black.
104 ALGEBRA.
INEQUALITIES.
n
or, Arithmetic mean > Geometric mean.
Proof.—Substitute both for the greatest and least factors
their Arithmetic mean. The product is thus increased in
value. Repeat the process indefinitely. The limiting value
of the Gr. M. is the A. M. of the quantities.
where x = ——r.
a+b Employ
r J Bin. Th.
.m , m
334 > /«i + «g+.-. + «A"
n
excepting when m is a positive proper fraction,
p
106 ALGEBRA.
337 If x> m> and n are positive, and n greater than m ; then,
by taking x small enough, we can make
1 + noc > (l+x)m.
For x may be diminished until l+nx is > (1— ma;)-1, and this
is > (1 +x)m, by last.
,
SCALES OF NOTATION. 107
«* !° > HT' • ■
Similarly aaV><? > {<*+*+ c\a+b+°
SCALES OF NOTATION.
r r r3
where pu p2, &c. are the digits.
Examples : 3426 in the scale of 7 =3. 78 +4. 71 + 2 . 7 + 6
•1045 in the same scale = -=- + —r. + -=i + -=i
7 7 r r
346 Ex.—In what scale does 2t7 represent the number 475
in the scale of ten ?
Solve the equation 2rs + 10r + 7 = 475. [178.
Result r = 13.
THEORY OF NUMBERS.
a a a — qlrr-1 a,
Then, because (70);
T b b — q^\ 62
a = ^t = &c = ^'
and so on ; thus
b
Therefore a and 6 are equimultiples of a„ and bn ; that is, a is not prime to b
if any fraction exists in lower terms.
neither greater nor les3 than -7- ; that is, it is equal to it. Therefore, &c.
I. II.
1
504, 2 2
252 2 4
126 2 8
63 3 3 6 12 24
21 3 9 18 36 72
7 7 7 14 28 56 21 42
84 168 63 126 252 504
Explanation. — Resolve 504 into its prime factors, placing them in
column II.
Q
114 ALGEBRA.
The divisors of 504 are now formed from the numbers in column II., and
placed to the right of that column in the following manner :—
Place the divisor 1 to the right of column II., and follow this rule—
Multiply in order all the divisors which are written down by the next number
in column II., which has not already been used as a multiplier : place the first
new divisor so obtained and all the following products in order to the right of
column II.
Put 1, 2, 3 ... (n— 1) in succession for x, and the solution of the («— 1)
equations is of the form 8T = M (2»+ 1).
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
FACTORS OF AN EQUATION.
-*■
406 —P\ = the sum of all the roots of f(x).
__ ( the sum of the products of the roots taken
^2 ~" \ two at a time.
_ ( the sum of the products of the roots taken
■P3 ~~ \ three at a time.
415 H all the indices are even, and all the terms of the same
sign, there is no real root ; and if all the indices are odd, and
all the terms of the same sign, there is no real root but zero.
■ Thus xl+xi+l = 0 has no real root, and x'+x^+x = 0 has no real root
but zero. In this last equation there is no absolute term, because such a
term would involve the zero power of x, which is even, and by hypothesis is
wanting.
419 When all the roots of f(x) are real, the number of
positive roots is equal to the number of changes of sign in
f(x) ; and the number of negative roots is equal to the number
of changes of sign in f(—x).
420 Thus, it being known that the roots of the equation
K4-10a!'+35a!3-50a! + 24 = 0
are all real ; the number of positive roots will be equal to the number of
changes of sign, which is four. Also /( — x) = x* + lCte8 + 35a3 + 50as + 24 = 0,
and since there is no change of sign, there is consequently, by the rule, no
negative root.
a5 + a4 + a8 - a2 -• a -1
+ ( 5a4 + 4a8 + 3a2 - 2a - 1)2/
+ (10a8 + 6a2 + 3a - 1)2/'
+ (10a2 + 4a + l)f/
+ ( 5a + 1)2/'
+ f/
TRANSFORMATION OF AN EQUATION. 119
426 /(«+y)=/(«)+/1(«)y
/»(") y + >LT¥J-y* + J-r¥ltf + ^^
+ 13 5
so that the coefficient generally of yr in the transformed
equation is
r
T+ 6 V 18 J 96
Next resolve the denominators into their prime factors,
3 I OtC j -Lj.fi/ I Ki ___ f\
y 273 V ~ 2731 V ~ 2\3 "~ '
The smallest value must now be assigned to h, which will suffice to make
each coefficient an integer. This is easily seen by inspection to be 2s. 3 = 12,
and the resulting equation is y^ + lOy*— 88y— 126 = 0,
the roots of which are connected with the roots of the original equation by
the relation y = 12x.
Fm-i(p) + 1 = *„(*).
And, finally, fa ix) -f- ^, (as) = Xlt
1>i ix) + 1>» ("0 = -Xs.
462 If /(#) and F(X) have common roots, they are con
tained in the greatest common measure of f(x) and F(X).
463 If /(*) has for its roots a, <j>(a), b, <j>(b) amongst others ;
then the equations /(a?) = 0 and/{#(a;)} = 0 have the common
roots a and b.
464 But, if all the roots occur in pairs in this way, these
equations coincide.
For example, suppose that each pair of roots, a and b, satisfies the equation
a+b = 2r. We may then assume a — b = 2z. Therefore /(z + r) = 0. This
equation involves only even powers of z, and may be solved for zV
RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS.
By (545), putting q = l.
BINOMIAL EQUATIONS.
CUBIC EQUATIONS.
487 Then, since vm? = to$/1, the roots of the cubic will be
m + n, awi + a2n, 0^1 + an.
Now, if in the expansion of
C0S3tt +
, -2j COS
_„ a +
, -^r = 0.
BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
495 If °a> /31, y* be the roots of the cubic in e1, the roots of the biquadratic
will be _!(a+/3 + y), i(n+/3-y), |(/3+y-a), l(? + «-0)-
S
130 THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
For proof, take w, x, y, z for the roots of the biquadratic ; then, by (ii.), the
sum of each pair must give a value of e. Hence, we have only to solve the
symmetrical equations
y + z = a, w + x= — a,
z+x = P, w + y=—(S,
«+y = r. w+z = — y-
= V + 2" x + m) '
COMMENSURABLE ROOTS.
462 If f(x) and F(X) have common roots, they are con
tained in the greatest common measure of /(a?) and F(X).
463 H /(*) has for its roots a,f(a),b,$ (b) amongst others ;
then the equations /(«) = 0 and /{#(*) j = 0 have the common
roots a and b.
464 But, if all the roots occur in pairs in this way, these
equations coincide.
For example, suppose that each pair of roots, a and b, satisfies the equation
a+b = 2r. We may then assume a — b = 2z. Therefore / (z + r) = 0. This
equation involves only even powers of z, and may be solved for zV
RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS.
By (545), putting q = 1.
BINOMIAL EQUATIONS.
CUBIC EQUATIONS.
487 Then, since £/»? = m J/1, the roots of the cubic will be
« + », am-t-a**, a*»»+«*.
Vow, if in the expansion of
BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
495 If "*> fi't y* be the roots of the cubic in eJ, the roots of the biquadratic
Will be _l(a + /3 + y), |(a+/3-y), \{ft + y-a), \(y+*-fi).
S
130 THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
For proof, take w, x, y, z for the roots of the biquadratic ; then, by (ii.), the
sum of each pair must give a value of e. Hence, we have only to solve the
symmetrical equations
y + z = a, w + x =— a,
z+x = P, w + y = —fi,
% + y = y, w + z=—y.
COMMENSURABLE ROOTS.
IXC0M1TEXSURABLE ROOTS.
515 H <P (*) has no factor in common with f(x), and if <j> (x)
smdf(x) take the same sign when/(«) = 0; then the rest of
Sturm's functions may be found from f(x) and ^ (x), instead
of f{x). For the reasoning in (509) and (510) will apply to
the new functions.
516 If Sturm's functions be formed without first removing
equal roots from/ (x), the theorem will still give the number
of distinct roots, without repetitions, between assigned limits.
For iff(x) and /, (*) be divided by their highest common factor (see 444),
and if the quotients be used instead of/(a;) and/! (;c) to form Sturm's func
tions ; then, by (515), the theorem will apply to the new set of functions,
which will differ only from those formed from/ (x) and/ (x) by the absence
of the same factor in every term of the series.
517 Example. —To find the position of the roots of the equation
xi-4a?+xi + 6x + 2 = 0.
Sturm's functions, formed according to /(ai).= a;4-4a8 + x2 + Gx+ 2
the rule given above, are here calculated. /.(«) = 2a;8-6a!,-r- x+ 3
5a:a-10z- 7
The first terms of the functions are all /•(•) =
positive; therefore there is no imaginary /•(») = x- 1
root. /«(•) = 12
The changes of
sign in the func x = -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
tions, as x passes
through integral /(■) = + + + + + + +
values, are exhi — — + + — + +
bited in the adjoin /i(«) =
ing table. There /•(•) = + + — — — + +
are two changes of /•(*) = — — — + + + +
sign lost while as /*(«) = + + + + + + +
passes from — 1 to
0, and two more No. of changes \ 4 2 2 2 . 0 0
lost while x passes of sign ) 4
from 2 to 3. There
124 THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
462 If /(*) and F(X) have common roots, they are con
tained in the greatest common measure oif(x) and F(X).
463 H /(#) has for its roots a,f(a),b,<l> (b) amongst others ;
then the equations /(a?) = 0 and/{^(a;)} = 0 have the common
roots a and b.
464 But, if all the roots occur in pairs in this way, these
equations coincide.
For example, suppose that each pair of roots, a and 6, satisfies the equation
a + 6 = 2r. We may then assume a — b = 2z. Therefore / (z + r) = 0. This
equation involves only even powers of z, and may be solved for zs.
EECIPROCAL EQUATIONS.
By (545), putting q = l.
BINOMIAL EQUATIONS.
7 » a!*— 1,
but neither a, /3, nor y = 1. Proof as in (475).
478 If n = m*, and
a be a root of a?*— 1 = 0,
0 „ aT-a = 0,
r „ a*--f3 = 0;
then the roots of af— 1 = 0 will be the terms of the product
(l+«+«2+ ... +«-*) (l+/3+/32+...+0-1)
X(l + 7+78+-+7""1)-
CUBIC EQUATIONS.
BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
495 If aS. /38, y1 be the roots of the cubic in e%, the roots of the biquadratic
ivillbe -i(a + /3 + r), |(a+/3-y), |(/J + y-«), $(y + a~j3).
S
130 THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
For proof, take w, x, y, z for the roots of the biquadratic; then, by ("•)> *De
sum of each pair must give a value of e. Hence, we have only to solve the
symmetrical equations
y + z = a, w + x — — a,
z+x = (3, w + y = —/3,
»+y = r> w+z = — y-
= (o?2+ 2 # + m) •
r+2t+ 16 * 64 _ U"
COMMENSURABLE ROOTS.
INCOMMENSURABLE ROOTS.
515 H $ (*) has no factor in common with f(x), and if <j> (x)
and f (x) take the same sign when / (x) = 0 ; then the rest of
Sturm's functions may be found from f(x) and <j> (x), instead
of fix). For the reasoning in (509) and (510) will apply to
the new functions.
516 If Sturm's functions be formed without first removing
equal roots from / (x) , the theorem will still give the number
of distinct roots, without repetitions, between assigned limits.
For if/(as) and /, (a;) be divided by their highest common factor (see 444),
and if the quotients be used instead of f(x) and/ (as) to form Sturm's func
tions ; then, by (515), the theorem will apply to the new set of functions,
which will differ only from those formed from f(x) and/ (x) by the absence
of the same factor in every term of the series.
517 Example. — To find the position of the roots of the equation
are therefore two roots lying between 0 and — I ; and two roots also between
2 and 3.
These roots are all incommensurable, by (503).
524 Descartes' rule of signs follows from the above for the
signs of Fourier's functions, when x = 0 are the signs of the
terms in/ (*) ; and when « = oo, Fourier's functions are all
positive.
Fio. 2.
"X
INCOMMENSUBABLE BOOTS. 137
trying 5 instead of 4. This gives A% with a minus sign, thereby proving the
existence of a root between 2'4 and 2'5. The new coefficients are A%, JBa, 0%, D&
— -=• gives 1 for the next figure of the root.
i>,
Affix ciphers as before, and diminish the roots by 1, distinguishing the
new coefficients as Ait Us, 03, D,.
Note that at every stage of the work A and B must preserve their signs
unchanged. If a change of sign takes place it shews that too large a figure
has been tried.
To abridge the calculation proceed thus :—After a certain number of
figures of the root have been obtained (in this example four), instead of
adding ciphers cut off one digit from B4, two from Cit and three from D4.
This amounts to the same thing as adding the ciphers, and then dividing
each number by 10000.
Continue the work with the numbers so reduced, and cut off digits in like
manner at each stage until the D and C columns have disappeared.
A7 and B7 now alone remain, and six additional figures of the root are
determined correctly by the division of A7 by B7.
To find the other root which lies between 2 and 3, we proceed as follows : —
After diminishing the roots by 2, try G for the next figure. This gives A2
negative ; 7 does the same, but 8 makes A% positive. That is to say, /(2'7)
is negative, and/ (2-8) positive. Therefore a root exists between 2"7 and
28, and its value may be approximated to, in the manner shewn.
Throughout this last calculation A will preserve the negative sign.
Observe also that the trial number for the next figure of the root given at
each stage of the process by the formula — jttv f(e) wi^ m this case be always
536 To find the sum of the negative powers of the roots, put
m equal to n — 1, n—2, n— 3, &c. successively in (535), in
order to obtain s_u s_2, s_s, &c.
<j> (a) + <j> (b)+<j> (c) + &c, is equal to the coefficient of xn~x in
the remainder obtained by dividing ty (x) f'(x) hjf(x).
Proved by multiplying the equation (432) by <} '., and by theorem (401).
/ \x)
545 The sum of the mth powers of the roots of the quad
ratic equation <z-2—px-\-q = 0.
Sm = pm-mpm-2g+ m (™~3^ pm~W- .»
"
EXPANSION OF AN IMPLICIT FUNCTION. 143
Proceed in this way until the last fraction of the series (2)
is reached.
To obtain the second term in the expansion of y, put
y = xe(u+y1) in (1) (6),
Put y = x (1 + 2/j), the first of these values, iu the original equation, and
arrange in ascending powers of y, thus
_4a;4+ (-5x"+) y, + (-4zs+) y\ - 10x"y\ - 5x>y\ - x*y\ = 0.
The lowest power only of x in each coefficient is here written.
144 THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
DETERMINANTS.
554 Definitions.—The determinant is equivalent
«i
b,
to a^a — «2&i> and is called a determinant of the second order.
A determinant of the third order is
«1 «2 o, = ax (62c8— b3c2) + a^b^— 61cs) + a3(61c2-62c1).
6i 6, 63
Ci c2 c3
Another notation is 2 ± «i62c3, or simply (oxb^).
The letters are named constituents, and the terms are
called elements. The determinant is composed of all the
elements obtained by permutations of the suffixes 1, 2, 3.
The coefficients of the constituents are determinants of
the next lower order, and are termed minors of the original
determinant. Thus, the first determinant above is the minor
of c3 in the second determinant. It is denoted by G3. So the
minor of ax is denoted by A1} and so on.
General Theory.
556 The number of constituents is n2.
The number of elements in the complete determinant is \n.
559 The elements are not altered by changing the rows into
columns.
If two rows or columns are transposed, the sign of the
u
146 TEEOBY OF EQUATIONS.
563 To express the minor of the rth row and hth column as
a determinant of the n— 1th order.
Put all the constituents in the rth row and kth column equal
to 0, and then make r— 1 cyclical interchanges in the rows
and h — 1 in the columns, and multiply by (— 1) (r+i) (*-1).
-l + *-l)(n-l)
[v =(-l)<-1+
Again, 6, 6, </;,
h = b, + bt\ + b, cx c,
cl CJ c8 d, d, ^s^ dj dt
</, d^ ds
and so on. In the first series the determinants have alternately pins and
minus signs, by the rule for cyclical interchanges (5G1), the order being even.
148 THEOBY OF EQUATIONS.
Ex. — Let the selected rows from the determinant {&ib%ctdi%) be the
second, third, and fifth ; and the selected columns be the third, fourth, and
fifth. The original and the transformed determinants will be
a2 «8 ai <*« and 6, 6S
h K h Cl C2
es ct c5
d, ds dt <*5
es e« e6 dt d6 d, dt
The partial determinant of the third order is (&8c4e6), and its comple
mentary of the second order is (^d^.
The complete altered determinant is plus or minus, according as the
permutations of the rows and columns are of the same or of different class.
In the example they are of the same class, for there have been four trans
positions of rows, and six of columns. Thus ( — I)10 = + 1 gives the sign
of the altered determinant.
580 With the same meaning for su s2..., the same deter
minant taken of an order r, less than n, is equal to the sum
of the products of the squares of the differences of r of the n
quantities taken in every possible way ; that is, in G (n, r)
ways.
Ex.: sa
*0 st
*1 = (a1-o,)'+ («i -«,)'+ &c- = s(ai -«»)'»
s1 s3
where 1 b0 0 0 ... a0
Qr jrr-l-l
bi b0 0 ... ax
bi bx b0 ... a2
ELIMINATION.
'l *1 ~T '2 "^2 1 • • • "T '» "^m — Sre> ^A — J*n£'l"r-t>»S2-r ••• T-^mSn
It is required to eliminate x.
Arrange A and B according to descending powers of x,
and, having rejected any factor which is a function of y only,
proceed to find the Highest Common Factor of A and B.
The process may be exhibited as follows :
cxA = qxB + r^ ci» c*» cs> c* aTe the multipliers re
C2B = ^Ei+TaEa quired at each stage in order to avoid
fractional quotients; and these must
csB = qsB2+rsBs be constants or functions of y only.
cjt = &E3 + r4 qu q2, qs, q± are the successive quo
tients.
ri-Ku %&» rA> v* are the successive remainders ; rlt r2, rs, rt
being functions of y only.
The process terminates as soon as a remainder is obtained
which is a function of y only ; rt is here supposed to be such
a remainder.
Now, the simplest factors having been taken for c1} c2, cs, c4,
we see that
1 is the H. C. F. of cx and rx " The values of x and y,
d2 cx and r2 which satisfy simulta
neously the equations
-3-^ and r8 A=0 and B=0, are those
«2 obtained by the four pairs
d, and r4 of simultaneous equations
d2d3 following:
ANGULAR MEASUREMENT.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS.
609 Note, that by the angle AOP is- meant the angle through
which OP has revolved from OA, its initial position ; and this
angle of revolution may have any magnitude. If the revo
lution takes place in the opposite direction^ the angle described-
is reckoned negative.
If tan A = £.
b
617 sin A - a
Va*+bz
cos A = b [606
«* « <'-*> = l^BlZtl
Obtained from (627—630).
MULTIPLE ANGLES. 163
1-tan2^ 2tan^
646 cos 4 = 7• sin 4 =
l + tan2-| 1 + tan2^
[643, 613
648 cos 4 =
A
1 + tan 4 tan —
__ 1 + tan A
654 tan (45°+ 4)
~~ 1 — tan A
__ 1 — tan A [631, 632
655 tan (45°— .4)
~~ 1 + tan A
If A+B + C=IW°,
677 sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos^ cos§ cos- .
tanl8° = V-?— •
694 sin54°=.^L_, cos 54°= ^ ,
t.n54o = V5+2v/5
5
695 By taking the complements of these angles, the same
table gives the ratios of 30°, 75°, 72°, and 36°.
158 THEOBT OF EQUATIONS.
ANGULAR MEASUREMENT.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS.
609 Note, that by the angle AOP is meant the angle through
which OP has revolved from OA, its initial position ; and this
angle of revolution may have any magnitude. If the revo
lution takes place in the opposite direction^ the angle described
is reckoned negative.
If tan A = t.
b
617 sin A = a
cos A = b [606
Va^+W
618 sin A = tan A [617
cos A =
VI + tan2 A VI + tan2 A
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 161
and from the sine and cosine all the remaining ratios may be
found by (613—616).
l-tan24 2 tan 4
646 cos A -- . sin A = j*
1 + tan2! 1 + tan2!
[643, 613
rant in which A
— lies.
If ^+5 + ^ = 180°,
A H C
677 sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos— cos— cos— .
_ _ "li
A H C
sin A + sin B — sin C = 4> sin — sin — cos— .
Z a A
A H C
678 cos A + cos B + cos C = 4 sin g- sin — sin — + 1.
& & a
ARC
cos A + cos B — cos C = 4 cos — cos — sin — — 1.
a m £
679 tan .4 + tan -B + tan C = tan .4 tan B tan C.
680 coti + cot| + cot^=cot4 cot|cot|.
681 sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sin A sin J5 sin C.
682 cos 24 + C0S25 + cos 2C = —4 cos^ cos.B cos C— 1.
696 Note.—sin 15° is obtained from sin (45°- 30°), expanded by (628).
697 sin 18° from the equation sin 2as = cos 3a;, where x = 18°.
698 sin 54° from sin 3as = 3 sin a: —4 sin' x, where x = 18°.
699 And the ratios of various angles may be obtained by taking the sum,
difference, or some multiple of the angles in the table, and making use of
known formulae. Thus
12o=30°-18°, 7^° = 15°
~, &c. &c.
a abc
713 R-
2 sin A 4A *
[By (EI 20) and (706).
715
= iv^fc + cywI+^-c^cosec2!!
[702
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES.
Scalene Triangles
720 Case I.—The equation
a b [701
sin A sin £
will determine any one of the four
quantities A, B, a, b when the re
maining three are known.
726 If the logarithms of b and o are known, the trouble of taking out
log (b — c) and log (6 + c) may be avoided by employing the subsidiary angle
0 = tan-1 — , and the .formula
c
727 tan £ (£- 0) = tan (e - -j) cot 4. [655
733 Z0S B — at t ■
2(ab-\-cd)
J\ '
From AO* = ai + b'—2ab cos B = c> + d*+
2cd cos B, by (702), and B+D = 180°.
734 sin B 2Q
ab+cd
lt , . L[613, 733 a
735 Q = </(s-a){s-b){s-c)(s-d)
= area of ABCD,
and 8 = %(a+b+c+d).
Area = £- ab sin B + -j cd sin £ ; substitute sin B from last.
736 AC? = (gg+gg («d+6e) . [702> 733
(a6+ca)
Radius of circumscribed circle
737 _ 1 V(ab+cd) (ac+bd) (ad+bc). [713, 734, 736
4<(J
If J.D bisect the side of the triangle ABO in D,
■*
SUBSIDIARY ANGLES. 173
If AD be perpendicular to BO,
Y»Mt at) — be sin A _ b1 sin C+c* sin B
'" ~" a '~ b+c "
Rtj pjj b1— c' tan J?— tan G
745 a tan £ + tan 0 '
cos0
751 To adapt a cos (7+6 sin G to logarithmic computation.
Take 0 = tan-1-^-; then
o
a cos 0 ± 6 sin 0 = ^/(a' + b') sin (0 ± 0). [By 617
For similar instances of the use of a subsidiary angle, see (726) to (730).
LIMITS OF BATI08.
„-0 sin 5 tan 0 • j^r
70d -g- = —g- = 1,
when 0 vanishes.
For ultimately — = jL = i [601,606 0
n
754 « sin — = 0 when to is infinite. . e
n By putting — for 8 in last.
(0\n
cos — J = 1 when n is infinite.
Put /ex-
f 1 — sin! —J \ and expand the logarithm by (156).
DB MOIVRB'S THEOREM.
756 (cosa + isina)(cos/? + isin/3) ... &c.
= cos (a+£+y+ ...) + i sin (a+/S+y+ ...),
where { = */— 1. Proved by Induction.
757 (cos 0+i sin d)n = cos n0+i sin n$.
By Induction, or by putting a, /3, &c. each = 6 in (756).
7bU tan Mtf _ x_c (w> 2) tan2 0+GY (n,4) tan4 0-&c. "
In series (758, 759), stop at, and exclude, all terms with
indices greater than n. Note, n is here an integer.
763 **»<.'+P+r+*°.)=?Z'£';~%£.-
Expansions of the sine and cosine in powers of the angle.
764 &in0 = 0-^+*-&c. cos0=l-|! + ^-&c.
fi
By putting — for 0 in (757) and w = oo, employing (754) and (755).
Observe that in these series the coefficients are those of the Binomial
Theorem, with this exception,—If n be even, the last term must be divided by 2.
The series are obtained by expanding (e*± e")n by the Binomial Theorem,
collecting the equidistant terms in pairs, and employing (768) and (769).
_n-(n--g)(„--4-)sin,
... -l. i_iy " (n-r-1) (n-r-2) ... (n-2r+l) (g cog p)..,r+
[r
up to the last positive power of 2 cos 9.
Obtained by expanding each term of the identity
log (1-«b) +log (l - -1) = log ( 1 - z (x + i- - s ) J
790 If, in the series (783) to (789), p be changed into /3+x, the signs of
the alternate terms will thereby be changed.
798 Coefficient of as" in the expansion of e" cos bx = -—r^—- cos nO,
where a = r cos 0 and b = r sin 0. UL.
For proof, substitute for cos bx from (768) ; expand by (150) ; put
a = r cos 0, b = r sin 0 in the coefficient of a", and employ (757).
TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIE&. 179
sin I
801 cosa+cos(a+j3) + cos(a+2j8) + ...+cos{a+(n-l)i8}
cosfa + n~ ft) sin
sin §
802 H the terms in these series have the signs + and —
alternately, change /3 into /3 + 7r in the results.
For proof, multiply the series by 2 sin -^-, and apply (669) and (666).
808 sin n<f> — 2*-1 sin <£ sin U + —\ sin U + ??\ ...
as far as n factors of sines.
Proof.—By putting » = y = 1 and 0 = 2f in the last.
809 If n be even,
sin n<f> = 2"_1 sin <f> cos <f> ( sin2 sin2^ J (sin2 — — sin2^ ) &c.
810 If n be odd, omit cos <j> and make up n factors, reckoning
two factors for each pau* of terms in brackets.
Obtained from (808), by collecting equidistant factors in pairs, and
applying (659).
811 cos n(f> = 2""1 sin U + JLj sin (<f> + —\ ... to n factors.
Proof.—Put d> + £- for f in (808).
All
8i6 — -h?mm£J}m©}
Proof.—Put ^ = — in (809) and (812) ; divide by (814) and make »
infinite.
ADDITIONAL FORMULA. 181
817 e*-2cos0 + e-
ADDITIONAL F0RMTJL2E.
823 cot 4+tan A = 2 cosec 24 = sec A cosec J.
824 00860 24 + 00124 = 0014. sec4 = l+tan4 tan-
A sm4 4r-
A
826 cosA = cos4 4r—
2 2
827 tan 4+sec 4 = tan /45°+^-\
tan4 + tan_B=tan^tan^
828 cot4+cotii
829. sec2 4 cosec2 4 = sec24+cosec24.
182 PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
830 If A+B+C = %,
tan 5 tan C+tan C tan 4 +tan A tan 5=1.
831 If 4+5+0= ir,
cot 5 cot C+cot C cot 4 + cot A cotB = 1.
In any triangle,
835 sin i (A -B) = ^ cos ±C.
C
854 If s = ±(ar+b+c),
1— cos2 a— cos2 6— cos2 c+2 cos a cos 6 cose
= 4 sin * sin (s—a) sin (s—b) sin (s—c).
855 — 1+cos2 a+cos2 6+cos2 c+2 cos a cos 6 cos c
= 4 cos * cos (s—a) cos (*— 6) cos (s — c).
bk/i
856 4.abc
cos — cos — cos —
A M £
= cos*+cos(s— a)+cos (s — 6)+cos (s— c).
, a • b c
4 sin _ sin _ sin —
= — sin *+sin («— a)+sin (*— J)+sin (s—c).
INTRODUCTORY THEOREMS.
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES.
OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLES.
890 Let <r = v^sins sin (*— a) sin (*— 6) sin (s—c)
= -j \/l+2cosa cos 6 cose— cos" a— cos2 6— cos2e.
Then the supplementary form, by (871), is
891 S = s/ -cos S cos (S-A) cos (S-B) cos (S—C)
= %V1 — 2 cos .4 cos £ cos C— cos2 4 — cos2 B— cos2 G\
A A
cos-^r-, tan-—, sin A, and A, in Plane Trigonometry (704—
707), to obtain the corresponding formula} in Spherical Trigo
nometry.
II. To obtain the supplementary forms of the Jive results,
transpose large- and small letters everywhere, and transpose
sin and cos everywhere but in the denominators, and write
minus before cos S.
__ . sin A __. smB _ sin C
sin a sin b sin c
Proof.—By (882). Otherwise, in the figure of 882, draw FN perpendi
cular to BOG, and NB, Nil to OB, OG. Prove PRO and P80 right angles
by I. 47, and therefore PN = OP sin c sin B = OP sin b sin 0.
(3) t»K.-q-»j[j;fft».j..
899 (1)
v ' tan ra = tan \A sin s = —.—■?-
sin (s—a)r
(3) = E^B" sin £4 cos \B cos f(7
sin A
(4)
2 cos 14 sin -L6 sin +6'
22
— cos S— cos (S-A)+cos (S— JB) + cos (S-C)'
Proof. —From the right-angled triangle O'AF', in which J.-F' = s.
Note.—The first two values of tanr0 may he obtained from those of
tanr by interchanging s and s — a.
tan fa cos (S — A)
901 (1) tanJRa,_-
— cos <S 2
sin fa
sin f6
sin A sin fb sin
a fc
fA\ _ 2 sin fa cos fb cos fc
SPHERICAL AREAS.
POLYHEDRONS.
m n F 8 E
Tetrahedron 3 3 4 4 6
Hexahedron 4 3 6 8 12
Octahedron 3 4 8 6 12
Dodecahedron 5 3 12 20 30
Icosahedron 3 5 20 12 30
MISCELLANEOUS PROPOSITIONS.
920 To find the point in a given line QY, the sum of whose
distances from two fixed points 8, 8' is a minimum.
Draw SYB at right angles to QY,
making YB = YS. Join BS", cutting
QY in P. Then P will be the required
point.
Proof.—For, if D be any other point
on the line, SD = DB and SP = PB.
But BD+DS' is >B&, therefore, &c.
B is called the reflection of the point 8,
and SPS" is the path of a ray of light
reflected at the line QY.
If 8, 8' and QY are not in the same plane, make SY, YB equal perpen
diculars as before, but the last in the plane of S' and QY.
Similarly, the point Q in the given line, the difference of whose distances
from the fixed points S and B' is a maximum, is found by a like construction.
The minimum sum of distances from 8, 8' is given by
(sp+s'py = ss,2+4>s y . s' r.
And the maximum difference from 8 and R' is given by
(SQ-R'QY= (SR'y-ASY.R'Y'.
Proved by VI. D., since SBB'S" can be inscribed in a circle.
there be more surfaces. Lastly, join Q with P„ the last reflection, cutting
■CD in a. Join aPt, cutting BG in b. Join 6P„ cutting AB in c. Join cP.
PcbaQ is the path required.
The same construction will give the path when the surfaces are not, as in
the case considered, all perpendicular to the same plane.
Proof.—
The /.CPD = $(APB + BPE)
= a right angle ;
therefore P lies on the circumference of
the circle, diameter CD (III. 31). Also
AP : PB :: AG : OB :: .4D : DB
(VI. 3, and A.), a fixed ratio.
933 AD is divided harmonically in B and 0; i.e., AD : DB :: AG '. GB;
or, the whole line is to one extreme part as the other extreme part is to the middle
part. If we put a, b, c for the lengths AD, BD, CD, the proportion is
expressed algebraically by alb :: a — c : c — 6, which is equivalent to
2
1+T
a b =
934 Also AP : BP = OA : 00 = OG : OB
aud AP1 : BP1 = OA : OB, (VI. 19)
AP'-AC2 : OF3 : BPi-BCt. (VI. 3, & B.)
939 II. Given one point A and two straight lines DC, DE.
In the last figure draw AOG perpendicular to DO, the bisector of -the
angle D, and make OB = OA, and this case is solved by Case I.
940 HI- Given the point P, the straight Line DE, and the
circle ACE.
Analysis.—Let PEF be the required
circle touching the given line in E and the
circle in F.
Through H, the centre of the given
circle, draw AHGD perpendicular to DE.
Let K be the centre of the other circle.
Join HK, passing through F, the point of
contact. Join AF, EF, and AF, cutting
the required circle in X. Then
z DBF = LKF, (I. 27)
therefore EFA = KFE (the halves of equal
angles), therefore AF, FE are in the same
straight line. Then, because AX . AP = AF . AE, (III. 36)
and AF.AE = AC.AD by similar triangles, therefore AX can be found.
A circle must then be described through P and X to touch the given line,
TEE PROBLEMS OF TEE TANGENOIES. 201
by Case I. There are two solutions with exterior contact, as appears from
Case I. These are indicated in the diagram. There are two more in which
the circle AG lies within the described circle. The construction is quite
analogous, G taking the place of A.
945 The solutions for the cases of three given straight lines
or three given points are to be found in Euc. IV., Props. 4, 5. ■
946 In the remaining cases of the tangencies, straight lines
and circles alone are given. By drawing a circle concentric
with the required one through the centre of the least given
circle, the problem can always be made to depend upon one
of the preceding cases ; the centre of the least circle becoming
one of the given points.
947 Definition.—A centre of similarity of two plane curves
is a point such that, any straight line being drawn through it
to cut the curves, the segments of the line intercepted between
the point and the curves are in a constant ratio.
,
CONSTBUGTION OF TRIANGLES. 205
961 When the base and the vertical angle are given ; the
locus of the vertex is the circle ABC in figure (935) ; and the
locus of the centre of the inscribed circle is the circle, centre
F and radius FB. When the ratio of the sides is given,
see (932).
962 To construct a triangle when its form and the distances
of its vertices from a point A' are given.
Analysis.—Let ABO be the required triangle. On
A'B make the triangle A'BC' similar to ABO, so that
AB : A'B :: OB : G'B. The angles ABA', OBO' will
also be equal; therefore AB : BO :: A A' : GG', which
gives GG , since the ratio AB : BO is known. Hence
the point C is found by constructing the triangle
A'GO'. Thus BO is determined, and thence the tri
angle ABO from the known angles.
966 To find the locus of the point from which the tangents
to two given circles are equal.
Since, in (965), we have now p = 2, and therefore c= b, the construction
simplifies to the following :
Take AN = y(aa-6J), and in AB take AB : AN : AC. The perpen
dicular bisector of BG is the required locus. Bat, if the circles intersect,
then their common chord is at once the line required. See Radical Axis
(985).
208 ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY.
971 H be, ca, ab, in the last figure, be produced to meet the
sides of ABC in P, Q, It, then each of the nine lines in the
figure will be divided harmonically, and the points P, Q, B
will be collinear.
Proof.—(i.) Take bP a transversal to ABC; therefore, by (968),
(CP : PB) (Be : cA) (Ab :bC) = l;
therefore, by (970), CP : PB = Ca : aB.
(ii.) Take CP a transversal to Abe, therefore
(AB : Be) (cP : Pb) (bC : CA) = 1.
Bat, by (970), taking 0 for focus to Abe,
(AB : Be) (cp : pb) (bC : CA) = 1 ;
therefore cP : Pb = cp : pb.
(iii.) Take PC a transversal to AOc, and b a focus to AOc ; therefore, by
(968 & 970), (Aa : aO) (OC : Cc) (cB : BA) = 1,
and (Ap : pO) (OC : Cc) (cB : BA) = 1 ;
therefore Aa : aO = Ap : pO.
Thus all the lines are divided harmonically.
(iv.) In the equation of (970) put Ab : bC = AQ : QC the harmonic
ratio, and similarly for each ratio, and the result proves that P, Q, R are
collinear, by (968).
978 The triangle abc is a maximum when its sides are per
pendicular to OA, OB, OG.
Pkoof.—The triangle is greatest when its sides are greatest. But the
sides vary as Oa, Ob, Oc, which are greatest when they are diameters of the
circles ; therefore &c, by (III. 31).
979 To construct a triangle of given species and of given
limited magnitude which shall have its sides passing through
three given points A, B, C.
Determine 0 by describing circles on the sides of ABC to contain angles
equal to the supplements of the angles of the specified triangle. Construct
the figure abcO independently from the known sides of abc, and the now
known angles ObC — OAC, OaC = OBC, &c. Thus the lengths Oa, Ob, Oc
are found, and therefore the points a, b, c, on the circles, can be determined.
The demonstrations of the following propositions will now be obvious.
Construct the figure ABCO independently from the known sides of ADG
and the angles at 0, which are equal to the supplements of the given angles
a, b, c. Thus the angles OAC, &c. are found, and therefore the angles ObC,
&c, equal to them (III. 21), are known. From these last angles the point U
can be determined, and the lengths OA, OB, 00 being known from the inde
pendent figure, the points A, B, C can be found.
Observe that, wherever the point 0 may be taken, the angles AOB, BOO
COA are in all cases either the supplements of, or equal to, the angles c, a, b
respectively; while the angles aOb, bOc, eOa are in all cases equal to C±c,
A±a, B±b.
983 Note.—In general problems, like the foregoing, which
admit of different cases, it is advisable to choose for reference
a standard figure which has all its elements of the same affec
tion or sign. In adapting the figure to other cases, all that
is necessary is to follow the same construction, letter for
letter, observing the convention respecting positive and
negative, which applies both to the lengths of lines and to
the magnitudes of angles, as explained in (607—609).
Radical Axis.
984 Definition,—The radical axis of two circles is that
perpendicular to the line of centres which divides the dis
tance between the centres into segments, the difference of
whose squares is equal to the difference of the squares of the
radii.
Thus, A, B being the centres, a, b the radii, and IP the
the radical axis, AP—BP = a2— b*.
Proof.—In the same figure, if P be the centre of the variable circle, and
if PX= PY be its radius ; then, by (988),
PX (XX'- YY') = 2AB . PN.
But XX' = 2a cos it and YY' = 26 cos /3 ;
therefore PN : PX = a cos a — b cos /3 : AB,
■which is a constant ratio if the angles u, /3 are constant.
997 The radical axes of three circles (Fig. 1046), taken two
and two together, intersect at a point called their radical centre.
Proof.—Let A, B, G b. fie centres, a, b, c the radii, and X, Y, Z the points
in which the radical axes cut BO, GA, AB. Write the equation of the defini
tion (984) for each pair of circles. Add the results, and apply (970).
961 When the base and the vertical angle are given; the
locus of the vertex is the circle ABG in figure (935) ; and the
locus of the centre of the inscribed circle is the circle, centre
F and radius FB. When the ratio of the sides is given,
see (932).
962 To construct a triangle when its form and the distances
of its vertices from a point A'_ are given.
Analysis.—Let ABG be the required triangle. On
A'B make the triangle A'BC similar to ABG, so that
AB : A'B :: CB : G'B. The angles ABA', CBC will
also be equal; therefore AB : BG :: AA' : GG, which
gives 00 , since the ratio AB : BG is known. Hence
the point C is found by constructing the triangle
A'CG'. Thus BG is determined, and thence the tri
angle ABG from the known angles.
966 To find the locus of the point from which the tangents
to two given circles are equal.
Since, in (965), we have now p = q, and therefore c = b, the construction
simplifies to the following :
Take AN= ,/(a2-i2), and in AB take AB : AN : AG. The perpen
dicular bisector of BG is the required locus. But, if the circles intersect,
then their common chord is at once the line required. See Radical Axis
(985).
208 ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY.
971 If be, ca, ab, in the last figure, be produced to meet the
sides of ABC in P, Q, ht, then each of the nine lines in the
figure will be divided harmonically, and the points P, Q, B
will be collinear.
Proof.— (i.) Take bP a transversal to ABC; therefore, by (968),
(OP : PB) (Be : cA) (Ab :bC) = l;
therefore, by (970), CP : PB = Ca : aB.
(ii.) Take CP a transversal to Abe, therefore
(AB : Be) (cP : Pb) (bC : CA) = 1.
Bat, by (970), taking 0 for focus to Abe,
(AB : Be) (cp : pb) (bC : CA) = 1 ;
therefore cP : Pb = cp : pb.
(iii.) Take PC a transversal to AOc, and b a focus to AOc ; therefore, by
(968 & 970), (Aa : aO) (OC : Co) (cB : BA) = 1,
and (4p : jpO) (OC : Co) (cB : BA) = 1 ;
therefore .4a : aO = -Ap : pO.
Thus all the lines are divided harmonically.
(iv.) In the equation of (970) put Ab : bC = AQ : QC the harmonic
ratio, and similarly for each ratio, and the result proves that P, Q, R are
collinear, by (968).
978 The triangle abc is a maximum when its sides are per
pendicular to OA, OB, OG.
Proof.—The triangle is greatest when its sides are greatest. But the
sides vary as Oa, Ob, Oc, which are greatest when they are diameters of the
circles ; therefore &c, by (III. 31).
979 To construct a triangle of given species and of given
limited magnitude which shall have its sides passing through
three given points A, B, G.
Determine 0 by describing circles on the sides of ABC to contain angles
equal to the supplements of the angles of the specified triangle. Construct
the figure abcO independently from the known sides of abc, and the now
known angles ObC = OAC, OaC = OBC, &c. Thus the lengths Oa, Ob, Oc
are found, and therefore the points a, b, c, on the circles, can be determined.
The demonstrations of the following propositions will now be obvious.
Construct the figure ABCO independently from the known sides of ABC
and the angles at 0, which are equal to the supplements of the given angles
a, b, c. Thus the angles OAC, &c. are found, and therefore the angles ObG,
&c., equal to them (III. 21), are known. From these last angles the point (J
can be determined, and the lengths OA, OB, OG being known from the inde
pendent figure, the points A, B, C can be found.
Observe that, wherever the point 0 may be taken, the angles AOB, BOG
GOA are in all cases either the supplements of, or equal to, the angles e, a, b
respectively; while the angles aOb, bOc, cOa are in all cases equal to G±c,
A±a, B±b.
983 Note.—In general problems, like the foregoing, which
admit of different cases, it is advisable to choose for reference
a standard figure which has all its elements of the same affec
tion or sign. In adapting the figure to other cases, all that
is necessary is to follow the same construction, letter for
letter, observing the convention respecting positive and
negative, which applies both to the lengths of lines and to
the magnitudes of angles, as explained in (607—609).
Radical Axis.
984 Definition,—The radical axis of two circles is that
perpendicular to the line of centres which divides the dis
tance between the centres into segments, the difference of
whose squares is equal to the difference of the squares of the
radii.
Thus, A, B being the centres, a, b the radii, and IP the
the radical axis, AP—BP = a2—b2.
Otherwise : let the two circles cut the line of centres in C, D and C', D'
respectively. Describe any circle through C and D, and another through
ff and D', intersecting the former in E and F. Their common chord EF
will cut the central axis in the required point I.
Puoof. — IC.ID=IE.IF=: Iff. W (III. 36) ; therefore the tangents
from I to the circles are equal.
Proof.
PK^-FT1 = (AF-BP2) - (al-5J) = (AQ'-BQ2) - (AP-BP),
by (I. 47) & (984). Bisect AB in G, and substitute for each difference of
squares, by (II. 12).
1020 The polars of any two points P,p, and the line joining
the points form a self-reciprocal triangle with respect to
the circle, the three vertices being the poles of the opposite
sides. The centre 0 of the circle is evidently the orthocentre
of the triangle (952). The circle and its centre are called the
polar circle and polar centre of the triangle.
If the radii of the polar and circumscribed circles of a
triangle ABC be r and B, then
r2 = 4il2 cos A cos B cos C.
Proof.—In Fig. (052), 0 is the centre of the polar circle, and the circles
described round ABC, BOG, COA, AOB are all equal ; because the angle
BOG is the supplement of A ; &c. Therefore 2B.OD = OB. OG (VI. C)
and i3 = OA . OB = OA . OB . OC -4- 2B. Also, OA = 2.E cos 4 by a diameter
through B, and (III. 21).
Coaxal Circles.
1021 Definition.—A system of circles having a common
line of centres called the central axis, and a common radical
axis, is termed a coaxal system.
1022 If 0 be the variable centre of one of the circles, and
COAXAL CIRCLES. 219
XT
CENTRES AND AXES OF SIMILITUDE. 223
and its value is therefore the same for all transversals of the
pencil.
Proof.—Draw OR parallel to the transversal, and let p be the perpendi
cular from A npon OR. Multiply eacb factor in the fraction by p. Then
substitute p.AB= OA.OB sin AOB, &c. (707).
1057 The anharmonic ratio (1056) becomes harmonic when its value is
unity. See (933). The harmonic relation there defined may also be stated
thus : four points divide a line harmonically when the proditct of the extreme
segments is equal to the product of the whole line and the middle segment.
Involution.
1066 Definitions.—Pairs of inverse points PF, QQ', &c, on
the same right line, form a system in involution, and the rela
tion between them, by (1000), is
op . op' = oq . oq = &c. = k\
A O P Q It Q' P
I 1 1—1—■ I I .
JT
a constant. Therefore — is the distance of the origin O from the centre
JL
of inversion. Measuring from this centre, the equation becomes t£ = V,
representing a system in involution.
1074 The relations which have been established for a system of collinear
points may be transferred to a system of concurrent lines by the method of
(1056), in which the distance between two points corresponds to the sine of
the angle between two lines passing through those points.
METHODS OF PROJECTION. 229
1080 Coe. 1.—The opposite sides of the parallelogram pqrs meet in two
points at infinity, which are the projections of the points A, B ; and AB
itself, which is the third diagonal of the complete quadrilateral PQRS, is
projected into a line at infinity.
1081 Hence, to project any figure so that a certain line in it may pass to
infinity— Take the plane of projection parallel to the plane which contains the
given line and the vertex.
1082 Cor. 2.—To make the projection of the quadrilateral a rectangle,
it is only necessary to make AOB a right angle.
On Perspective Drawing.
1083 Taking the parallelogram pqrs, in (1079), for the original figure,
the quadrilateral PQRS is its projection on the plane ABab. Suppose this
plane to be the plane of the paper. Let the planes OAB, pab, while
remaining parallel to each other, be turned respectively about the fixed
parallel lines AB, ab. In every position of the planes, the linos Op, Oq, Or,
Os will intersect the dotted lines in the same points P, Q, R, S. When the
planes coincide with that of the paper, pqrs becomes a ground plan of the
parallelogram, and PQRS is the representation of it in perspective.
AB is then called the horizontal line, ab the picture line, and the plane of
both the picture plane.
Orthogonal Projection.
1087 Definition. — In orthogonal projection the lines of
projection are parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the
plane of projection. The vertex in this case may be consi
dered to be at infinity.
1088 The projections of parallel lines are parallel, and the
projected segments are in a constant ratio to the original
segments.
1089 Areas are in a constant ratio to their projections.
For, lines parallel to the intersection of the original plane and the plane
of projection are unaltered in length, and lines at right angles to the former
are altered in a constant ratio. This ratio is the ratio of the areas, and is
the cosine of the angle between the two planes.
Additional Theorems.
1094 The sum of the squares of the distances of any point
P from n equidistant points on a circle whose centre is 0 and
radius r = n (r3+ OP2).
Proof.—Sum the values of PB*, PC2, &c, given in (819), and apply (803).
This theorem is the generalization of (923).
1161 The following theorems (1162) to (1181) are deduced from the
property P8 : PM = e obtained in (1151).
The propositions and demonstrations are nearly identical for the ellipse
and the hyperbola, any difference in the application being specified..
A'8
Peoof.—By (1151), e = 4f = A'X j (A'S±AS) 08 CA
l(A'X±AX) OA r CX'
1163 In the ellipse the sum, and in the hyperbola the dif
ference, of the focal distances of P is equal to the major axis,
or PS'±PS=AA'.
Proof.—With the same figures we have, in the ellipse, by (1151),
PS+Ptf PS+PS' , , AS+A'S AA' ., „ .
6 = PM+PM' = -XT"' and alS° 6 = AXT^X = XX' theref°re &°-
For the hyperbola take difference instead of sum.
THE ELLIPSE AND HYPERBOLA. 237
1165 BC*=SL.AC.
Proof.— (Figs, of 1162) SL : SX = OS : OA, (1151, 1162)
.-. SL.AO=OS.SX = 08 (OX ~ OS) = CA* ~ CS3 (1162) = BO1 (1164).
1166 K a right line through P, Q, two points on the conic,
meets the directrix in Z, then SZ bisects the angle QSB.
v J Hi. R.
^^^21
s'^Y
7J
Proof.—By similar triangles, ZP : ZQ = MP : NQ= SP : SQ (1151),
therefore by (VI. A.)
1167 H PZ be a tangent at P, then P8Z and PS'Z' are
right angles.
Proof.—Make Q coincide with P in the last theorem.
1168 The tangent makes equal angles with the focal dis
tances.
Proof.—In (1166), PS : PS' = PM : PM' (1151) = PZ : PZ'; therefore,
when PQ becomes the tangent at P, / SPZ = S'PZ', by (1167) and (VI. 7).
1170 CN.CT=AC\
PROOF.-(Figs. 1171.) If = |f (VI. 3, A.) = f^-(H51) = NX'
NX'
therefore TS' + TS _ NX'+NX 20T _ 20X
TS'-TS NX' -NX' °r 2CS 2CN'
therefore CN.CT=CS.CX = AC1. (1162)
238 GEOMETRICAL C0NIC8.
Proof.—For the ellipse : Join TQ. Then ON.CT= CQ> (1170) ; there
fore CQT is a right angle (VI. 8) ; therefore QT is a tangent.
For the hyperbola : Interchange N and T.
^
TEE ELLIPSE AND HYPERBOLA. 239
1174 PN : QN = BC : AC.
Proof.— (Figs. 1173). NG.NT= PN', and CN.NT= QN\ (VI. 8)
Therefore NG : NO = P-tf* : QiV2 ; therefore, by (1172).
This proposition is equivalent to (1158), and shows that an ellipse is the
orthogonal projection of a circle equal to the auxiliary circle.
1175 Cor.—The area of the ellipse is to that of the auxiliary
circle as BC : AC (1089).
1176 PN2 : AN.NA' = BC2 : AC2.
Pboof.— By (1174), since QN2 = AN . NA' (III. 35, 3G). An independ
ent proof of this theorem is given in (1156). The construction for BO in
the hyperbola in (1164) is thus verified.
M. Join MS', M'S". These lines will intersect the curve in P, P, the
points of contact. For another method see (1204).
Proof.—By (1163), PS~± PS = AA' = ffM by construction. There
fore PS = PM, therefore / OPS = OPM (1. 8), thereforo OP is a tangent
by (1168).
Similarly P"S = P'M', and OP is a tangent.
1188 The segments of any right line between the curve and
the asymptote are equal, or QR = qr.
^V
THE ELLIPSE AND HYPERBOLA. 243
Otherwise :
In the ellipse, Q V2 : CP2 - C V2 = CD2 : CP2.
In the hyperbola, QV2 : CV2-CP2 = CD2 : CP2;
and Q' V2 : C V2+ CP2 = CD2 : CP2.
Proof.—(Ellipse. Fig. 1195.)—By orthogonal projection from a circle.
If 0, P, P', D, Q, V are the projections of c, p, p', d, q, v on the circle ;
qv* = pv . vp' and cd1 = ep*. The proportion is therefore true in the case of
the circle. Therefore &c, by (1088).
(Hyperbola. Fig. 1188)—
CD* = ]UP_ = P# _ BY'^PL' _ QV ft„ Q'Y"
CP' CV* ± OPJ 072 - CP2 (1191)
CP2 CV* OF»+OP"
T A A
Proof.— {Ellipse.') Cp, Od are parallel to the tangents at d and p (Note to
1202). Therefore pCd is a right angle. Therefore pNO, OBd are equal
right-angled triangles with CN=dR and CR=pN.
(Hyperbola.) CN . CT = AC* (1170),
and DR.CT = 2ACDT = 2CDP = AC . BC (1194) ;
CN AC pN .was . CN BR CR , . ., , . , ,.
•'• m = BC = PN (1174)' • • pN = PN - TN (8imllar tmngl6S)-
THE PARABOLA.
If 8 be the focus, XM 3/ PS
the directrix, and P any point
on the curve, the defining pro
perty is
7,
1220 PS = PM
and e = 1. (1153) T X
Vi S JV G
1221 Hence
M
AX = AS. z
1222 The Latus Rectum = 4>A S.
Proof.— BL = SX (1220) = 2AS.
1233 Cob. 1.- -The triangles SQO, SOQ' are similar, and
SQ : SO : SQ'.
Proof.— /. SQO = MQO = SMM' = SOQ'. (III. 20)
Similarly SQ'O = SOQ.
1244 The area of the parabola cut off by any chord QQ' is
two-thirds of the circumscribed parallelogram, or of the tri
angle formed by the chord and the tangents at Q, Q'.
Peoop.—Through Q, q, q', &c, adjacent points
on the curve, draw right lines parallel to the
diameter and tangent at P. Let the secant Qq
cut the diameter in 0. Then, when q coincides
with Q, so that Qq becomes a tangent, we have
OP = PV (1237). Therefore the parallelogram
Vq = 2Uq, by (I. 43), applied to the parallelogram
of which OQ is the diagonal. Similarly vq' = 2uq',
&c. Therefore the sum of all the evanescent par
allelograms on one side of PQ is equal to twice
the corresponding sum on the other side ; and
these sums are respectively equal to the areas
PQV, PQU— (Newton, Sect. I., Lem. II.)
1248 Otherwise:—Lay off any scale of equal parts along both asymptotes
(Fig. 1188), starting and numbering the divisions from C, in both positive
and negative directions.
Join every pair of points L, I, the product of whose distances from C is
the same, and a series of tangents will be formed (1192) which will define
the hyperbola. See also (1289).
252 GEOMETRICAL C0N1CS.
\
CIRCLE OF CURVATURE. 253
Miscellaneous Theorems.
1267 In the Parabola (Fig. 1239) let QD be drawn perpendicular to PV,
then QD, = 4A.S.PV. (1231,1239)
1268. Let BPB1 be any third tangent meeting the tangents OQ, OQ' in
B, Bf; the triangles SQO, SUB', SOQ' are similar and similarly divided by
SB, SP, SB1 (1233-4).
1269 Cor.— OB.OR = BQ. B"QJ.
1270 Also, the triangle PQQ' = 20^. (1244)
With the same construction and for any conic,
1271 OQ : OQ' = BQ.BP" : B"Q' . PB. (1215, 1243)
1272 Also the angle BSB = hQSQ'. (1181)
1273 Hence, in the Parabola, the points 0, B, S, B are concyclic, by (1234).
Hence, the relations in (1205-6) still subsist when GA, CB are any con
jugate radii. Thus universally,
1281 FN: OB = BB: ON or FN. CN=BB. OB.
1282 If the tangent at P meets any pair of conjugate diameters in T, T",
then FT . FT' is constant and equal to CD*.
Proof.—Let GA, CB (Figs. 1205) be the conjugate radii, the figures
being deformed through any angle. By similar triangles,
FT • ON = CD • 023 } ' therefore PT- pr •PN.CN = OB' : BB . CB.
Therefore PT. PT' = Off, by (1281).
1283 If the tangent at P meets any pair of parallel tangents in T, T",
then PT.PT = CB1, where CB is conjugate to OP.
Proof.—Let the parallel tangents touch in the points Q, Q,'. Join PQ,
PQJ, OT, OT'. Then OT, GT are conjugate diameters (1199, 1201). There
fore PT.PT' = CB1 (1282).
1284 Cor.— QT. Q'T = CB*, where CB~ is the radius parallel to QT.
1290 Definition.— Gonfocal conies are conies which have the same foci.
\a "1 The tangents drawn to any conic from a point T on a confocal conic
make equal angles with the. tangent at T.
Proof.— (Fig. 1217.) Let T be the point on the confocal conic.
BY : SZ = 8Z' : &T (1178).
Therefore ST and ST make equal angles with the tangents TP, TQ ; and
they also make equal angles with the tangent to the confocal at T (1168),
therefore &c.
1292 In the construction of (1253), PZ is equal to half the chord of
curvature at P drawn through the centre 0 (1259).
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